Electronics I Study

Guide
Follow the yellow brick road.
To a passing VOCATS score!

Bill Sorenson, South Stanly High

X101 Basic Electrical Theory

and Magnetism
Static

electricity: static electricity is a building of

electrical charge (electrons) on an object that is
not electrically balanced. Think about dragging
your feet on the carpet and then shocking your
sibling.
Electrical work: Work happens when in an energy
system, something causes something else to
move or change shape. In electrical systems,
electricity is converted to heat, light, sound
pressure, etc.
Electrical Energy: Energy is the ability to do
work. A water tower holds a lot of water with
gravity pushing down on it. If you open a drain at
the bottom, the energy causes the water to flow,
which is work. In electrical systems the energy
can be either electrical or magnetic or others.

Energy Levels
Two

types of energy: POTENTIAL

ENERGY and KINETIC ENERGY.
POTENTIAL ENERGY is defined as
energy at rest, while KINETIC
ENERGY is defined as energy at
work. Think of it this way: a rock on
top of a hill that is at rest, has
Potential to do work. Once the rock
begins to roll downhill, and is in
motion, it is doing work. (Kinetic)
A.S. WSHS

The Atom

The atom has three particles:

1.The proton, inside the nucleus, has a positive charge
2.The neutron, inside the nucleus, has NO charge properties
3.The electron, which orbit around the nucleus, are negative
ELECTRONS on the outer shell are called Valence electrons
They are the electrons that move to form electrical current
The flow of electrons IS electricity!!!

What is electricity?
Current

is the flow of electrons from

atom to atom. Letter symbol is I,
measured in amperes
Voltage is the force or pressure that
causes flow when a path is available.
Letter symbol is E or V, measured in
volts.
Resistance is the opposition a material
offers to that flow. Letter symbol is R,
measured in ohms.
Conductance is the ability for flow that a
material has. Its the opposite of
resistance. Letter symbol is G, measured
in Siemans

Basic Electrical symbols,

units
Visit

the following website to Review

basic electronic units

http://www.wisc-online.com/Objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=
ENG902

Magnetism

Magnetism is a natural force that causes certain materials

to be attracted to others.

Magnetic attraction/repulsion is VERY similar to

electromechanical attraction/repulsion
Magnetic terms
Permeability: ability of a magnet to store magnetic
force
Flux: the lines of magnetic force
Pole: place in a magnet where lines of flux enter or leave
the magnet
Lodestone: a naturally occurring magnet
Reluctance: Opposition a material offers to being
magnetized
Ferromagnetic: materials that aid in developing
magnetic fields.

Magnetism Continued

Magnets can be made using Electrical current looped into

coils.

Placing an iron core in an electromagnet makes it much

stronger.

Lines of force
Electronic devices utilize magnetism
in a lot of different
leave the north
applications.
pole
And enter the
south.
REPEL
OPPOSITES
LIKE

ATTRACT

Magneto motive Force

Magnetic

lines of force are created and can

be used to actually move things. This is how
many electrical motors work. By using
electromagnets and fixed magnets, we can
produce MECHANICAL energy from
electrical.
The way this is done varies greatly.

X102 Electrical Safety

Risks

of electrical work

Lasers: Many devices can damage your eyes

Fire: Excess current flow can cause fires

Class
Class
Class
Class

A:
B:
C:
D:

Shock:

Combustibles, paper, wood, etc

Liquids, gas, kerosene, etc
Electrical/electronic fires
Burning metals, phosphorus, etc.

electrons moving through the body.

Burns, heart stoppage, muscle damage,

death
.1 amp of current across your chest can be
fatal
.01 amps you lose muscle control
.001 amps you feel a slight tingle

NFPA 70 Natl Fire

Protection

National Fire and Protection

Association
Sets NEC code for all wiring which
the states use for state code
Set Fire prevention standards for all
types of construction and electrical
electronic codes.
Local codes may supersede state
codes which may supersede NFPA
codes, but only to be more stringent

FIRST Aid and Electronics

Jobs

First aid for electrical shock

Remove Victim from source safely by

turning off breaker or switch or using
non conductive material
Treat for traumatic shock, elevate
legs and keep warm
If needed administer CPR IF TRAINED
Treat burns by keeping them as clean
as possible
GET HELP ASAP!

Multimeters: how they

work
Multimeters are meters designed to measure the big
three: Current, Voltage, and Resistance
See picture below

Digital Meter

Analog Meter
Volt, ohm, milliameter

Analog Meters -VOM

Use

a meter driven by a Darsonval

Movement. This uses the magnetic
field generated by voltages to move
the needle
Generally have to be Zerod to
measure ohms. Zero by touching
leads together and adjusting ohms.
Usually have one or more amperage
scales with jacks for each.
Meter scale is more difficult to read
but can be highly accurate
Simpson 260 was the standard VOM
for decades.

Digital Meters
Digital meters use digital readouts
Usually have jacks for volts/ohms

and different amperage levels.

Range switch selects range of
reading.
Function switch selects what you are
measuring.
Do NOT require zeroing.
Measure RESISTANCE and VOLTAGE in
parallel and Current in Series.
NEVER MEASURE RESISTANCE
WITH POWER ON.

Light level, SPL, other

meters

Light level meter: Measure amount

of light present in lumens. Used to
find optimal levels for pictures, videos,
etc.
SPL meter: Measure sound pressure or
noise in Dbs. Decibels are levels of
sound relative to a specific noise level.
EMF or Gauss meter: Meter designed
specifically to measure electromagnetic
energy in a space.

Capacitors: BABY
ABATTERIES
capacitor is simply two metal plates

separated by some kind of insulator.

A capacitor stores a charge on those plates
much like a battery.
A capacitor charges and discharges MUCH
faster than a battery.
Capacitors are measured in FARADS,
named after Faraday.
Capacitors are always measured in tiny
units such as microfarads, pico farads.
Capacitors do NOT work like resistors
mathematically.
Capacitors in parallel add up while in series
they divide (the 1 over method for
resistors)

Capacitors: what they look

like

Mylar

Ceramic
Disc

Capacitors: What they do

Capacitors

store a charge.
Capacitors can be used to BLOCK low
frequencies.
Capacitors are often used to manipulate
AC waves in radio tuners and such.
Capacitors do NOT PASS DC current.
Capacitors are used to filter power
supplies, they do this by smoothing out
voltage.
Electrolytic capacitors that look like
little cans can explode if hooked up
backwards.

Capacitor Math

XC = opposition to changing AC in ohms

Capacitor Color Code

Used

for very small caps that utilize a color code

instead of digits. VALUES below in Pico farads

Reading Ceramic Disk

Caps

Values given in Pico farads. Pico farads are

Trillionths (1/1,000,000,000,000) of a farad

SCHEMATICS for
Capacitors

Resistors: They cause voltage

drops
Resistors

are devices designed to

give resistance to manipulate
voltages.
There are several types of resistors.
Resistors give off power in the form
of heat.
Variable resistors are called
potentiometers or rheostats.
Letter Symbol for Resistance is R.
Resistance is measured in Ohms.

Resistors: What they look

like

Series Resistor Math

In

series Resistors simply add

up.
R1 + R2 + R3 = RT
resistance

Total

Resistors: Parallel Math

In

parallel, the total opposition

actually goes down so the formulae is:
1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 = 1/RT
You can also use the product over sum
method for just two resistors.
R1 x R2 Divided by R1 + R2

Resistors: The code

Many

resistors are so small they use a color code to

indicate their value.
The code is as follows:
First color is first digit
Second color is second digit
Third color is multiplier (or number of zeros)
Fourth color is tolerance (how accurate it is
designed to be) usually 5% or 10%

Resistor color code

example

Schematics for Resistors

Electrical Insulators
Insulators

have an atomic structure

that OPPOSES the flow of electricity.
Common insulators include: Rubber,
Plastic, Glass, Ceramic, Paper
Insulators generally have 5 or more
valence electrons in their outermost
orbit.
Insulators are used to
CONTAIN/DIRECT current.

Electrical Conductors
Conductors

have an atomic structure that

make them allow for current flow easily.
Most conductors are metals.
Good conductors generally have just one
electron in the outermost shell, called the
valence shell.
Conductors Route Electrical current
There are literally thousands of different
types of conductors
All conductors have some resistance and
the longer the wire, the more resistance.
Conductors CAN act as antenna as well so
sometimes, they have to be grounded.

Types of Wire used as

conductors
Conductors

can be multi stranded

wire or solid core.
Conductors can be made of copper,
aluminum, or any other metal.
Wire is measured by feet or meters
for length and by GAUGE for
diameter of conductor.
The smaller the GAUGE, the BIGGER
the wire.
#22 wire is small while #4 wire is
bigger

American Wire Gauge

Switches

Some examples of
switches

Schematics for switches

FUSES: 1 time safety

devices
Fuses are simply strips of conductive

material designed to OPEN a circuit upon

over current conditions.
FUSES PREVENT FIRES by limiting current
to that which the circuit can safely
handle.
Fuses are rated for voltage and more
importantly CURRENT at which it opens.
Fast acting fuses are designed to open
immediately.
Slow Blow fuses are designed to
withstand short duration over current
events.
Thermal fuses blow on HIGH
temperature.

Fuses: Pix and schematics

FUSE SAFETY:
ALWAYS

REMOVE POWER BEFORE

REMOVING A FUSE!
NEVER REPLACE A FUSE WITH ONE RATED
AT A HIGHER CURRENT OR LOWER VOLTAGE!
LETHAL VOLTAGES ARE PRESENT ACROSS
THE CONNECTIONS OF A BLOWN FUSE!
IF A FUSE BLOWS TWICE, LOCATE THE
SHORT IN THE CIRCUIT

If the fuse keeps blowing!

In

a circuit that keeps blowing a fuse,

the problem is a short circuit
somewhere.
You can troubleshoot by placing a
resistor in line with the power going to
the fuse and then looking for
component with zero voltage drop.
Always use extreme care when
troubleshooting fuses as YOU could
make the circuit if you bridge the fuses
gap.

Circuit Breaker: Resettable

fuse

A circuit breaker is designed to

trip (OPEN) a circuit when too
much current goes through it.
Circuit Breakers prevent fires!
Circuit Breakers are rated for
current and trip current.
Some circuit breakers have
visual indicators that show
when they are tripped.
Find the cause of the breaker
tripping before resetting.

How a circuit breaker

works

An over current condition causes the

electromagnet to
Pull the catch away from the other contact.

Batteries: We got the

POWER!
A battery is physically two different metal plates
separated by a chemical that causes one metal
to give off electrons and the other to attract
them.
There are hundreds of different types and sizes.
Batteries are rated in Voltage available and
mAmps/Amps per hour they can deliver.
Many batteries pose explosion hazards
when shorted or disposed of in fire.
The

chemicals in many batteries pose health

risks so they should NOT be thrown into landfills.

Typical Battery voltages

SLA = Sealed Lead Acid, NiCD = Nickel Cadmium

NiMh = Nickel Metal Hybrid, Li-on = Lithium Ion
Li-polymer = Lithium Polymer

Battery Schematics and

Pix
Button Cell
3v

Sealed Liquid Acid

12/24 V

Double AA 1.5 V

9V

3.6 V Cell phone

battery

C battery 1.5V

Battery Schematics and

Cells
are single battery units while many batteries come in
cells
manufactured packs. Example a Car battery has 6 Cells
which add up to 12 Volts.

Ohms Law: The STUFF!

Ohms

law is the relationship

between Voltage (V), Current (I),
and Resistance (R)
Voltage measured in volts is
electrical FORCE or pressure.
Also called POTENTIAL Difference
Current measured in Amperes
is the actual FLOW of Electrons.
Resistance is the OPPOSITION
to the flow of electrons.

Ohms law, the formulae

To find any one of the three,

Cover it up and use the other two.

Finding Current
Example

Ohms Law problem

Problem #1
A 110 volt wall outlet supplies power to a strobe light with a resistance of 2200 ohms. How
much current is flowing through the strobe light?

Choose your answer

below
1.0.5 amps
2.2.0 amps
3.0.05 amps
4.1.0 amps

PROBLEM 2
A CD player with a resistance of 40 ohms has a current of 0.1 amps flowing through
it. Sketch the circuit diagram and calculate how many volts supply the CD player?

Choose your answer below

1.0.0025 volts
2.4.0 volts
3.10.0 volts
4.400.0 volts

More Ohms law problems

1. A circuit contains two 1.5 volt batteries and a bulb with
a resistance
of 3 ohms. Calculate the current. ___________
2. What is the voltage of a circuit with 15 amps of current
and toaster with 8 ohms of resistance? _____________
3. A light bulb has a resistance of 4 ohms and a current of
2 A. What is the voltage across the bulb? _________________
4. How much voltage would be necessary to generate 10
amps of current in a circuit that has 5 ohms of resistance?
___________
5. How many ohms of resistance must be present in a
circuit that has 120 volts and a current of 10 amps?
_______________
6. An alarm clock draws 0.5 A of current when

connected to a 120 volt circuit. Calculate its

resistance. _____________

UNITS OF POWER!
Power is energy converted
In electronics we measure power in Watts.
1 Watt = 1 Volt x 1 Ampere for 1 second.
We measure energy USED in Kilowatt-

hours
A kilowatt-hour is 1000 watts used over 1
hour.
A joule is the SI unit for measuring energy.
One kilowatt hour is 3.6mega joules,
which is the amount of energy converted if
work is done at an average rate of one
thousand watts for one hour.

Watts Laws of Power

Watts

law demonstrates the relationship

between the big three; Current (I), Voltage (V)
and Resistance (R) to Power in watts.
Power in Watts = Current in Amps x volts
See the power wheel below for other forms.

P=IxE
Remember
PIE Power!

Power problems
A car stereo draws 10 amps at 12 volts. What is the wattage being
Used by the system?_______________________

If your 220 volt water heater has a 20 amp fuse on the power
Supply, what is the max power possible?_________________

Scientific Calculator in Oz
A

scientific calculator has many functions

useful in the study of Electronics:

1/X or the reciprocal button for solving Parallel

Resistance problems and Series Capacitive
problems.
Squares button. 2 When you take a number and
multiply it by itself, you get the square of it.
or square root for finding resonant frequency
and in impedance formulae.
ENG or EE for scientific notation. Given the
inordinately large and small numbers
encountered, it is handy to use exponential
notation, IE Powers of 10 (more on that later)

Scientific symbols in
electronics
Symbols used in electronics study include:
Omega, = OHMS, the unit of measure for
resistance, reactance, and impedance
Lambda, = wavelength, the distance a
waveform travels through space, in meters or
fractions of
Beta, = ratio of collector current to base
current in Bipolar Junction Transistor circuits.
Delta, means DIFFERENCE or change in.
Theta, represents angular displacement in
vector diagrams. In phasor graphs for RCL
circuits, there is an angular displacement
between vectors for XL and XC. Recall Series
RCL circuits on the computers.

Using the 1/X for

electronics

Given a parallel resistor circuit, you will

need to find the total resistance. If the 3
resistors were 470 , 1500 , and
3300 use the following sequence:
470, 1/X + 1500, 1/X + 3300, 1/X =, 1/X
The answer is 322 ohms
NOTE: On graphing calculators the
process is:
470, X-1 + 1500, X-1 + 3300, X-1 =, X-1
This formula works for Resistors in
parallel and capacitors in Series for
finding TOTALS.

Problems using the 1/X

VISIT the following links for practice using the I/X button in
parallel circuits

http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=DCE
8604

Square Roots
The

square root of a number is the number

that multiplied by itself equals that number.
Example the square root of 16 is 4 because
4 times 4 equals 16
The formula for impedance in Series RCL
circuits is Z = R2 + (Xc Xl )2
Note the Square root is over the entire
series.
If R = 47 ohms, XL = 980 ohms, XC =
1200 ohms, find Z using the formula
Answer is 224 ohms.

More math on RCL circuits

We use the formulas for XL

And XC first, which includes
Using the 1/X function.
Then we use the impedance
Formula which uses square
Roots and squares.
DO NOT GET BLOWN AWAY BY THE MATH, ITS JUST
APPLYING
FORMULAE TO SPECIFIC CIRCUITS.

Scientific Notation
In

electronics we use numbers that are so

small that they require prefixes to represent
them. Micro for example means millionths of
or in another words, if you cut something up
into a million pieces, one micro would be one
piece.
We also have to work with numbers so large
that they have prefixes too. If you counted
the grains of sand on a beach, you would
need a prefix to represent trillions of grains.

Engineering Notation
Engineering notation is very similar to
scientific notation, except that the power
of ten can only be a multiple of three and
the whole number can be any number
from 1-999.
Remember: Moving the decimal place to
the right makes the exponent move in a
negative direction, conversely moving the
decimal place to the left makes the
exponent move in a positive direction.
A.S. WSHS

Scientific notation prefixes

exa

10006

1018

1000000000000000000

Quintillion

peta

10005

1015

1000000000000000

Quadrillion

tera

10004

1012

1000000000000

Trillion

giga

10003

109

1000000000

Billion

mega
kilo
hecto
deca

M
k
h
da

106
103
102
101
100
101
102
103
106

1000000
1000
100
10
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.000001

Million
Thousand
Hundred
Ten
One
Tenth
Hundredth
Thousandth
Millionth

deci
centi
milli
micro

d
c
m

10002
10001
10002/3
10001/3
10000
10001/3
10002/3
10001
10002

nano

10003

109 0.000000001

Billionth

pico

10004

1012 0.000000000001

Trillionth

Measurements
Current

Measurement: Current is the

flow of electrons through a circuit.
Letter symbol is I (for Ions or atoms
with a charge)
Unit is AMPERES, often referred to
amps
Meter MUST be PART of the circuit
for current to be measured.
Just like any flow meter, the meter
measures what goes through it.

Current measurement
diagram
The current in
the circuit
will go thru
THE METER to
be measured

Steps to measure Current

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Turn off the circuit

Set meter to highest range first
Insure common lead in the black jack.
Insure red lead is in the correct amperage
jack. There are often two jacks, hi and low.
Connect to circuit
Restore power
Read meter and adjust range scale.
DANGER: DO NOT CONNECT OR
DISCONNECT WITH POWER ON

Voltage Measurement
Voltage

is electrical pressure that

pushes electrons.
Letter symbol is V (voltage) or E
(electromotive force)
Unit is VOLTS
Voltage is either AC (alternating) or DC
(direct)
AC is constantly changing direction and size
DC is consistently in one direction and
polarity.
VOLTAGE Is MEASURED ACROSS the device.

Measure DC and AC
Voltage

Remember!
You can only test voltage when the circuit is powered If there is no
voltage coming in (power supply) then there will be no voltage in the circuit
to test! It must be plugged in (even if it doesn't seem to be working)
Voltage is always measured between two points There is no way to
measure voltage with only one probe, it is like trying to check continuity with
only one probe. You must have two probes in the circuit. If you are told to
test at a point or read the voltage at this or that location what it really
means is that you should put the negative (reference, ground, black) probe at
ground (which you must determine by a schematic or somewhere else in the
instructions) and the positive (red) probe at the point you would like to
measure.
If you're getting odd readings, use a reference voltage (even a 9V
battery is a reasonable one) to check your voltage readings. Old meter
batteries and wonky meters are the bane of your existence but they will
eventually strike! Good places to take reference voltages are regulated wall
plugs such as those for cell phones. Two meters might also be good :)
Voltage is directional If you measure a battery with the red/positive probe
on the black/negative contact and the black probe on the positive contact
you will read a negative voltage. If you are reading a negative voltage in your
circuit and you're nearly positive (ha!) that this cannot be, then make sure
you are putting the black probe on the reference voltage (usually ground)
DC voltage and AC voltage are very different Make sure you are testing
the right kind of voltage. This may require pressing a mode button or
changing the dial.
Unless otherwise indicated, assume DC voltages

Correct Jacks for

Voltage
Black Lead usually in
The Common Jack.
Red Lead usually in the
Volts/Ohm Jack.

DMM Voltage Function

switches

Volts DC Function
V with two lines

Volts AC Function
Wavy line

DMM Voltage Range

selection

20 V range selected
For expected values
UP TO 20V

Find the RANGE that will be LARGER than the voltage you ex
If unknown voltage is expected, use HIGHEST RANGE!

Voltage measurement
Examples

Measuring a 1.5V Battery Measuring a plug in power adapte

Note the polarity is indicated on the lab
Of the adapter. If you get a negative vo
You may have the leads backwards.

Measuring adapters AC
AC output, use the Volts
AC function

Measuring adapters DC

9 Volts DC output
Use 20 Volt DC functio
Note: an unloaded pow
Adaptor usually reads
Higher than rated. You
Might see 11 or 12 volt
Here.
OBSERVE POLARITY

Measuring RESISTANCE

Measuring Resistance
Remember!
You can only test resistance when the device you're
testing is not powered. Resistance testing works by poking a
little voltage into the circuit and seeing how much current
flows, its perfectly safe for any component but if its powered
there is already voltage in the circuit, and you will get incorrect
readings
You can only test a resistor before it has been
soldered/inserted into a circuit. If you measure it in the
circuit you will also be measuring everything connected to it. In
some instances this is OK but I would say that in the vast
majority it is not. If you try, you will get incorrect readings and
that's worse than no reading at all.
You can make sure your meter is working well by having
a 'reference resistor' to test against. A 1% 1K or 10K
resistor is perfect! Low batteries can make your multimeter
inaccurate.
Resistance is non-directional, you can switch probes and
the reading will be the same.
If you have a ranging meter (as most inexpensive ones are),
you'll need to keep track of what range you are in. Otherwise,
you will get strange readings, like OL or 1., or similar, or you

Jack it up for
Resistance

Black Lead is in Common

Red Lead is in Volts/Ohm

(Most meters)

Range and Function for

Resistance.

For most meters, there is a range

Of resistance functions. Select the
Range Above the expected resista
Ex, to Measure a 470,000 ohm resi
You Would move the selector to 2
for 2 million ohms.

For unknown values start at LOWE

Range first as you can damage som
Components with the high ranges.
This meter is set to measure
UP TO 20k (20,000) Ohms

Example: checking a
resistor

Note that the

range/function switch is
set to 20k ohms indicating
this is a reading of 9,820.
Probably a 10 K ohm
resistor

Checking a photo sensor

(ohms)

This is an example of testing a photodiode with an

ohmeter. The photodiode changes resistance based on
light. As you change the amount of light available to
the component, the resistance value will change.
to see a video of this go to:
http://www.ladyada.net/learn/multimeter/resis
tance.html

Continuity IS a resistance
check

The continuity test is a check to see if there is a low resistance

path for
current to flow. Its useful in checking fuses, lamps, and
conductors.
Most meters indicate continuity with an audio BEEP so it is
sometimes
referred to as a BEEP Check. YOU HEAR A BEEP, YOU HAVE A
PATH OF LOW RESISTANCE, IE, CONTINUITY.
On many meters the continuity function is the same as the
Diode Check. Since
diodes and bipolar transistors have very small resistance values,
Meter set to continuity and diode check.
the meter
particular
meter
also
Will, by default send a This
very small
current
through
to checks
check. capacita
NEVER USE A HIGH RESISTANCE RANGE ON A SEMICONDUCTOR:
Diode
Or transistor. You can destroy the device.

Measuring Power
Since

power is energy converted it is much

more complicated to measure than voltage,
current, resistance.
Mathematically electrical power is voltage
times current so it is often calculated
versus measured.
A wattmeter is a tool designed to measure
power. Most techs do NOT carry wattmeters.
Kilowatt meters are used to measure power
consumed. The unit for power used is often
Kwh or Kilowatt hours, discussed earlier.
A line monitor/analyzer is a power meter that
records voltage and current levels.

Wattmeters

Hand Held Wattmeter

This guy plugs in
between your wall
and a device and
measures the
power used.

Residential Kilowatt hour meter

This guy
measures the
power that goes
into your home or
business. It does
this by measuring
current at line

How to read a watt

Most
newer residential meters use digital displays showing
meter
kwhs used. This is based on current measured through the
meter and the voltage of the service.

On older spinning dial meters: Use a stopwatch (many

smart phones have this function built-in) to determine how
long it takes the spinning disk in an analog meter to make
a single revolution. Now use your Kilowatt factor number
in this simple equation: 3600 times your Kilowatt factor
divided by the number of seconds for the disk to make one
revolution. The number you get is your usage rate in
watts. Kwatt factor is listed on the label.

Read more:
How to Read a Wattmeter | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/how_
6158336_read-wattmeter.html#ixzz1M3XlqZUs

NOTE: Some watt meters actually send a reading via radio signal.

Wattmeter test
equipment
Specialized hand held
wattmeter used to
measure power. Uses
special breakout
connectors to measure
current AND voltage
simultaneously. These are
NOT commonly used and
are expensive tools.

SERIES DC Circuits:
1Path!

A series DC circuit has only one

path for current to flow.
The current flow is the SAME
throughout the circuit: IT = IR1 =
IR2 = IR3
The resistances will add up to a total:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
The loss of electrical pressure at each
load will add up to total voltage:
ET = ER1 + ER2 +ER3

Series Example

The electrical current leaves the negative terminal

of the battery and flows through R3 and then
through R2 and finally R1 before returning to the
battery.
**** ITS THE SAME CURRENT EVERYWHERE!
The total resistance is 1.2k + 3.3 k + 680 = 5180
ohms (RT)
(IT) or total current is found using Ohms law; 10
volts divided by 5180 ohms = .00193 or 1.93 mAmps
Anywhere you measure current, it will be the SAME

Series Circuit Formulae

Kirchoffs V
Law

Kirchoffs laws for

Series
Kirchoffs

voltage law states The

algebraic sum of the drops
around a closed loop equals the
applied voltage.
This is a fancy way of saying that
the voltage applied to the circuit
(battery) will equal the voltage
drops of the loads added up.
ET = E1 + E2 + E3

Series circuit Pictorial

Instead of
resistors, this
circuit uses
lamps but the
math is the
same. The SAME
current that
lights one bulb,
lights them all.

Challenge Question: If you removed one of the

three lamps, would the other two be brighter or
dimmer?????
ANSWER: BRIGHTER

Short circuit in Series

A short circuit is an UNWANTED path for current to

flow with little or no resistance. In the circuit above,
what will happen to the first lamp if the second lamp is
shorted out? IT WILL GET Brighter because there is
less resistance and voltage is no longer being dropped
across the second lamp. SHORTS CAN CAUSE

FIRES!!!!!!

Open Circuit Fault in

Series
OPE
N

Another thing that go wrong

is a break in a circuit (Called
an Open). If there is a piece
of wire that broke, what
would happen to the lights?
They would go out because
there would be NO path for
current to flow. An
interesting thing that
happens is that you could
measure your battery voltage
across the break in the circuit.

Series Circuit
Resources

For a good interactive activity on Series circuits, visit this link:

http://www.wisc-online.com/Objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID
=DCE8304

Parallel DC Circuits
A parallel DC circuit has 2 or
more paths for current to flow.
The current flow through each
branch adds up to equal the
total in the circuit
IT = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
The resistances will NOT add up
to a total:
1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
(this is called the reciprocal
method)
Each Branch is connected to
both sides of the battery so
VOLTAGE IS THE SAME for
each load

Parallel Example

Every resistor or lamp is connected directly to the

battery. This means that THE BATTERY VOLTAGE IS
AVAILABLE TO ALL LOADS and THEY ARE THE
SAME VALUE
Adding more branches actually causes
resistance to GO DOWN, because there are more
paths for electrons to flow!

Parallel Pictorial

NODE

NODE

Electrons leave the negative

terminal of the battery travel down
the line and some of it goes to the
first bulb, some goes to the second
bulb and whatever is left goes to
and through the third bulb. The
current returns to the batterys
positive terminal.
Each light bulb is hooked
up to both sides of the
battery. This is how your
home is wired. You can turn
off a light in your living room
without turning off the TV.

Nodes are places where current can divide into different

Parallel Circuit Analysis

(math)

The potential drops of each branch equals the potential rise

of the source

The total current is equal to the sum of the currents in

the branches.
The inverse of the total resistance of the circuit (also called
effective resistance) is equal to the sum of the inverses of the
individual resistances.

One important thing to notice from this last equation is that the
more branches you add to a parallel circuit (the more things you
plug in) the lower the total resistance becomes. Remember that as
the total resistance decreases, the total current increases. So, the
more things you plug in, the more current has to flow through the
wiring in the wall. That's why plugging too many things in to one
electrical outlet can create a real fire hazard.

Go online and Check it

out!
For a great interactive lessons about parallel dc circuits
visit the following links:

http://www.wisc-online.com/Objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=
HVC403
http://www.wisc-online.com/Objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=
DCE14705
http://www.wisc-online.com/Objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=

Series/Parallel Circuits
Many times a circuit will contain some
components in series and some in parallel, these
are referred to as series parallel or combination
circuits.
R2, R3, and R4
are in series with
each other!

R1 is in Parallel with the other three combined

Solving the SP circuit

step 1
1. Find the equivalent
resistance for
three resistors in
series.
(R2+R3+R4) (680
+ 4,700 + 1,500) =
6880
2. Use the 1 over
formula to solve
total. 1/1,000 +
1/6880 = .0011453
3. Find 1/.0011453 to
get RT
4. Total Resistance is
873 ohms

Solving the SP circuit

step 2
If total resistance is 873
ohms and total voltage
is 12volts, just use
ohms law to find IT,
Total Current.
12v/873=.013745
amps.
Converts to 13.745 mA.
Are there ANY resistors
in series with the
batter? In this case no,
which means there is
no resistor with total
current.
Note the resistor R1 IS
in parallel with the

Solving the SP step 3

If R1 has 12 volts
available and 1000
ohms of resistance, then
we can use Ohms law
to find the current
through it (IR1)
12V/1,000 = .012
Amps or 12mA
IR1 = 12mA
What we know so far:
RT = 873
IT = .0137 A or 13.7 mA
VR1 = 12V cause its in parallel
with the battery.

Solving the SP step 4

What we know so far:

RT = 873
IT = .013745 A or 13.745
mA
VR1 = 12V cause its in
parallel
with the battery.
IR1 = .012 amps or 12 mA

Since we KNOW that

13.745 mA entered
the node AND that 10
mA went THRU the 1K
resistor, whatever is
left MUST have gone
thru the other path.
13.745 12 =
1.745mA
This means that
1.745 mA went
through R2, R3, and
R4 (as they are all in
the same path).

Solving the SP step 5

What we know so far:

RT = 873
IT = .013745 A or 13.745
mA
VR1 = 12V cause its in
parallel
with the battery.
IR1 = .012 amps or 12 mA
IR2, IR3,IR4 are ALL .
001745 or 1.745 mA

Since we KNOW that

3.7 mA flows through the
resistors; R2, R3, and R4,
all we have to do is use
Ohms law to find the
voltage for each. V = I x R
VR2 = .003745 x 680
VR3 = .003745 x 4,700
VR4 = .003745 x 1,500
VR1 = 1.1866
VR2 = 8.2015
VR3 = 2.6175
CHECK THIS OUT!
The three HAVE to add up
to 12Volts cause strung
together, they are in

Solving the SP step 6

What we know so far:

RT = 873
IT = .013745 A or 13.745
mA
VR1 = 12V cause its in
parallel
with the battery.
IR1 = .012 amps or 12 mA
IR2, IR3,IR4 are ALL .
001745 A
VR1 = 1.1866
VR2 = 8.2015

Finding POWER is
the same for every
circuit and is
actually quite
simple. For each
component, take
Voltage x Current
to find the power
for that
component. For
TOTAL power,
simply use Total
Examples:
PR2 =Voltage
.001745 and
Amp Total
x 8.2015
Volts Current.
= .0143 watts or 14.3
mWatts

PT = 12v x .013745 A = .1649

Watts or 163.9 mWatts

Series Parallel
conclusion
Series

parallel circuits contain

elements in series and in parallel.
The mathematical formula for
series circuits will work for all
components in series
The mathematical formula for
parallel circuits will work for all
components in parallel.
The trick is to simplify the circuit

Get out there and

practice!
Great interactive labs on Series Parallel can
be found at:

http://www.wisc-online.com/Objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=
DCE12904
Note that there are several good labs that allow you
to practice Series Parallel at the same web site.
Remember: You may have to redraw them to solve
them.

The

next slide covers redrawing to

simplify circuits.

Circuit simplification
example

Step 1: Solve for equivalent resistance of R2 and R3

using 1/x
Req (resistance equivalent) = 12 ohms.
Step 2: Add Req and R1
Step 3 This gives you RT of 20 ohms.
NOTE: Start furthest away from battery and work

The Wheatstone Bridge

It is used to measure an unknown

electrical resistance by balancing
two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg
of which includes the unknown
component. Its operation is similar
to the original potentiometer

The Wheatstone
continued
To see a simulation of how the Wheatstone MEASURES
resistance Visit the following hyperlink. Vary the R3
variable resistor and see what happens.
http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/java/wheatstoneb
ridge/index.html

Thevenins theorem
In circuit theory, Thvenin's theorem for linear
electrical networks states that any combination of
voltage sources, current sources, and resistors with two
terminals is electrically equivalent to a single voltage
source V and a single series resistor R.
This is used to solve circuits with multiple voltage
sources or current sources.
Follow the pattern on the next slide to see how
Thevenins
theorem works in a simple circuit.
To calculate the equivalent circuit, the resistance and voltage are needed, so two
equations are required. These two equations are usually obtained by using the following
steps, but any conditions placed on the terminals of the circuit should also work:
1.Calculate the output voltage, VAB, when in open circuit condition (no load resistor
meaning infinite resistance). This is VTh.
2.Calculate the output current, IAB, when the output terminals are short circuited (load
resistance is 0). RTh equals VTh divided by this IAB.
The equivalent circuit is a voltage source with voltage VTh in series with a resistance RTh.
Step 2 could also be thought of as:
2a. Replace voltage sources with short circuits, and current sources with open
circuits.
2b. Calculate the resistance between terminals A and B. This is RTh.

Example of Thevenins
Theorem

Original circuit

Calculate the equivalent output voltage

Continued

The equivalent circuit, simpli

Seems confusing?
For

an EXCELLENT resource to practice with,

visit the following link. You will see animations
and practice problems.

http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/ViewObject.aspx?
ID=DCE5903

The Voltage Divider

Circuit
Many

times we need several

voltages from a single source.
By placing resistive or reactive
loads in series we can take a
voltage and break it down into
fractions of the original voltage.
For simplicity, we will look
primarily at a DC voltage divider
using resistors.

The Voltage Divider

If we apply 12
VDC to this
circuit and have
two resistors of
equal value, we
can get 6 volts
across either R1
or R2 or 12
Volts across the
two combined.
12 volts gives
us essentially
three different
outputs.

This works because of

Kirchoffs voltage law which
says the drops of each
series connected load add
up to the total.

Another Voltage
Divider

VR1 = IR1 x 5000

(10V)
VR2 = IR2 x 10000
(20V)
VR3 = IR3 x 7500
(15V)
HINT: Remember in
Series ALL currents

This BASIC Series

circuit can also be
used as a voltage
divider. Using
ohms law and
Kirchhoff's laws we
can pull several
different voltages
off of one 45 Volt
source. Find VR1,
VR2, and VR3 to get
those voltages.
How did you find IT to solve
divider? Ohms law; 45V / 22.5

DIGITAL: Numbers for a digital

age!

Digital

electronics utilizes only 2

distinct states.
1s and 0s represent On or
Off AND High or Low
Analog electrical signals have
varying levels and can be either
constant or constantly changing.
Digital electronics IS the world you
live in so we need to understand
the numbering systems used.

Numbers we are familiar

with
The

numbering system we are

most familiar with is decimal.
Decimal is based on 10 digits,
starting with 0 and going up to 9
As you exceed the decimal number
9, the next number moves to the
left and has a place value of tens.
As you add digits the numbers
value increase by powers of ten

Decimal Examples
The
The

number 7 equals 7 unique items

number 17 equals 7 unique items
PLUS 10 times 1 more
The number 177 equals 7 unique items,
7 times ten more, plus 1 times 100
more.
This seems awful silly to go over but it
is important to recognize how decimal
numbers work.
Decimal numbers can be indicated by a
small 10 in subscript after the number
Example 177 in decimal is actually
17710

Place Values in Decimal

Decimal Math
examples

It is easy math but do the following

to help you relate place value in
decimal numbers:
23 + 11 = ______
Ones?
120 + 45 = ______
56 + 45 = ______
the carry from the

how many tens?

how many hundreds?
What did you do with
ones place?

Decimal math is easy isnt it?

Binary Math, 1s and 0s

ONLY
In

binary there are only two digits, 1

and 0
Just like 10 is the base or radix of
decimal, in binary it is 2 because there
are only two digits.
Everything digital at its most basic
level is using nothing more than a
series of 1s and 0s to work.
These 1s or 0s are called Bits for
binary digits.
A series of 8 bits is called a Byte. Notice
the lower case b means bit and upper
case B means Byte.

Binary place values

2 6 = 64, 2 5 = 32 ,2 4 = 16 ,2 4 = 16 ,2 3 = 8 ,2 2 = 4 ,2 1 = 2 ,2 0 = 1

An easy way to remember is to start at the RIGHT

side and write a 1, then as you go LEFT, just keep
doubling the number. It doubles because the
base is 2.
Example: 1012 = 1 one, zero 2s and one 4
Since we are using Decimals to represent binary place values,
just add where the ones are. In this case one 410 + one 110 = 510
WE JUST Converted a binary number to a decimal number!

Practice converting
Binary
Convert

the following binary

numbers to decimal.
102 = _____

10

1112 = _____10
10002 = _____10
1111002 = _____10
111111112 = ______10

Decimal to Binary
conversion
Draw the binary
Gotta go both ways.
equivalent
chart to the left and
find the first
number LESS than
the number you are
converting. Then,
moving left to right,
subtract the first
number smaller
than that. If the
next digit will fit in,
subtract it. If not,
place a zero in that
place. For every
number used put a
one and for every
number skipped,

Binary numbers in
review

Binary numbers are all 1s and 0s.

The Radix or base number is 2
A binary digit is often called a bit
8 bits equals one byte
In the binary numbering system each
place value goes up in increments of 2.
3 binary digits can represent decimal 0
-710
4 binary digits can represent decimal 11510

Binary conversions
practice

For

some practice converting go

the following website

http://www.mathebook.net/middleschool/eworkbook/bina
rytodecimalconversion.pdf

Octal Numbers8
Octal

means 8 so octal is a base 8

system
Octal uses the same digits we use in
decimal numbers
Octal includes 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, and 7 for a
total of 8 digits per place value.
Three binary digits can represent any
Octal value.
Original Computers were 8 bit devices
and that is why there is an octal system.

Octal continued, base 8

238

equals three 1s and two 8s

2 x 8 = 16 + 3 = 19 10
Converting binary to octal is easy,
just recall there can only be 3 bits
and the biggest single digit
number is 7
1012 = 510 = 58
11012 = 1310 13 / 8 equals 1 with
5 remainder so 11012 = 1310 = 158

Octal conversions
worksheets
For practice visit the following link:
http://www.mathebook.net/middleschool/eworkbook/octaltodecimal
conversion.pdf

Gonna put a HEX on you,

Hexadecimal, that is

Because

of the inordinately large numbers

encountered in electronics and specifically in
computer systems, sometimes we need a
numbering system with more digits.
Imagine a class with 8 students all
needing a unique 1 digit number. Binary
would not work, there are only 2 digits. OCTAL
would work because there are precisely 8.
Decimal would also work with 10 digits.
Now think about how many cell phones
are in the world (over 5 Billion). Each cell
phone MUST have a unique electronic
identifier. If we used decimal numbers
there would have to be 9 digits used to
give each a unique number.

Hexadecimal continued
Now

imagine how many memory

addresses are in a terabyte hard
drive. Terabyte means
1,000,000,000,000 bytes. 13 digits
in decimal
We need a numbering system that
has MORE digits so that fewer digits
can be used to make unique
identifiers. These numbers are used
in Cell phones and computers and
are call Hexadecimal.
Hex means 6 and decimal means 10
so it is a base 16 numbering system.

The wonder of
Hexadecimal

Since just one hexadecimal digit can

represent up to 16 unique things,
you need fewer digits to represent
larger numbers.
Remember the class room example
of 8 students? What if the class had
12? Now octal and decimal both do
not work, but Hexadecimal would.
(up to 16 unique #s)
Students 0 thru 9 and three
students with letter ids, A, B, and C

The hex code compared

to decimal
Hex

uses decimal numbers and the

letters A thru F
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D,
E, F
The letter symbols are equivalent to
our decimal numbers

A16 = 10 10
B16 = 11 10
C16 = 12 10
D16 = 13 10
E16 = 14 10
F16 = 1510

Converting hex, the

math

Hexadecimal

place values

EXAMPLE 12F16
THE F means number of 1s
The 2 is number of 16s (the base)
The 1 is number of 162 or 256s
Therefore: (1 x 256) + (2 x 16) + (15 x
1) = 30310
REMEMBER the letter F16 is the same as
15 in decimal.
12F16 = 30310

Man, theres gotta be an

easier way!
Method

1: Divide by 16 and list remainders.

See the following for demonstration:
http://www.wisc-online.com/ListObjects.aspx

Method

2: Each Hex digit represents 4 binary

bits. Convert each into the binary equivalent,
combine the binary numbers and convert to
decimal.
Example: F416
F16 = 11112 and 416 = 01002
Combined they give you 111101002
111101002 = 24410
Remember to convert binary to decimal start
at the farthest right digit, write a 1 above it
and going left, just double it each time.
Where ever there is a 1, simply add the
decimal equivalent

The numbering systems

together
Decimal

Binary

Octal

Hexadecimal

Base-10

Base-2

Base-8

Base-16

10

11

100

101

110

111

1000

10

1001

11

10

1010

12

11

1011

13

12

1100

14

13

1101

15

14

1110

16

15

1111

17

16

10000

20

10

17

10001

21

11

18

10010

22

12

19

10011

23

13

20

10100

24

14

21

10101

25

15

22

10110

26

16

23

10111

27

17

24

11000

30

18

25

11001

31

19

26

11010

32

1A

27

11011

33

1B

28

11100

34

1C

29

11101

35

1D

30

11110

36

1E

31

11111

37

1F

32

100000

40

20

Binary Coded Decimal

In

computing and electronic

systems, binary-coded decimal
(BCD) is a digital encoding method
for decimal numbers in which each
digit is represented by its own binary
sequence. In BCD, a numeral is
usually represented by four bits
which, in general, represent the
decimal range 0 through 9.

BCD to Decimal and

back
Example

of a decimal number
displayed in BCD: 9110
Decimal: 9110 UNCOMPRESSED
BCD
Binary : 0000 1001/ 0000 0001
9

Now in Compressed BCD 9110

9
1
1001 0001

= 9110

MORE BCD

As you can see, the highest number that BCD can represen
Since many devices use BCD, knowing how to handle
this system is important. You must realize that BCD
and binary are not the same. For example, 4910 in
binary is 1100012, but 4910 in BCD is 01001001BCD.
Each decimal digit is converted to its binary
equivalent. 4 BITS per BCD number
NOTE the SUBSCRIPT

BCD

to represent the number

There is a house in New

Booleans?
Boolean

algebra is the algebra of two

values. These are usually taken to be
0 and 1, although false and true, etc.
are also in common use
In digital circuits, there are 1s and 0s
that represent statements of true or
false.
Example: It is time to go eat: but to
make the statement true, there would
be two decisions
It has been several hours since you
ate
You are hungry

Decisions, decisions,
decisions
It

is time to go eat: but to make the

statement true, there would be two
requirements
It has been several hours since you
ate
You are hungry

We

can express that statement by

saying it is time to eat BECAUSE A:
It has been several hours since you
last ate AND B: You are hungry

Logic (decision Gates)

We

can express that with this AND

gate. An AND gate needs all the
inputs to be true (high) for the
output to be true

A 1 here means A is true

A 1 or high here, means B is true

Y means output or
YES Its time to EAT!

Logic (And Gates)

It is time to go eat: but to make the statement true, there

would be two decisions
A: It has been several hours since you ate
B: You are hungry

A 1 here means A is true

A 1 or high here, means B is true

Y means output or
YES Its time to EAT!

We can express that as a math formula as AB which

means A AND B have to be true for the output to be
true. Its a little confusing because in the math we are
used to AB would mean A times B but in Boolean, it
means A AND B.

The AND gate:

Looks like a

bullet

It is time to go eat: but to make the statement true, there would be

two decisions
A: It has been several hours since you ate
B: You are hungry

Y means output or
YES Its time to EAT!

We can express that as a math formula as AB. We can also

use a chart to show the relationship, called a TRUTH TABLE

INPUT

OUTPUT

A AND B

Only high
output

The Logic gate: Or

Another

decision or logic gate is

the OR gate.
The OR gate only has a high output
when one or more inputs are true,
but NOT necessarily all.
Example: I need to go to sleep
is the gate
I havent slept in two days
The doctor just gave me a sleeping pill

The Or gate (looks like an

arrow)

I havent slept in two days

I need to
go to
sleep!

The doc just gave me a sleeping pill

In this instance, I need to go to sleep if EITHER input statement

is true. If I have not slept in two days OR the doctor just gave
me a sleeping pill IT IS TRUE. This is called an OR gate and
the Boolean representation would be A + B. Again, this is a
little confusing because in our math that would mean A plus
B, but in Boolean logic it means OR.
INPUT
OUTPUT
A

A OR B

High output
for ANY
high input
or both

Exclusive Or Gate?
For

some decisions we have either/or

but not BOTH situations.
The gate that makes this logical
decision is called an Exclusive OR
Gate.
The output is high when one or the
other but NOT both inputs are high.
The following page is an example of
an exclusive OR decision, the Boolean
math expression and the truth table

XOR or exclusive or
The

output statement is May has a

date Friday night.
The input statements would be:
She has a date with John at 9 PM
She has a date with Jerry at 9 PM
Obviously, May can have a date with one
but not both or May could not have a
date at all.
On the next slide you will see the XOR
symbol, Boolean expression, and truth
table

XOR, one or the other, not

both
Going with John
May has a date!
Going with Jerry
Lets hope may either has a date with John or Jerry and not both,
The circle around the OR
sign (+) means exclusive.
One or the other, but NOT
both
OUTPUT

Boolean expression:

INPUT
A

A XOR B

A or B,
but NOT
Both

Inverters aka NOT

GATE

Because digital systems have a high

and a low representing 1 or 0,
sometimes you need to flip a signal.
A gate that specifically inverts an
input is called an inverter or Not Gate.
The truth table is too simple: High in,
Low out. Low in, High out.

The Bar above the A mean

Invert it. You would say th
A NOT

The Not gate as part of

another
The

inverter gate is sometimes actually

part of an AND Gate or an OR Gate.
We say that an AND gate with a built in
inverter is a NOT AND or NAND GATE.
We say that an OR gate with a built in
inverter is a NOT OR or NOR Gate.

NAND: NOT AND

NOR: NOT OR

The NOT AND, NAND

GATE

Boolean expression:

This means NOT (A and B)

One way to solve the NAND is to just go with the and

gate logic and flip over the output.
INPUT

OUTPUT

A NAND B

Opposite
Of And!

The NOT OR, NOR GATE

Which means NOT( A or B)

The Boolean
expression is:

Just like the other not gate, you can solve this by seeing what
would be there if it were an OR gate and just flip the output.
INPUT

OUTPUT

A NOR B

Opposite of
An OR gate

Schematics and Block

diagrams
To

simplify drawings that show the

connections and components in a
circuit, schematic diagrams use
standardized symbols for components.
Schematic
diagram
for 10 Volt
reference
circuit. The
symbols
represent
components

Common Schematic
Symbols

Schematic Diagram
continued

Schematic Diagram for a flashlight

Block Diagram
A block diagram is used for troubleshooting
purposes and does NOT show individual
components.
Rather, it shows the functional units of a
device.
The input usually enters at the left and top,
and ground connections are usually at the
bottom.
A technician can look for signals at the output
side of a block and if they are there, the
problem is after that module.
Example below: Say a technician does not GET
an IF signal to demodulator. He can assume his
fault is before that block.
Some times block diagrams will show test
points between modules

Schematic Versus Block

Shows
components
and
connections

Shows
functional
units

Block to schematic!
A technician would use the block diagram to find out
where the signal needed is no longer present and then
using the schematic investigate specific components
and signal paths.
The more complex a piece of equipment the more
functional modules it will have.
Another Block diagram is shown below. (LCD Display)

Test Points! Not Extra

Credit!

In the schematic above, Test Points (TPs) are

provided to make sure the signal/voltage/etc is
present.
If the signal at TP3 is good, but the signal at TP4
is missing, the problem must be in the devices
between the two.
Tech pubs often list what should be found at
specific TPs either as voltages, or with diagrams

Using Test points to

BRACKET
A

good troubleshooting technique is to

bracket faults.
For a system that is not working,
test the TP in the very middle of
the diagram.
Inputs usually come in from right, VCC
from top and ground from bottom.
If the signal is good at the TP in
the middle, pick a point half way
between there and the output.
Check there. This allows to cut the
circuit into pieces to make locating a
fault quicker

Flow charts, go with the

flow yo!

Another troubleshooting aid is called a flow c

Flow chart symbols

Just for fun flowchart

Logic Probes and

pulsers

To troubleshoot digital circuits

sometimes you need a simple device to
locate high and low voltage levels.
A logic probe is exactly that. It uses
circuit power to locate highs and
lows.
A logic pulser on the other hand,
actually INJECTS a signal into digital
circuit.
By chasing highs and lows, you can find
the faulty component.

Probes and pulsers

cautions!

The probe can short out a

component, be very careful.
Injecting a pulse in certain ICs can
damage them. Make sure you put
the pulses where you need to.
CMOS ICs are VERY sensitive to
ESD (electrostatic discharge) ESD
precautions must be taken when
working with them.
Probes and pulsers are LOW
voltage, digital devices ONLY

Logic Probe in detail

Use circuit power

TTL or CMOS

Ind

ica
te
Lo s Hi
w
or

Logic Pulser in detail

Pulse per
second switch

External
Trigger input

Uses Circuit
power

More about ESD

Electrostatic

Discharge (ESD) is the

discharge of STATIC charges from
one body to another.
ESD can destroy/damage IC chips,
most computer circuit boards,
memory modules, and CPUs.
CMOS ICs are particularly
vulnerable to ESD.
Opening a plastic bag or walking
across a room can build a charge of
several thousand volts on your body
YOU WILL RARELY SEE the ESD
doing the damage

ESD procedures.
Antistat

wrist straps are worn on the

wrist and conduct a bodys static
charge to the GROUND.
Antistat wrist straps contain a
resistor for safety, just in case you
come in contact with current.
NEVER wear an antistat wrist strap
when working on CRT type monitors.
ESD mats are work surfaces that
take the charge to ground

ESD Control Devices

Anti stat Bags: ESD

sensitive devices are kept in
these bags which have
conductive layers on the
outside. This keeps the
charge outside the bag and
away from the device.

Antistat Wrist Strap

Anti Stat Mats for

workstations

Al
lig
G ato
rn r
d to

Computer Technology
Computers

use several different

layers of code to operate.
At the most basic form, its all ones
and zeros.
Machine language is code that is
specifically written to operate process
Programming languages are designed
to perform functions together based
on syntax. (syntax is like format)

ASCII Code. Bits to

symbols
ASCII stands for American Standard

Code for Information Interchange.

Computers can only understand
numbers, so an ASCII code is the
numerical representation of a
character such as 'a' or '@' or an
action of some sort.
8 bits together make a byte and one
byte can represent up to 255 different
symbols in ASCII
When you push an L on a keyboard,
the computer uses ASCII Code to
understand it.

Sample ASCII table (there

are different versions
now.

ASCII Exercise
Convert the binary words below to decimal numbers first,
then using the code on the next page, decimal to words.
Solve the caption

In Decimal:

____

____

___ ___ ___ ___ ____

ASCII exercise
Now convert the decimal numbers into ASCII symbols (Lette
continued.

Digital Devices beyond

gates

We learned about gates before and

banging ones and zeros.
We can use gates to store bits and
move bits with registers and counters.
Registers store data in the form of bits.
Counters use bit patterns to perform
mathematical function.
Remember computers do NOT really
use decimal, so many counters work in
other radices (numbering systems)

Flip flops are not just for

the beach
One

device used to make registers

and counters is called a flip flop
A flip flop can be described as a bit
bucket. One flip flop holds one bit.
We can move bits into and out of flip
flops as data or connect flip flops
together to make circuits that count.
Hooked up to digital clocks (pulses),
Flip flops can do all kinds of neat
things like hold data and even count
bits.

Flip Flops, symbols,

types.

An RS Flip flop is
made of two NOR
gates wired together.
R stands for Reset
and S stand for Set.
Also called an RS
LATCH because of
the output pattern
holding or latching
based on inputs.

Schematic for an RS
Flip Flop. Notice the
outputs are Q and
QNOT. (opposites)
SR latch operation
S

Action

No Change

Q=0

Q=1

Restricted combination

More Flip Flops, the JK

The

JK flip-flop augments the behavior of

the SR flip-flop (J=Set, K=Reset) by
interpreting the S = R = 1 condition
as a "flip" or toggle command.
Specifically, the combination J = 1,
K = 0 is a command to set the flipflop; the combination J = 0, K = 1 is
a command to reset the flip-flop;
and the combination J = K = 1 is a
command to toggle the flip-flop,
i.e., change its output to the logical
complement of its current value.

More on the JK (universal

FF)
JK Flip Flop operation
Characteristic table

Excitation table

Qnext

Comm
ent

Qnext

Comm
ent

hold
state

No
chang
e

reset

Set

set

Reset

toggle

No
chang
e

The D Flip flop, for

The D flip-flop is the most common flip-flop in use
delay
today.
It is better known as data or delay flip-flop

(as its output Q looks like a delay of input D)

The Q output takes on the state of the D input at
the moment of a positive edge at the clock pin (or
negative edge if the clock input is active low). It is
called the D flip-flop for this reason, since the
output takes the value of the D input or data
input, and delays it by one clock cycle. The D flipflop can be interpreted as a primitive memory cell,
zero-order hold, or delay line. Whenever the clock
pulses, the value of Qnext is D and Qprev otherwise.
Output
s

Inputs
S

>

Q'

Digital Timing
Flip

flops and other digital

devices have basically two timing
signals.
Clocks are pulses from another
circuit which help to push through
data and perform the processes.
Data itself has timing.
On this level, data is essentially
good ole ones and zeroes.

You got the Time Mr.?

Setup

time is the minimum amount of

time the data signal should be held
steady before the clock event so that
the data are reliably sampled by the
clock. This applies to synchronous
circuits such as the flip-flop.
Hold time is the minimum amount of
time the data signal should be held
steady after the clock event so that the
data are reliably sampled. This applies to
synchronous circuits such as the flip-flop.
To summarize: Setup time -> Clock flank
-> Hold time.

Time is on my side, yes

it is!

Output! (hi)
Tsu = SET UP TIME
Th = HOLD TIME
Tco = Propagation delay (Time from
clock to output) Essentially, how fast the
flip flop changes state.

Digital Counters
In

digital logic and

computing, a counter is a
device which stores (and
sometimes displays) the
number of times a particular
event or process has
occurred, often in
relationship to a clock signal.

Count em up in binary
fellas!

In electronics, counters can be implemented quite easily

using register-type circuits such as the flip-flop, and a
wide variety of classifications exist:

Asynchronous (ripple) counter changing state bits

are used as clocks to subsequent state flip-flops

Synchronous counter all state bits change under

control of a single clock

Decade counter counts through ten states per stage

Up/down counter counts both up and down, under

command of a control input

Ring counter formed by a shift register with

feedback connection in a ring

Johnson counter a twisted ring counter

Cascaded counter- counters input other counters

Ripple Counter
(asynchronous)
An

asynchronous (ripple) counter

is a single K-type flip-flop, with
its J (data) input fed from its own
inverted output. This circuit can
store one bit, and hence can
count from zero to one before it
overflows!

More Ripple please!

This

counter will increment

once for every clock cycle and
takes two clock cycles to
overflow, so every cycle it will
alternate between a
transition from 0 to 1 and a
transition from 1 to 0.

More Ripple please!

This

creates a new clock with a

50% duty cycle at exactly half
the frequency of the input clock.
If this output is then used as the
clock signal for a similarly
arranged D flip-flop
(remembering to invert the
output to the input), you will get
another 1 bit counter that counts
half as fast. Putting them
together yields a two-bit count

Ripple counter pix,

data
2 JK Flip flops
combined to make a
RIPPLE counter.
Counts to a decimal
3 then resets to
zero. Recall two bits
can add up to 3 in
decimal
112 = 310

Cycle of clock
pulses

Cycle

Q1

Q0

(Q1:Q0)dec

Synchronous Counters
A

simple way of implementing the

logic for each bit of an ascending
counter is for each bit to toggle
when all of the less significant bits
are at a logic high state. For
example, bit 1 toggles when bit 0 is
logic high; bit 2 toggles when both
bit 1 and bit 0 are logic high; bit 3
toggles when bit 2, bit 1 and bit 0
are all high; and so on.
See the next slide for more!

Synchronous counter 4
Bits
Output is BINARY, this
display converted it for
us

A lot of times the output will be 4 LEDs representing 4 b

Decade Counter: Decade is 10

Years
A

decade counter is one that counts in

decimal digits, rather than binary.
A decade counter may have each digit
binary encoded (that is, it may count
in binary-coded decimal, as the 7490
integrated circuit did) or other binary
encodings (such as the bi-quinary
encoding of the 7490 integrated
circuit).
Alternatively, it may have a "fully
decoded" or one-hot output code in
which each output goes high in turn
(the 4017 is such a circuit).

Decade Counter in
action

Decade Counter feeding 10 LEDs to

count up to 1010. We could also have
different output displays such as 7
Segment LEDs to show the DECIMAL
OUTPUT OF THE CIRCUIT. The Johnson
4017 Chip is commonly used for these

Ring Counters
A

ring counter is a type of

counter composed of a circular
shift register. The output of the
last shift register is fed to the
input of the first register.
Bottom line is that output of the
counter goes back into the input
in a RING pattern.

Two types of Ring

Counters

A straight ring counter or Overbeck

counter connects the output of the last
shift register to the first shift register
input and circulates a single one (or
zero) bit around the ring. For example,
in a 4-register one-hot counter, with
initial register values of 1000, the
repeating pattern is: 1000, 0100,
0010, 0001, 1000... . Note that one of
the registers must be pre-loaded with a
1 (or 0) in order to operate properly.

Two types of Ring

Counters

A twisted ring counter (also called

Johnson counter or Moebius counter)
connects the complement of the output
of the last shift register to its input and
circulates a stream of ones followed by
zeros around the ring. For example, in a
4-register counter, with initial register
values of 0000, the repeating pattern is:
0000, 1000, 1100, 1110, 1111,
0111, 0011, 0001, 0000...
Compliment means binary opposite.

Ring Counter Outputs

Straight
ring/Overbeck counter

Twisted ring/Johnson
counter

St
Q0
ate

Q1

Q2 Q3

St
Q0
ate

Q1

Q2

Q3

Cascading counters!
If

you have ever seen one of

those scrolling led signs, you are
looking at a circuit driven by
cascading counters
The basic concept is one counter
feeds into the next which pushes
the counts through.
By varying types of counters, all
kinds of possibilities are created.

Oscillators dont go
upstairs?
An

oscillator is a circuit that

oscillates or swings back and forth
as an output
They produce sine waves and other
AC waveforms such as square waves
Used to transmit energy through a
media.

SINE WAVE

SQUARE WAVE

Types of Oscillators
The

harmonic, or linear, oscillator

produces a sinusoidal output (sine
wave)
A relaxation oscillator produces a nonsinusoidal output, such as a square,
sawtooth or triangle wave. It contains an
energy-storing element (a capacitor) and a
nonlinear trigger circuit (a latch, Schmitt
trigger, or negative resistance element) that
periodically charges and discharges the
energy stored in the storage element thus
causing abrupt changes in the output
waveform.
There are several oscillator circuits
introduced in Electronics II

Multivibrators???? Yea, so
what?
A

multivibrator is an electronic
circuit used to drive a variety of
simple two-state systems such as
oscillators, timers and flip-flops. It is
characterized by two amplifying
devices, cross-coupled by resistors or
capacitors. The name "multivibrator"
was initially applied to the freerunning oscillator version of the
circuit because its output waveform
was rich in harmonics.

Three Types of
Multivibrators.
astable,

in which the circuit is not

stable in either state it continually
switches from one state to the other.
It does not require an input such as a
clock pulse. Free Running

Output

wave continues until power is

removed.

Square Wave Output

Three Types: mono

monostable,1
in which one of the states is
means
stable, but the other state is unstable

(transient). A trigger causes the circuit to

enter the unstable state. After entering
the unstable state, the circuit will return
to the stable state after a set time. This
circuit is also known as a one shot.

Puts

out simple one pulse or waveform.

Sometimes called a debounce because the
signal is sharp edged as opposed to a
ramping bounce of energy

1 Shot means 1 output. Notice

how SHARP the edges are.
These are often used to send
one time signals that require
sharp edges, such as TRIGGERS.

Three Types: Bi means

2
Bi-stable, in which the circuit is

stable in either state. The circuit can

be flipped from one state to the other
by an external event or trigger.
It can put out a high or a low,
depending on the trigger and hook up.
Bi-stable is often referred to as a
flip flop
because it acts just like one. Hi
and Lo out but only when
triggered. Output is either a
high or a low based on input.

Microprocessors
Microprocessor

is a term used to
described the central processor for
computers and other smart
devices.
Micro means tiny and processor
means it performs processes (does
math)
Micro processors we will look at
primarily are computer
microprocessors.

Microprocessors, the
guts

ALU- Arithmetic Logic Unit: Does the

lions share of work, as in math
Control Unit: Executes low level
commands to move data, and utilize
ALU
Typical commands: FETCH, DECODE,
EXECUTE
Registers:

Registers are data storage

units.
Cache: newer processors have special
memory just for math it performs over
and over again.

Microprocessor Parts
Pic

This diagram includes RAM and ROM as well as I/O

(Input/Output) ports. These are NOT part of the
processor but work for the CPU

Examples of Processors
ACTUAL CPU

Actual AMD Processor package The actual CPU is much sma

Computer CPU chips

PIN 1, notch

PGA processor. PIN GRID ARRAY. These go into a

Zero Insertion Force Socket on the Main Printed
Circuit Board (Motherboard) The socket will only
accept the chip one way and NOTE the PIN 1 notch

LGA Processor Chips

PIN 1 Notch LGA CPU

LGA chips dont have pins, they have little conductive

bumps. The socket does not have holes for pins, but
rather little conductive tabs. Most all new CPUs use
this formate because the lack of pins makes them
easier to install.

Moving Data inside a

PC
Buses are paths
for data to flow
in a computer.
There are buses
for data and
buses for
addresses and
buses for input
and output
operations.
The diagram
shows the basic
bus system for a
modern
computer.
Northbridge and
South Bridge
are chipsets
that support the

The Computer:
motherboard
The

main circuit board is called a

motherboard
The CPU, RAM Memory (thinking
memory), and Basic Input Output
System (BIOS) live on the
motherboard.
Hard drives, optical drives, and other
devices connect to the motherboard.
The motherboard must MATCH the
CPU, Memory, and power supply

Example Motherbaord

Computer memory:
RAM

A CPU needs memory to work with AS

it processes. It is called RANDOM
ACCESS MEMORY or RAM
The more RAM a CPU has to work
with, the faster it can process.
RAM is measured in Megabytes and
more recently Gigabytes.
RAM is also rated at BUS SPEED or
how fast it can read write, usually
MHz

RAM CHIPS

Desktop DIMM (dual

Inline Memory Module)

Laptop SODIMM, Single Offset

Dual Inline Memory Module

Data Storage: Hard

drives

The CPU needs a place to store data

as well when not in use.
Hard drives and CD ROM, DVD ROM,
etc can store data to be accessed as
needed.
Hard drives are rated in Gigabytes,
and now Terabytes of storage.
Access time is how long it takes a
drive to get data
Hard drives also have cache memory.

Hard Drives continued

Traditional

hard drives have

aluminum platters with microscopic
spots that can hold a magnetic
charge.
A magnetic read/write head floats
above writing or reading magnetic
ones and zeros
SSD are Solid State Device Drives,
use flash memory for storage and
have NO moving parts. SSD are
replacing magnetic drives

Two Types of drives

Traditional Magnetic Drive

SSD Drive: NO MOVING PARTS

The Other kind of

Memory
Each

time you power down a PC its like

it dies. The CPU stops thinking, the
RAM is emptied, and the Hard Drive
Parks
Something has to tell the operating
program (system) what hardware is
there when the PC is started up.
There is a memory chip and battery
called BIOS, Basic Input Output System.
Its usually a CMOS chip so BIOS and
CMOS are often referred to as the same
thing.

ROM, PROM, EEPROM,

This

memory is NOT designed to be

used to think, just to remember.
Originally it was implemented with ROM
Chips (READ ONLY MEMORY)
There are also PROM Chips
(Programmable READ ONLY MEMORY)
which can be programmed a few times.
Next comes EEPROM (Electrically
Erasable Programmable READ ONLY
MEMORY)
EPROM is also called FLASH memory
Sometimes its called EAPROM (alterable)

CMOS Wake UP Call

These

types of memory NEEDS power

to save the data on them for startup.
This is usually provided by a CMOS
battery, typically a 3V button cell.

CMOS BATTERY

CMOS
JUMPER

Computer Power
Supply

Wall voltage is 120 Volts/60 Hz

The computer needs extremely accurate
and reliable DC voltages to operate
Typical Voltages are 5VDC, -5VDC,
12VDC, -12VDC, 3.3VDC and ground.
The POWER SUPPLY provides these
voltages and the type must match the
Motherboard.
Power supplies also must deliver
enough WATTS to support all the
devices

Computer Power
supplies
Computer Power Supply
With Light effects

Typical Power Supply Connections

Optical Drives
Optical

drives are CD (compact disk)

drives and DVD (digital video disk)
drives.
They use tiny little dips on tracks around
the disc to bounce light from an LED off
of.
If there is a dip, its called a PIT and if
not, its called a LAND.
These are translated into ones and zeros.

CD and DVD Capacities

CD:

194 MB (8 cm)
650900 MB (12 cm)
DVD:

4.7 GB (single-sided, single-layer

common)
8.58.7 GB (single-sided, doublelayer)
9.4 GB (double-sided, single-layer)
17.08 GB (double-sided, double-layer
rare)

Blue Ray, the new kid on

the block
Blue

Ray is a new high definition

high resolution DVD type format.
Blue Ray is currently used
exclusively for VIDEO.
Blue Ray utilizes enhanced
formatting features.
Capacities.
25 GB (single-layer)
50 GB (dual-layer)

Expansion Cards
Computers

come with slots for

adding devices that were not
originally part of the computer.
Video cards, modems, network cards
and other devices can be added via
expansion slots.
The slots are identified by the BUS
(type of connectors used)
Different busses have different
abilities.

Expansion Card Slots

AGP SLOT
GRAPHICS
ONLY

Expansion Cards

SATA controller Card, For

adding SATA Drives

AGP (Advanced Graphics

Processor) Slot Video Card

There are many various cards you can use to add

wireless, network, Firewire, etc Functions to a computer

On the Case, holding it all

together

Cases come in different FORM FACTORS which

means shapes and sizes. The Motherboard form
factor must match the CASE. NOTE: This CASE IS
WATER COOLED!

Computer peripherals
Peripherals means stuff that hooks up to
the PC.

Languages, up the chain

Programming
continued
As

data and control information

moves up the ladder of languages,
you reach programming levels.
Programs are groups of
instructions/commands/etc that
cause the processor to perform
specific functions.
Programs should not be confused
with operating systems. An
operating system is the PROGRAM
to interface a user and hardware.

PLCs Continued
Newer

PLCs are incorporating

computers to control and program.

Other smart Devices,

PLCs
Computers

are not the only smart

devices.
In manufacturing settings there are smart
devices to operate equipment.
They are called Programmable Logic
Controllers (PLCS)
They are programmed one step at a time
to make a machine perform certain
functions.
The run on digital commands but OFTEN
operate Analog AC and DC equipment.