Forensic Science: Final Exam Review

Unit 1: Crime Scene Investigation

Forensic Science: The study and application of science to matters of the law
Physical Evidence: An object or substance that is used to prove elements of a
crime
Testimonial Evidence: A verbal account of events or details of a crime given by a
witness and/or expert
Circumstantial Evidence: Evidence that is collected (either physical or testimonial)
that is used INDIRECTLY to prove elements of a crime. This type of evidence DOES
NOT PROVE GUILT!
Expert Witness: A person who is specially trained and certified in an area that
allows him or her to testify in court (i.e. Medical Examiner, Blood Spatter Expert)
The Frye Standard: Expert opinion based on a scientific technique is admissible
only where the technique is generally accepted as reliable in the relevant scientific
community (The General Acceptance Rule)
The Daubert Standard: Scientific technique admissible in court if it is:
o Testable
o Peer-Reviewed
o Rate of Error must be given (exception to rule #3: fingerprints)
Miranda Rights: Rights that are guaranteed by the Constitution of the United States
of America. An individual MUST be read his or her rights prior to being arrested.
o Right to remain silent
o Anything you say can and will be used against you
o Right to an attorney
o If you cannot afford an attorney, one will be appointed to you
o If you answer questions without an attorney, you have the right to stop
Probable Cause: The standard by which an officer has the grounds to obtain a
warrant to search and/or arrest an individual
Individual Characteristics: Features or details that link a piece of evidence to one
single source (i.e. DNA, Fingerprints, Serial Numbers)
Class Characteristics: Features or details that link a piece of evidence to a group
of sources (i.e. Tire Tracks, Shoe Prints)
Crime Scene Reconstruction: To recreate the crime scene in order to determine the
chain of events that led up to a crime
Motive: The reason a crime was committed
Means: The weapon, tool, or strength used to commit the crime
Opportunity: The window of time during which the crime was committed
Chain-of-Custody: A written record of all people who have had possession of an
item of evidence (to ensure its validity and avoid contamination)
Control Sample: A known evidentiary sample that is collected in order to
compare unknown evidence samples collected from the crime scene, victim,
and/or suspect. (i.e. A suspects fingerprints are collected as a control sample to
compare it to the fingerprints found on a knife near the victim)
Crime scene protocols:
First Responder Responsibilities:
o Secure/Isolate the scene

o Safety of victims
o Witnesses/statements
o Safety precautions
Crime Scene Investigator Responsibilities:
o Documentation: pictures, sketches, notes
o Search Method
o Collection/Packaging of evidence
o Deliver evidence to the lab (chain-of-custody)
Order of protocol:
Secure and isolate the crime scene
Help anyone who is injured
Process the crime scene
Documentation
o Photographs
As many as possible!!
Overall views, Medium views, Close-up views
o Sketches
Floor plan (Birds Eye View)
Triangulation Measurements (for Reconstruction purposes)
o Notes
Observations using ALL of your senses (except taste!!)
Conduct a systematic Search
o Spiral
Outdoors, wooded area
o Quadrant/Zone
Car/Vehicle
o Line/Strip
Open Field
o Grid
Indoor room/warehouse
Collect, package, and label evidence properly!
o Biological evidence
Must be dried COMPLETELY and then packaged in a breathable bag
or envelope.
o Trace evidence
Tape-lifted, then packaged in breathable bag or envelope
o Arson and explosive evidence
Contained in an air-tight canister (metal/plastic) IMMEDIATELY!
Dont forget to collect CONTROL SAMPLES!!
o sexual assault cases
victim(s), suspect(s), sexual partner(s)
o homicides
victim(s), suspect(s), others who have been in contact with CS
o hit-and-run accidents
glass, paint, plastic, tire prints from suspects car
o braking-and-entering

window glass, paint, tool marks from items within suspects

possession
Legal Considerations: Must have a warrant to arrest and/or search UNLESS:
Emergency Circumstances
Injury? Danger? Life-threatening circumstances?
Prevent loss or destruction of evidence
flushing drugs down toilet?VERY difficult to prove!!
Search of person or property in connected to a lawful arrest
DUIonce someone is placed under arrest they, their vehicle, and anyone in the
vehicle may be searched
Search made with consent of person(s) involved
Investigators are invited into someones home, office, etc
Criminal Databases
NCIC: National Crime Information Center
o General Crimes (burglary, larceny, etc)
VICAP: Violent Criminal Apprehension Program
o Sexual assault and homicides (serial crimes)
AFIS: Automated Fingerprint Identification System
o Fingerprints
CODIS: Combined DNA Identification System
o DNA
GRCF: General Rifling Characteristics File
o Firearms
IBIS: Integrated Ballistics Identification System
o Bulletproof: bullet analysis
o Brass Catcher: cartridge casing analysis

Unit 2: Physical Evidence

Individual Evidence:
o Evidence that can be linked to ONE (1) individual source (i.e. person, animal,
thing,)
Class Evidence:
o Evidence that can be linked to a group of sources (i.e. persons, animals,
things,)
Biological Evidence:
o Physical evidence that IS/WAS/WAS FROM a living thing
Trace Evidence:
o Extremely small or invisible physical evidence
General Physical Evidence:
o A tangible item or substance that is used to prove any element/part of a
crime
Deductions from observations include
o Color, approximate size, texture, smell, shape, .
Examinations/Forensic Analyses include
o Mass, volume, density, thickness, temperature, microscopic, refractive
index, chromatography, chemical analysis, .

Examples of Equipment.
o Balance, graduated cylinder, microscope, thermometer, laser, super glue
fuming chamber, gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer, .

Unit 3: Trace Evidence

Locards Principle: Every contact leaves a trace

Transfer of Trace Evidence
o Primary: Direct Transfer (from Source to suspect/victim/crime scene)
o Secondary: Indirect Transfer (from source to intermediate carrier to S/V/CS)
Soil:
o Applications:
On Shoes
Tires
At the crime scene
On victim and/or suspect
o Analysis:
Color
Texture
Grain size
Density
Hair: Appendage of the skin that grows out of the hair follicle (an organ)
o Parts of Hair:
Bulb
Root
Cuticle
Cortex
Medulla
Fibers: The smallest unit of a textile material that has a length many times greater
than its diameter
o Types:
Natural: Animal or Plant source
Synthetic: Man-Made
o Analysis:
Fiber Structure
Comparison Microscope
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
Cross-section of fiber (triangular, star-shaped)
Fiber Colors
Microspectrophotometer
spectral patterns and Becke lines
crystallinity?
Thin Layer Chromatography: separate components (colors) in
dyes

Fingerprints
The Scientific Method
o Identify a Question

Gather Information and Resources (Research the Problem)

Form a Hypothesis/Suggest a Solution
Test the Hypothesis/Solution
Analyze Data
Interpret Data/Draw Conclusions
--Accept or Reject Hypothesis/Solution
o Re-test!!
o Report Results/Publish Results
Why the Scientific Method?
o -To decrease bias
o -To provide a systematic, consistent procedure (PROTOCOL)
o -To validate results (3 or more trials resulting in the same/similar data)
Fingerprints
o Who: All primates (including humans) have friction ridge patterns (fingerprints, palmprints,
footprints)
o What: Raised ridges and furrows that are designed to help grasp items
At the top of the ridges are sweat pores that release:
99% H2O
1% oils, fatty acids, esters, salts, urea, amino acids
Total volume of 1 adult fingerprint = a few microliters (L)
o
o
o
o
o

o Where: On every surface that a person touches

Three types:
Latent (invisible)
Patent/Visible
Plastic (mold/cast of fingerprint)
o Why:
Two Rules that allow us to use fingerprints for identification:
Unique to every individual *including identical twins
Permanent for an individuals lifetime
o *friction ridge patterns are formed in the 12th-16th week of fetal
development
o *exceptions: scars and growth (size)
o When: More likely to leave a lasting print when fingers are warm and perspiring (oily)
Categorizing and Analyzing Fingerprints
HENRY CLASSIFICATION!!!
ACE-V
o Analysis: Qualitative and Quantitative Assessment
o Comparison: Agreement or Discrepancies between 2 fingerprints
o Evaluation: Consistent? Inconsistent? Inconclusive?
o Verification: A second independent analysis, comparison, and evaluation by
another qualified examiner.
Categorization
o Level 1: General ridge-flow
*Pattern
Arch

 Loop
Whorl
o Level 2: Formations and combinations
*Minutiae Points
o Level 3: Details within the formations
*dimensional attributes of a ridge

Unit 4: Biological Evidence

Sources of Biological Material:

o Blood
o Semen**
o Saliva
o Urine
o Hair, Teeth, Bone, Tissue
Types of Crimes Involving Body Fluids
o Sexual Assaults**
o Assaults
o Homicides**
o Burglaries
o Desecrations
Process of Forensic Examination of Evidence
o Recognition
What is important? SCREENING/PRESUMPTIVE TESTS
o Identification
What is it? (class category) CONFIRMATORY TESTS
o Individualization
Who or What did it come from? (uniqueness)
Serology: The study of bodily fluids using specific antigen and serum antibody
reactions
Secretors: 80% of population have blood antigens (A & B) in other bodily fluids
Types of Bodily Fluids: Urine, Saliva, Semen, Blood
Urine: Waste secreted by the Kidneys
o Water, salts, inorganic ions, and organic compounds (urea & creatinine)
o Tests:
Azostix: detects Urease

*false (+) for sweat, semen, vaginal secretion

Jaffe Test: detects Creatinine *also in sweat, bile, gastrointestinal fluids
o AT LEAST 5-20 mL necessary for possible DNA testing
Saliva: 99.5% water, and 0.5% mixture of mucous, inorganic ions, proteins,
epithelial cells
o Tests:
Phadebas Test, Procion Red Amylopectin Test
Both tests detect -Amylase (digestive enzyme) activity (-Amylase is
found in plants and bacteria)
Also found in: semen, vaginal secretion, serum, feces, perspiration,
breast milk
Semen: Seminal Fluid/Plasma + Spermatozoa
o Screening Tests:
UV/Alternate Light Source Visualization
Fluorescence properties of 4-methyl umbelliferyl phosphate
(MUP) with APase
Seminal Acid Phosphatase (APase) Test:
Fast Blue B dye +-naphthyl-phosphate
APase is a Very stable enzyme (tested after 20 years in dried stains)
Positive result:: insoluble pink/purple colored product
o Confirmatory Tests:
Christmas Tree Staining (using microscope)
Spermatozoa is stained red (head), green (middle), and yellow
(tail)
Abacus One Step ABA card p30 Test
Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA or P30) = human seminal fluid protein
that is secreted by prostate gland
Positive result: dye-colored insoluble band on card
o Individualization: DNA Tests
o Sexual Assault Crimes: Statistics and Information
78 rapes/hr in USA and 9/10 victims are female
80% victims are under 30 years old (high risk: 12-34 years old)
76% of female victims knew their assailant
o What to collect?
-Clothing
-Bedding
-Fingernail/toenail scrapings,
-Combings (head and pubic hair)
-Blood: within 12-24 hours after assault
-Urine: within 36-72 hours after assault
-Semen: within 24-48 hours after assault
**4 swabs from each orifice
DONT FORGET CONTROLS!!
Blood:
o A complex mixture of cells, enzymes, proteins, and inorganic substances
o Components:
-Plasma = 55% of blood
90% water + 10% metabolites, waste, salts, ions, and proteins

-Solid portion:
Erythrocytes = Red Blood Cells (RBC) (no DNA)
o Contain Hemoglobin which transports O2 from lungs to cells
and CO2 from cells to lungs
Leukocytes = White Blood Cells (WBC)
o Primary cells of the immune systemthey produce
antibodies
Thrombocytes = Platelets (no nuclei)
o Start the clotting process by initiating the production of
fibrin
o If clotted material is removed, left with yellow liquid =
serum
o Blood Type:
Antigens are found on RBCs and Antibodies are produced by WBCs
Antibodies in
Blood Type Antigens on RBC
Donor For
Recipient For
Serum
A
A
B
A, AB
A, O
B
B
A
B, AB
B, O
AB
A and B
None
AB
All
O
None
A and B
All
O
Rh +
D
---Rh ---D
Universal Donor: OUniversal Acceptor: AB+
*Blood has 100 sub types to further identify victim or perpetrator

Screening Tests: IS IT BLOOD??

o **All use an oxidizable colorless chemical + an oxidizing agent that is
catalyzed by heme (hemoglobin) to produce a visible product (color or
light)
Luminol = product fluoresces when in presence of heme
Kastle-Meyer test = phenolphthalein (PHTH) that turns bright pink
Hemastix (Benzidine test)
Ortho-tolidine test
Leucomalachte green test
Confirmatory Tests: IS IT HUMAN BLOOD??
o Teichmann Crystal Test
forms brown visible crystals under the microscope
o Takayama Crystal Test
forms pink needle-shaped crystals under the microscope
o Precipitin Test
animal blood that has developed antibodies against human antigens
when exposed to human blood will form a coagulated band at
intersection
o Hematrace
immunological testutilizes the antibody-antigen reaction
dye changes color when antibody-antigen coagulation occurs
Individualization: DNA Tests
Physical properties of Blood:

o -A viscous liquid that has the potential to dry!!

o -Consider all of the following when recreating a crime scene based on blood
spatter:
surface texture
direction the blood traveled
degree of circular distortion (angle of impact): sin-1(width/length)
stain convergence lines
(point of origin = where all droplets originated from)
DNA
Uses
o
o
o

for DNA/Human Identity Testing:

Forensic Criminal Cases
CODIS = Combined DNA Index System
What type of forensic case is DNA mostly used for?
Rape/Sexual Assault (more than 2 out of 3 cases)
Paternity Testing

Historical Investigations

Missing Persons Investigations

Mass Disasters

Military DNA (dog tag)

o What part of a DNA is used for forensic purposes?
NON-CODING DNA = Spacer DNA = junk DNA
0.1% (3 million bases) is unique to an individual person
99.9% same genome fore every person
DNA = Deoxyribonucleic Acid
o The Blueprint for Life
Structure of DNA:
o CELL NUCLEUS CHROMOSOME GENE BASE PAIR
o Double Helix structure composed of base pairs
o Base Pairs: Adenine-Thymine, Cytosine-Guanine
o Genes are what code for bodily structures and functions
o Mutations are changes within the genes from one generation to the next
Steps for DNA Processing:
o 1. DNA Extraction
o 2. DNA Quantification
o 3. PCR Amplification
o 4. Analysis
Two Methods of Processing DNA:
o 1. Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)
o 2. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) + Short Tandem Repeat (STR)
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP):
o Larger sample size necessary (dime-quarter sized drop/stain)
o Uses gel electrophoresis
o Restriction enzymes (chemical scissors) cut the DNA at specific
recognition sites.
This cutting process generates different sized pieces of DNA.
o The DNA fragments are placed in an electrophoresis gel and a charge is
applied (+ at one end and at the other end).
o The different sized fragments migrate towards the + end of the gel.

The smaller pieces move the fastest and farthest.

The different sized fragments produce bands along the gel.
To visualize the bands, x-ray film is used.
+ Short tandem repeats (STR)
PCR: makes many copies of a segment of DNA (DNA amplification)
Short Tandem Repeats (STR)
How it works: Restriction enzymes recognize a specific repeating
pattern and cuts the DNA fragment at the beginning and end. This
generates different
sized fragments. Gel electrophoresis or capillary electrophoresis is
then run to separate the different fragments.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) Analysis:
o mtDNA comes from Mother
o If we cannot obtain nuclear DNA (nDNA) it can be used for
o identification purposes
o
o
o
PCR
o
o

Unit 5: Forensic Toxicology

Toxicology:
Endogenous Substance: Naturally Occurring in the Body.
Exogenous Substance: Foreign substance (drug or toxin) in the body
Toxin: Any material exerting a life-threatening effect upon a living organism.
A toxic response requires:
o Exposure
o Dose
o Mechanism (how it interferes with bodily functions)
Toxicology: The science of adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms.
Toxic effect depends on Depend on:
o Age
o Weight
o Health
o Dose
Toxic effect can be:
o Hemolytic: Attacking the circulatory system and muscle tissue
o Neurotoxic: Attacking the central nervous system (CNS) causes heart failure
and breathing difficulties
Receptor: A large molecule on the cells surface where neurotransmitters induce
their normal effects.
Agonist: The drug or poison mimics the action of the transmitter.
Antagonist: The drug or poison binds to a receptor and blocks the transmitter.
Routes of entry:
o Orally
Tablets, capsules, liquids
o Rectally
Suppositories
o Intravenously
Injected in liquid form through a needle
o Inhaled through lungs
Gases, vapors, or particles

o Absorption through skin

Patches on skin
o Absorption through mucous membranes
Snorting, sniffing, or under the tongue
In the body:
o Absorption: The drug/toxin enters the body
o Distribution: The drug/toxin moves throughout the body
o Metabolism: The breakdown or digestion of the drug/toxin into smaller
molecules or products
o Elimination: The removal or excretion of the metabolites
ED50: The dose size that produces the desired effects of a drug/toxin in 50% of a
population/test group
LD50: The dose size that produces a lethal effect of a drug/toxin in 50% of a
population/test group
Therapeutic Index = LD50/ED50
o toxic dose/therapeutic dose
Poisons:
Venom is composed of many different Proteins
Tissue damage (necrosis) caused by:
o Metalloproteinases
Muscle damage (necrosis) caused by:
o Myotoxin-a (MA)
Coagulopathy (Defibrination: loss of fibrin):
o Fibrin-like enzyme
Platelet Deficiency caused by:
o Phospholipases
Cardiotoxins: Myocardial depressant protein
Neurotoxins: Causes weakness and paralysis
Hemolysin: Loss of hemoglobin from RBCs
o Lecithinase A
Hemolytic: Targets Circulatory/Muscle Systems
Neurotoxic: Targets CNS/Heart
12 Heavy Metals have the potential to be toxic at high levels
High molecular weight
Interfere with enzyme systems and the metabolism of the body
Drugs:
Depressants
o Alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers, inhalants, GHB, rohypnol
Hallucinogens
o THC, LSD, PCP, Mescaline, Psilocybin, Ketamine
Stimulants
o Cocaine, Amphetamines, Meth, Caffeine
Narcotics (Opiates, Opioids)
o Morphine, Codeine, Heroin, Darvon, Methadone
Steroids
o Corticosteroids, Anabolic Steroids
Antidepressants

o Tricyclics, MAOIs, SSRIs

Unit 6: Ballistics
Unit 7: Serial Killers