WRITING PROJECT

Car los Eduar do Polanco Cuellar

Cod.24
Mar ly Tatiana Chila Ramirez
Cod.8

Sandra Lizbeth Castiblanco

English Teacher

Institución educativa Ana Elisa cuenca Lara

Basic English
Ya guara-huila
2009
MAMMALS (A-C)
A Different Class: Mammals are separated from other animals by over
300 million years of evolution. During that time, several traits evolved that
distinguish them from other vertebrates — namely hair, sweat glands,
mammary glands, a modified middle ear and an advanced brain. In mammals,
two bones that were once part of the jaw became part of the middle ear;
so, a mammal's middle ear has three bones to aid in hearing instead of just
one.
Separated by Birth: There are around 5,400 species of mammals divided
into two main categories: those that lay eggs (monotremes) and those that
bear live young (marsupials and placentals). There are only five species of
monotreme: the platypus and four species of echidna. Marsupials, which
carry their young outside the womb through early infancy, account for 334
species, including roughly half of all Australian mammals (kangaroos, koalas,
wombats, etc.) as well as some New World animals, like opossums. All other
mammals — rabbits, rodents, shrews, moles, anteaters, sloths, armadillos,
badgers, pangolins, bats, primates, whales, elephants, manatees, camels,
cattle, deer, antelope, goats, etc. — are placental. Their young are
nourished in the womb by a placenta, which delivers nutrients to the
developing fetus.

BIRDS

Fabulous Feathers: Birds are distinguished from other animals by their

feathers. Feathers help birds fly, of course, but they also serve many
other functions. They provide insulation in cold weather and waterproofing
for birds that swim (or are caught in rainstorms). They come in a seemingly
infinite variety of colors, allowing birds to identify their own species, hide
from predators, communicate with one another and more.
Bird Basics: All birds have modified forelimbs, or wings, which allow the
majority of them to fly. Their high metabolic rate, strong, lightweight
skeleton and unique digestive and respiratory systems are also adaptations
for flight. In lieu of teeth, birds possess a beak, which they use for
feeding, grooming, manipulating objects and more. They lay hard-shelled
eggs, which protect their young, and are bipedal, meaning they walk on two
legs.
Feathered Friends: These highly social animals communicate with one
another not only through visual signals, but also through calls and complex
songs. Birds participate in a variety of social activities such as cooperative
breeding, where sometimes thousands of birds nest together in one
location, and cooperative hunting, where they work together to capture
their prey. They will join forces to mob predators, and many species flock
and migrate together in massive numbers.
Bird-Brained?: Birds are highly intelligent. In fact, the most intelligent
bird species are considered among the smartest animals on the planet.
These "bird brainiacs" been observed manufacturing and using their own
tools, activities attributed solely to higher mammals until recently. Some
social bird species are known to pass cultural knowledge on to later
generations, a phenomenon seldom seen in the animal kingdom.
INVERTEBRATES

Incredible Diversity: The one thing that all invertebrates have in common
is their lack of a backbone; otherwise, they're as different from one
another as they are from vertebrates. All vertebrates fall under one
phylum, chordata; invertebrates, on the other hand, include over 30
different phyla, collectively accounting for 98 to 99 percent of all known
animal species. The major invertebrate phyla are porifera (sponges),
platyhelminthes (flatworms), nematoda (round worms), annelida
(earthworms, marine worms and leeches), cnidaria (jellyfish, coral and sea
anemones), mollusca (octopus, nautilus, squid, slugs, snails and bivalves),
arthropoda (insects, spiders, scorpions and crustaceans) and echinodermata
(starfish, sea urchins and their relatives).
Abundant Arthropods: More than three-quarters of the world's known
animal species are arthropods. They include around one million species,
around 90 percent of which are insects. The other major arthropod classes
are arachnids, which include spiders and scorpions, and crustaceans, which
include crabs, lobsters and barnacles. Arthropods are everywhere: on land,
in the air and beneath the water's surface. They all have segmented,
jointed bodies and are covered by a hard exoskeleton made of chitin.
Flat, Round and Segmented Worms: Worms are long, soft-bodied animals
with no legs. They live in all types of environments, even as parasites inside
plants and other animals. Many of the 25,000 species of flatworm — flat,
ribbon- or leaf-shaped animals — are parasitic, including the familiar
tapeworm. There are over 80,000 species of roundworm, 15,000 of which
are parasitic. Some of the free-living species live in extreme environments
like Antarctica and oceanic trenches. There are about 15,000 species of
segmented worm, including the familiar earthworms and leeches. These
worms — whose bodies are formed by repeated, ring-like structures — also
include polychaete or bristle worms, which live mainly in the ocean, and
tubeworms, which live along deep-sea vents and seeps.
Tipping the Scales: All reptiles are covered in scales, a trait that
separates them from other land animals. Made of keratin, scales provide
protection and prevent water loss. Some reptiles, like snakes, use them for
locomotion. They can also help with camouflage or, if brightly colored, serve
as a warning against potential predators.
Low Energy Animals: Reptiles are ectothermic, or cold-blooded, meaning
their body temperature is regulated by their environment. Because they
don't regulate their own body temperature, reptiles have few energy
requirements and can go for long periods without food. They also expend
less energy than warm-blooded animals and tend to move less. But move
they do, mostly by crawling or slithering. Many can climb trees, and some
even glide from branch to branch. Some, like sea turtles, sea snakes and
crocodiles, swim through water. A couple can even run on top of water.
Deadly Dentition: With few exceptions, reptiles are carnivorous animals.
Their smooth-edged, pointy teeth are designed for grabbing prey, and a
backward curve ensures struggling animals don't get away. Unlike mammals,
reptiles lack teeth that are specialized for chewing; instead, they tend to
swallow their prey whole or in large chunks. Venomous snakes have large,
hollow fangs that deliver a cocktail of toxic proteins to their victim.
The Reptile World: There are around 8,240 reptile species on the planet
today. Most of these are snakes and lizards; together with amphisbaenians
(limbless, worm-like lizards), they number around 7,900 species. Turtles,
tortoises and terrapins (those that live in fresh or brackish water) number
about 300 species. Crocodilians (crocodiles, alligators, gavials and caimans)
account for 23 species, including the world's largest reptile, the saltwater
crocodile. The final reptile order includes two species of tuatara — lizard-
like creatures with a spiny crest that are native to New Zealand.

FISH

Types of Fish: Over half of all known vertebrates are fish. Characterized
by scales, fins and gills, the fish class includes 28,000 known species. Most
of these — nearly 27,000 — are bony fish, examples of which include
salmon, goldfish, eels, seahorses, sunfish, sturgeon, lungfish and
coelacanths. There are around 970 species of shark, ray and chimera —
animals whose skeletons are made of light, flexible cartilage instead of
bone. Lampreys and hagfish, which account for about 108 species, are so
primitive they may not be fish at all, but are currently classified as such.
Breathing Water: All fish have gills, instead of lungs, for breathing. To
breathe, a fish pulls oxygen-rich water into its mouth, then pushes it over
its threadlike gills. Each gill filament is lined with a network of capillaries
that exchanges carbon dioxide for oxygen. Some fish can breathe air,
especially those that live in shallow waters that are seasonally depleted of
oxygen. Some, like the lungfish, can even survive on land for several days.
Getting Around: Fish navigate their environment through the help of fins.
The typical setup is two sets of paired fins and several unpaired fins —
usually one or two dorsal fins, an anal fin and a tail fin. The tail fin is used
for propulsion, while the others are used mostly for navigation and
stabilization. To swim, the fish contracts paired sets of muscles on either
side of its backbone. These alternating contractions form S-shaped curves
that travel down the body. When the curve reaches the tail fin, it pushes
water behind the fish and the animal moves forward.
Fish Diversity: With so many species, the fish class is incredibly diverse.
Most have small brains, but sharks and elephantfish (freshwater fish native
to Africa) have brains as large as birds and mammals relative to body size.
A gas-filled sac called a swim bladder allows bony fish to ascend or descend
without wasting energy. Fish can be as tiny as the 0.31-inch Paedocypris
progenetica — a native of Sumatra and the world's smallest vertebrate —
or as large as the 51-foot whale shark, a slow-moving filter-feeder found in
oceans worldwide.

AMPHIBIANS

Born to Water: Amphibians are the only land animals that live part of their
lives like fish. Just like their fish ancestors, amphibians lay their eggs in
water. Their offspring, called tadpoles, are very similar to fish — at first.
At birth, their eyes, skin, ears, tails and other body parts are more
adapted to life in water than on land. They even breathe like fish through
external gills.
Raised to Land: However, their fish-like state doesn't last long; shortly
after hatching, tadpoles begin metamorphosizing into their adult form.
Their water-breathing gills are replaced by air-breathing lungs; their eyes
becomes adapted to vision outside water; they develop skin glands to avoid
dehydration; their eardrum develops to lock the middle ear; most develop
four legs to support their body on land; and frogs and toads lose their tail.
Then and Now: Amphibians are one of the oldest living classes of
vertebrates, second only to fish. They evolved during the Devonian Period
some 415 to 360 million years ago. Many types of amphibians evolved and
went extinct over time, including some of the earliest land predators.
Today's amphibians include frogs, toads, salamanders, newts and caecilians
(earthworm-like creatures that live underground).
An Uncertain Future: Sadly, more amphibian species are under threat than
any single animal group — a whopping 1,811 species according to the IUCN.
This accounts for around 31 percent of all known amphibians. Habitat loss
and pollution appear to be the major causes; others include climate change,
over-exploitation, introduced species and diseases like chytridiomycosis.