Estimate Minimum Submergence to Avoid Vapor

Entrainment
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A free surface vortex potentially form when :
i) liquid exit via a nozzle or hole below it liquid surface (bottom or side) and
ii) liquid height (between liquid surface and nozzle/hole) is below a minimum
submergence height (S).
When free surface vortex is formed, gas entrainment will occur and pull
vapor / gas above liquid surface exit together with liquid via the nozzle /
hole. The following image shows series of events taken place when a free
surface vortex is formed.

Similarly, gas entrainment occurs at pump suction intake point causes

vapor/gas enter pump reduce pumping capacity and vibration (due to pump
impeller imbalance).
Submergence (S) is defined as the height between liquid surface and the exit
hole. Following images show submergence (S) for different intake location
and nozzle type.

Submergence subjects to intake velocity with the following relationship :

where
d = intake diameter (m)
Q = intake flowrate (m3/s)
Example :
A pump transferring liquid from a suction tank to a reactor at a rate
of227.1m3/h. The pump suction inlet nozzle with a internal diameter
of 304.9mmis located horizontally. What is the minimum submergence to
avoid gas entrainment ?
d = intake diamter = 304.9 /1000 = 0.3049 m
Q = intake flowrate = 227.1 / 3600 m3/h = 0.063 m3/s
S = 0.3049 + 2.3 (4 / SQRT(9.81) x PI) (0.063 / 0.3049)
S = 0.66 m
Thus, minimum submergence (S) is 0.66 m above intake nozzle.
* SQRT = Square-root
** PI = 3.141592654

Designing for Gravity Flow

http://www.mycheme.com/
Most liquid flows encountered in chemical or process plants are moved using pumps. However,
occasionally liquids are transported under gravity. The chemical engineer must be able to design
gravity flow systems. This article discusses the hydraulics of liquids flowing in pipes under
gravity. It describes how to avoid gas entrainment, the importance of static head and how to
calculate pressure drop in pipelines with liquids flowing under gravity.
Whilst gravity flow follows many of the design rules for fluid flow, it does present some additional
complications. Firstly, there is a restricted pressure drop available which is limited by differences in height.
In comparison, pumps systems can allow for a much wider range of pressure drops, simply by changing
the pump specification. Therefore, gravity flow systems cannot accommodate high discharge pressures or
excessive pipelengths.
Secondly, there is a risk of gas entrainment as the liquid flows out of a vessel under gravity. This causes
two-phase flow, resulting in higher pressure drop, leading to a large reduction in the liquid flowrate.
These drawbacks result in gravity flow designs having a larger pipe size than those for pumped systems.
Consequently gravity flow applications are limited to simple systems e.g. storage tanks overflows.

Avoiding Gas Entrainment

If possible gas entrainment should be avoided. There are two methods of doing this.

M aintaining Liquid Le ve l
One method of avoiding gas entrainment is to ensure that the pipe is always submerged. This can be
achieved by keeping sufficient depth of liquid in the tank to prevent gas entering the pipe. Guaranteeing
sufficient liquid level in the tank requires some control usually using a lute or control valve.
The minimum liquid depth required has been studied by the Hydraulic Institute and can be calculated
using the following formula (in US units):

Where:
S Minimum depth of liquid in inches
D Pipe Diameter in inches
Q Liquid Flowrate in USgpm

This formula is applicable for flowrates in the range of 25USgpm to 300,000USgpm. The pipe velocity
range is 2 ft/s to 8 ft/s with a recommended pipe velocity of 5.5 ft/s. It should be noted that vortexing can
occur which may result in gas entrainment even if this minimum liquid level is achieved. This can be
prevented by installing a vortex breaker.
[Ref: Hydraulic Institutes Pump Intake Design ANSI/HI 9.8-1998] see the site below for details:
http://www.lightmypump.com/help11.html

Designing for self venting flow

If the minimum liquid depth cannot be maintained, the pipework can be designed to allow for self venting.
To achieve self venting, the liquid pipeline velocities have to be low enough so that any slugs of gas
entrained can rise against the liquid flow. Pipeline velocities are kept low by using a generous pipe
diameter. Self venting is a function of the dimensionless Froude number (Fr). The Froude number is the
ratio of the inertia force on a liquid to it weight and can be calculated using the following formula.
Fr = v / (g.d)0.5
v Liquid pipeline velocity (m/s)
g Gravitational acceleration. [In SI units, g = 9.81m/s]
d Pipe internal diameter (m)
For self venting flow, Fr < 0.3

Calculating Pressure Drops in Gravity Flow Lines

Assuming that gas entrainment is avoided (either by maintaining sufficient liquid level in the tank or by self
venting flow), the pressure drop down a pipe can be calculated assuming single phase flow conditions.
However, under gravity flow, the available pressure drop is restricted to the difference in the static head.
myChemE provides a spreadsheet for calculating pressure drop in liquid systems here.
If gas entrainment cannot be avoided the system has to be designed for 2 phase flow. Calculating
pressure drops in 2 phase flow systems is difficult and calculation methods are only approximate. This is
outside the scope of the article.
It is worth noting that gas entrainment is likely to lead to flow surging. This generates additional stresses
on pipes (and other equipment items) which would need to be accommodated by the mechanical design.

Home / Articles / 2009 / Assess the Gravity of the Situation

http://www.chemicalprocessing.com/articles/2009/229/

Assess the Gravity of the Situation

Flow systems without pumps demand particular attention.
Due to pumps we tend to get careless in considering flow systems. A few inches of fluid pressure drop arent
very important when we shed multiple psi across a control valve. In contrast, without a pump, small pressure
drops count. As a result, gravity-flow, free-surface and open-channel systems cause a disproportionately high
number of flow problems at plants.
Gravity-flow systems get their driving force from static head of liquid. Free-surface flow includes piping
systems where flow rate (usually generated by gravity) doesnt completely fill a pipe or duct. Open-channel
systems are similar except that the flow channel isnt fully closed.

Without a pump, small pressure drops count.

Lets examine two common cases that often go together: free draining from a vessel
and free surface flow in a pipe.
Many vessels have had problems with free-draining connections. Once a nozzle unseals,
vapor can enter with the liquid flow. To prevent vapor locking the draw line, liquid
velocity must be low enough to allow vapor to vent back into the vessel. Free-surface
flow into a nozzle can be very complex. Flow behavior depends upon density difference
between vapor and liquid, flow patterns entering the nozzle, velocity of incoming liquid
and many other factors. The only sure method to provide free-surface flow is to make
the inlet nozzle big enough that some of the more unusual flow patterns dont get
established.
Achieving reliable free-surface flow requires evaluating the flowing liquids Froude
number. In general this dimensionless number is the ratio of gravity to inertial forces.
Gravity (or applied) forces represent energy driving flow while inertial forces (opposing
forces) represent resistance to flow.
Fr = V/c (1) where Fr is the Froude number, V is the characteristic velocity of the
system, and c is a characteristic wave-propagation velocity. Unfortunately, the exact
form V and c take in a specific application depends upon circumstances.
Modifying the Froude number to a dimensionless superficial volumetric flux (J*) suitable
for use with venting nozzles we get:
J* = 4Q/[d2(gd)0.5] (2) where Q is volumetric rate of flow, d is actual inside diameter, not
nominal pipe diameter, and g is the gravitational constant, all in consistent units.

Simpson identified a maximum upper value of 0.3 for the Froude number for reliable
self-venting flow through a nozzle entering a vertical pipe [Perrys Chemical Engineers
Handbook, 8th ed., p. 6-29 (2008)]. This means the outlet nozzle will run less than half
full at the nozzle entrance and gives the design equations:
d = 4.27Q0.4 (3) for d in cm and Q in m3/hr, and d = 0.928Q0.4 (4) for d in in. and Q in
gpm.
These equations allow us to find the minimum required diameter to reliably get a
specific flow rate if the nozzle isnt fully flooded.
The second common situation involves a partially full near-horizontal pipe. Flow requires
pressure drop. In gravity-flow systems pressure drop comes from height of liquid.
Partially full pipes must slope to provide height of liquid to drive fluid flow. The question
is, how much? Many mechanical and chemical engineers use arbitrary standards. Few of
them have heard of the Chezy formula for estimating fluid velocity in a sloped line:
v = (2g/f)0.5(dhs/4)0.5 (5) where v is fluid velocity, f is Fanning friction factor, dh is hydraulic
diameter, and s is sine of the slope angle. (The first term is the Chezy coefficient, C.) At
a constant slope, s equals the height difference divided by the length of pipe.

For sizes smaller than 6 in., pipe should run no more than 50% full to allow for vapor backflow; for pipes
larger than 6 in., most applications can tolerate up to 75%-full pipes. For the relatively short lengths at process
plants a 40:1 slope is a good starting point for evaluating piping systems with commercial pipe and low
viscosity fluids (e.g., water and light hydrocarbons). If available, steeper slopes allow for smaller diameter
pipes.
Use flooded-nozzle sizing to set initial intake size, establish flow with a gradual slope, then increase the slope
and smoothly decrease pipe diameter to reduce investment. With large systems, long pipe runs and more
complex layouts, some research to decide on hydraulic design will reward your efforts