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MEDIC AL
TERMI NOLOG Y
Exercises in Etymology
Edition III
I AL
E
OLOGY
E ition II
CHERYL WALKER-ESBAUGH, MA
Instructor
Classics and Letters Department
University of Oklahoma
LAINE
Ho
McCARTHY, MLIS
RHONDA
Ao
SPARKS, MD
F. A. Davis Company
1915 Arch Street
Philadelphia, PA 19103
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PREFACE
In 1977, C harles W D unmore, an associate professor of
classics at New York University, and Rita .lVI. Fleischer,
from the Latin/G reek Institute at City University of
New York, published a novel approach to teaching the
challenging language of medicine. Indeed, medicine does
have a language all its own, based largely on a vocabulary
drawn from ancient G reek and, to a lesser degree, Latin.
T his approach involved teaching students to recognize the
roots of medical te171Zinology, the etymology of the words
health-care professionals use to communicate with each
other and with patients. By teaching students the root elements of medical terminology-the prefixes, suffixes, and
combining forms from Greek and Latin-Dunmore and
Fleischer sought not only to teach students modern medical terminology but to give them the ability to decipher
the evolving language of medicine throughout their
careers.
In the third edition of this book, we have continued
what Dunmore and Fleischer began. T his new edition is
organized essentially as D unmore and Fleischer created it,
with some important modifications to make it even more
user friendly. T he text is organized into interrelated units.
Unit 1 (Lessons 1 through 7) includes 7 lessons based on
G reek. U nit 2 (Lessons 8 and 9) is composed of 2 lessons
based on Latin. Unit 3 (Lessons 10 through 15) takes a
body systems approach that combines Greek and Latin
elements used to describe the digestive system, respiratory
system , and so forth. T hese first 15 lessons comprise the
main body of the text. Each lesson builds and expands on
the grammar and vocabulary introduced in the previous
lessons.
For students who want additional exposure to medical
terminology from a body systems perspective, the 4 lessons in U nit 4 provide just such an opportunity. T hese
lessons include the hematopoietic and lymphatic, musculoskeletal, nervous, and endocrine systems.
Unit 5 stands on its own and provides an overview of
biological nomenclatin-e, the language used by scientists and
physicians to identify the living organisms that exist in our
world.
T h e pronunciation of medical terms follows the same
rules that govern the pronunciation of all English words.
T he consonants c and g are "soft" before the vowels e, i,
andy. T hat is, they are pronounced like the c and g of the
words cement and ginge1: Before a, o, and u, the consonants
are "hard," and are pronounced like the c and g of cardiac
and gas. T he consonant k is always "hard," as in leukocyte.
T he long vowels eta and omega of Greek words are marked
with the macrons eand o; this indicates that they are pronounced like the e and o of hematoma. Long i is pro-
viii
Preface
ACKNOWLEDGM ENTS
We greatly appreciate the comments and suggestions from
a number of people who gave their time and expertise.
Special thanks to Drs. John Catlin and Ralph Doty, who,
having taught with the second edition of the book, provided valuable insight into its revision and were always available to answer questions; and to Dr. Samuel Huskey, who
read several of the revised chapters. Thanks to Dr. Dave
McCarthy for reading and commenting on the biological
nomenclature lesson and to Danny McMurphy, who
ix
CONTENTS
Development of the English Language
Unit 1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Lesson 8
Lesson 9
Unit 3
10
11
12
13
14
15
29
85
87
12 1
175
201
Hematopoietic and Lymphatic Systems
Musculoskeletal System 2 15
Nervous System 225
Endocrine System 237
ADDITIONAL ST UDY
Lesson
Lesson
Lesson
Lesson
Unit 5
BODY SYSTEMS
Lesson
Lesson
Lesson
Lesson
Lesson
Lesson
Unit 4
1
Greek Nouns and Adjectives 3
Nouns of the Third Declension 17
Building Greek Vocabulary I: Nouns and Adjectives
Greek Verbs 39
Building Greek Vocabulary II 51
Building Greek Vocabulary III 63
Building Greek Vocabulary IV 75
Lesson
Lesson
Lesson
Lesson
Lesson
Lesson
Lesson
Unit 2
xtu
16
17
18
19
245
Biological Nomenclature
203
B IOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE
Lesson 20
Appendices 255
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Appendix D
Appendix E
Appendix F
247
299
30 1
xi
DEVELOPMENT OF
THE ENGLISH
LANGUAGE
In 55 and 54 BC, Julius Caesar invaded Britain. The
romanization of Britain, however, did not occur until
almost 100 years later, when expeditionary forces were
sent out by the Roman emperor Claudius. Although Latin
was the official language during the Roman occupation of
Britain, Celtic, the native language of the people of
Britain, was little affected by it.
The English language began its development as an
independent tongue with the migration of Germanic people (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes) from western E urope
(modern-day Denmark and northern Germany) across the
English Channel to Britain during the 5th and 6th centuries AD. T hese Germanic invaders, in contact with the
Romans from the 1st century BC on, brought with them
not only their native tongue but also the Latin words they
had borrowed from the Romans. T heir language, known
as O ld English or Anglo-Saxon, was a member of the
Germanic family of Indo-European languages and gradually superseded the Celtic dialects in most of southern
Britain. Many Old English words have survived, with some
linguistic change, to form the basic vocabulary of the
English language. Words borrowed from other languages-mostly Latin, French, and G reek-have been
added to the English language.
D uring the 7th century AD, after the establishment of
the first monastery in 597 AD, the inhabitants of Britain
gradually converted to Christianity. Latin, the language of
the Western Church, was spoken, written, and read in the
churches, schools, and monasteries. T his brought many
Latin words into the evolving English language, most having to do with religious matters and many derived from
Greek.
Beginning in the 8th century AD, as a result of the
Viking invasions, additional words of North G ermanic
origin entered the English language. Living alongside the
Anglo-Saxons and eventually assimilated by them, the
Norse and Danish invaders and their language had a
marked impact on both England and the English language.
It is not surprising that, in 1697 AD, writer Daniel Defoe
described English as "your Roman-Saxon-DanishN orman-English."
T he Norman invasion in 1066 AD brought a Frenchspeaking aristocracy to England, and for the next 150 years
xiv
HIPPOCRATES
H ippocrates, born in 460 BC, was a Greek physician who
lived on the Aegean island of Cos. Although he is the most
famous of the ancient physicians and is recognized as the
"father of medicine," very little is actually known about
him or his life. T he Hippocratic Corpus, a work of about 60
medical treatises attributed to Hippocrates, most likely
reflects the work of many physicians rather than that of
Hippocrates alone. Hippocrates is recognized for separating superstition from medicine. Unlike other physicians of
his time, he believed that illness had a rational explanation,
rather than being the result of divine anger or possession
by evil spirits, and could therefore be treated. Hippocrates
based his medical writings on his observation and study of
the human body. He was the first to attempt to record his
experiences as a physician for future reference. T he
H ippocratic Oath, although it cannot be directly attributed to him, is said to reflect his philosophy and principles.
THE HIPPOCRATIC OATH
"I swear by Apollo the physician, and Aesculapius, and
Hygeia, and Panacea, and all the gods and goddesses,
that according to my ability and judgment, I will keep th is
oath and its stipulation-to reckon him who taught me
this art equal ly dear to me as my parents, to share my substance with him, and to relieve his necessities if required;
to look upon his offspring in the same footing as my own
brothers, and to teach them this art if they shall wish to
learn it, without fee or stipulation, and that by precept,
lecture, and every other mode of instruction, I will impart
GALEN
Galen (129- 199 AD) was born in Pergamum in Asia
Minor. After studying medicine at the Asclepium, the
famed medical school in his native town, and in Smyrna
and Alexandria, he came to Rome in 162 AD, where,
except for brief interruptions, he remained until his
death, writing philosophical treatises and medical books.
His fame and reputation brought him to the attention
of the emperor M arcus Aurelius, who appointed him
court physician. Galen wrote extensively on anatomy,
physiology, and general medicine, relying on his training,
the best that was available, and on his dissection of human
corpses and experiments on living animals. It was the
work of Galen, more than any other medical writer, that
profoundly influenced the physicians of the early
Renaissance. H is theories on the flow of blood in the
human body remained unchallenged until the discovery of
CELSUS
Aulus Cornelius Celsus was a Roman encyclopedist who,
under the reign of the emperor Tiberius (14-37 AD),
wrote a lengthy work dealing with agriculture, military
tactics, medicine, rhetoric, and possibly philosophy and
law. Apart from a few fragments, only his eight books on
medicine still exist. It is suggested that Celsus was not a
professional physician but rather a layman writing for
other laymen. It appears, especially in his treatises on surgery, that he had little first-hand experience in the field
of medicine and relied on material selected from other
sources. Celsus was highly esteemed during the
Renaissance, possibly as a result of his style of writing.
UNIT
GREEK -DERIV ED
MEDICA L
TERMIN OLOGY
GREEK NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION
BUILDING GREEK VOCABULARY I: NOUNS
AND ADJECTIVES
GREEK VERBS
BUILDING GREEK VOCABULARY II
BUILDING GREEK VOCABULARY III
BUILDING GREEK VOCABULARY IV
GREEK ALPHAB ET
Name of
Letter
Capital
Lower-case
Trans/iteration
alpha
xi
beta
gamma
oor {3
omtcron
'Y
delta
Ll
epsilon
zeta
e short
eta
TJ
elong
theta
th
iota
kappa
lambda
mu
11-
nu
1J
Name of
Letter
Capital
Lower-case
Trans/iteration
o short
pt
1T
rho
sigma
or s
tau
I
T
r
s
'l"
upsilon
phi
<I>
4> or qJ
f, ph
chi
ch as in
German
"echt"
pst
'I'
1/1
ps
omega
(J)
olong
O"
k, c
Source: Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary, ed 19, F. A. Davis, Philadelphia, 2001, p 2368, with permission.
LESSON
RE
KN
UNS
ND
T
A man who is wise should consider health the most valuable ofall things to
mankind and learn how, ~y his own intelligence, to help himself in sickness.
[Hippocrares, Regimc11 in Hea/t/; 9]
Gre ek
M eaning
Example
Greek
M eaning
Example
xe1os
spTen
phone
thorax
dry
spleen
VOICe
chest cavity
xeroderma
splenomegaly
phonology
thoracentesis
leukos
kinesis
karyon
keTe
white
motion
kernel
swelling
leukemia
dyskinesia
karyogenesis
keloid
M eaning
Example
kyanos
1nikros
kolon
s/:deros
blue
small
colon
hard
cyanotic
microscope
colitis
arteriosclerosis
Greek words beginning with rho [r] were always accompanied by a strong expulsion of breath called rough
breathing (also called aspiration). In transliterating Greek
words and in the formation of English derivatives, this
rough breathing is indicated by an h after the 1:
r:::-
1Greek
Meaning
Example
\rhombos
!rhodon
\rhiza
lrhythmos
rhombus
rose
root
rhythm
rhombencephalon
rhodopsin
rhizoid
rhythmic
.-
!Greek
Meaning
!I
I
!rhelrhagirhaph-
diarrhea
hemorrhage
cystorrhaphy
flow
burst forth
sew
I
I
Example
When Greek words containing diphthongs were borrowed and used in Latin, the diphthongs ai, ei, oi, and ou
were changed to the Latin spelling of these sounds, but
these Latin diphthongs usually undergo a further change
in English:
Greek Latin
English
ai
ae
et
e1
ei or i
01
oe
ou
Zl
1l
Greek
Example Meaning
English
Example
haima
aitia
cheir
blood
cause
hand
hematology*
etiology*
cheirospasm,
dyschina
leios
meton
oiaema
oistros
gloutos
smooth
less
swelling
desire
buttock
le~oiJ.lyofibroma
nuottc
edema*
estrogen
gluteal
*British spelling usually retains the Latin diphthongs ae and oe: haematology, aetiology, oedema, oestrogen, and so forth.
Greek
Meaning
I Example
hidros
sweat
chromidrosis, hyperhidrosis
Meaning
kidney
nerve
sore
mind
Example
i
i
nephr-itis
neur-otic
psor-iasis
psych-osis
LEssoN I
vocabularies in the form of the nominative singular masculine. The dictionary form of most Greek adjectives ends
in -os, and the combining form is found by dropping this
ending. There are some adjectives that end in -ys, and the
combining form of these is found by dropping the -s or,
rarely, the -ys:
I
,Greek
Meaning
Example
lteukos
;kyanos
;tachys
igrykys
white
blue
swift
sweet
leuk-emia
cyan-osis
tachy-pnea
glyc-emia
PREFIXES
Prefixes modify or qualify in some way the meaning of
the word to which they are affixed. It is often difficult to
assign a single specific meaning to each prefix, and often
it is necessary to adapt a meaning that fits the particular
use of a word. A complete list of prefixes is found in
Appendix B.
a- (an- before a vowel or h): not, without, lacking, deficient:
a-biogenesis
an-algesia
a-sthenia
an-hydrous
cardi-a-sthenia
an-hidrosis
anti-histamine
anti-toxin
anti-septic
ant-acid
hyp-algesia
hyp-acousia
--- -
peri-odontology
sym-melia
sym-biosis
sy-stolic
Note that words can have more than one prefix and that
a prefix can follow a combining form:
cardi-ec-to my
hyper-exo-phoria
cardi-a-sthenia
dys-anti-graphia
~------------- ----
-ic: forms adjectives: pertaining to, located in; words ending in -ic can be used as both adjectives and noun s
and, as nouns, often indicate a drug or agent:
hypoderm-ic
analges-ic
tox-ic
gastr-ic
Words ending in -ic can refer to a person suffering from
a certain disability or condition:
anorex-ic
parapleg-ic
-in, -ine: form names of substances:
chlor-ine
adrenal-in
epinephr-ine
antitox-in
-ist : forms nouns: a person interested in:
hematolog-ist
cardiolog-ist
orthodont-ist
dermatolog-ist
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
SUFFIXES
Suffixes are elements that are added to combining forms.
Suffixes form nouns, adjectives, and verbs or adverbs. Most
of these nouns are abstract; that is, they indicate a state,
quality, condition, procedure, or process. In medical terminology, most conditions indicated by these suffixes are
pathological or abnormal: psoriasis, hepatitis, pneumonia, myopia, astigmatism, and so forth. Some nouns
indicating procedures or processes are thoracocentesis,
appendectomy, gastroscopy, and gastropexy. A complete list of suffixes is found in Appendix C.
-a: forms abstract nouns: state, condition:
dyspne-a
anasarc-a
erythroderm-a
rhinorrhe-a
ischi-ac
hypertroph-y
microcephal-y
man-1ac
body:
ancylostom-iasis
elephant-iasis
schistosom-iasis
nephrolith-iasis
nephr-itic
scler-otic
neur-otic
sten-otic
RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS
WRIST BONE
INVOLVEMENT
hypacu-sia
prophylaxis (prophylac-sis)
--------
-tic: forms adjectives from nouns ending in -sis: pertaining to; words ending in -tic can be used as both adjectives and nouns and, as nouns, often indicate a drug or
agent:
antisep-tic
paraly-tic
eme-tic
prophylac-tic
\Vords ending in -itic or -tic can refer to a person suffering from a certain disability or condition:
n euro-tic
arthr-itic
VOCABUL ARY
T he following is a list of combining forms derived from
Greek. (vVh en the meaning of the original G reek word
amne-s-ic, amne-s-iac
hepat-ic-a-ente rostomy
Greek
Combining Form
Meaning
Example
akrmtba
ACANTH-
thorn, spine
pam
sensitivity to pain
other, divergence, difference from
(blood) vessel, duct
[air passage] artery (Fig.l-2)
joint
acanth-ocytosis
my-alg-ia
algas
ALG-
algesis
alios
ALGES-
mzgeum
arte1ia
rn-tbron
bios
ALL-
ANGIARTER!ARTHR-
kytos
enkepbalon
BIBRADYCARDI CEPHALCRANICYTENCEPHAL-
e1ytbros
ERYTHR-
brac6's
krwdia
kepbale
kmnio11
life
slow
heart
head
skull (Fig. 1- 3)
[hollow container] cell
brain (a combination of en, in,
and l~ephaTe, head)
red, red blood cell
alges-ia
all-oplasia
angi-ocarditis
arteri-ogram
arthr-itis
bi-ology
brady-rhythmia
cardi-ogram
cephal-algia
epi-crani-um
leuko-cyt-e
encephal-itis
erythr-ocyte
LEssoN 1
Greek
Combining Form
Meaning
Example
leptos
LEPT-
lep t-omeninges
leukos
L EUK-
leuk-emia
lithos
stone, calculus
angio-lith
logos
LITHLOG-
word, study
bio-log-y
malakos
MALAC-
soft
malac-osteon
mesos
mes-oderm
metTon
MES-METER, METR-
nepbros
NEPHR-
kidney
nephr-ectomy
neuTon
NEUROSTEPROSOPPROT-
neur-ology
bone
oste-oporosis
face
prosop-ospasm
prot-oneuron
hard
scler-oderma
narrow
sten-ocephaly
stere-otropism
rapid
tachy-cardia
poison
tox-in
osteon
prosopon
protos
skleros
stenos
stereos
tachys
toxon
SCLERSTENSTERETACHYTOX(I)-
bio-metr-y
cyto-meter
lamina
Precapillary
sphincter
Tunica
extern a
Figure 1-2. Structure of an artery. (From Scanlon, VC, and Sanders, T: Essentials of Anatomy
and Physiology, ed 4. F. A. Davis, Philadelphia, 2003, p 279, w ith permission .)
LEsso N 1
Cnstagall1 ~
Ethmoid bone
_ _
_ __.:...,_
Frontal bone
foramina ~
- Parietal bone
Lambdoidal suture- -
Foramen magnum
Figure 1- 3. Skull. Superior v iew with top of cran ium removed. (From Scanlon, VC, and
Sanders, T: Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, eel 4. F. A. D avis, Phi ladelphia, 2003, p 1 1 1,
w ith permission.)
SUFFIX FORMS
Many combining forms are used with certain suffixes
so commonly th at this combination can be called
Combining Form
Suffix Form
Meaning
Example
LOG-
- logy
-logist
cardio-logy
neuro-logist
arterio-sclerosi s
cardio-toxic
neuro-toxin
MALAC-
-malacia
SCLERSTENTOX-
-sclerosis
-stenosis
-toxic
-toxin
ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES
T hroughout its history, the English language has been
enriched by borrowing words from other languages, particularly Latin, Greek, and French. Borrowing from
French began as early as the period of the N orman conquest of England and reached its high point during and
immediately after the Renaissance. Because F rench is
based largely on Latin and because many Latin words are
derived from G reek, various French words have G reek
nephro-rnalacia
angio-stenosis
10
drug), thus providing the modern word toxic. A toxicologist is one who is skilled in the study of poisons, whereas a t oxophilit e is a lover (philos) of archery. T oxicity
means the extent, quality, or degree of being poisonous;
toxicity is also used to describe poisonous effects (n eu rotoxicity).
The suffix -osis indicates an abnormal condition: n eurosis, psychosis (psycHe, mind). When affixed to a combining form indicating an organ or a part of the body, it
usually indicates a noninflamm atory diseased condition:
nephrosis, endometrio sis (endo, within, metra, uterus).
Following the combining form cyt- (cell) it means an
abnormal increase in number of the type of cell indicated:
leukocytosi s, erythrocyto sis. Fallowing the combining
form for an adjective, it indicates the abnormality characterized by the meaning of the adjective: stenosis: narrowing of a passage; sclerosis: hardening of tissues; cyanosis
(kyanos, blue): bluish discoloration of a part.
There are a few words ending in -osis that have special
meamngs:
2. acanthocyte
3. allostery
4. analgesic - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - 5. analgia
6. angiostenosis - - - - - - - -- - -- - - -- - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7. antibiotic
8. antitoxin
9. arteriostosis - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - -
LEssoN 1
11
10. arthritides
11. arthritis
12. arthroscleros is
13. arthrosteitis
14. bioto~n --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- ----------
15. bradycardia
16. diencephalo n
17. dysarthrosis
18. encephalalgi a
20. endoneurium
21. endosteum
22.
endoto~n
2 3. epicardium
24. ep1cramum
2 5. erythrocytos is --------- ---------- --------- ------------------ ---- --------- -----26. erythroproso palgia
27. exocardia
28.
exoto~n
12
LEssoN 1
29. hemialgia
30. hypalgesia
3 1. hyperalgesia
32 . leptocephalia
33. leukotoxin
34. lithiasis
35. mesocardia
36. nephrolithiasis
37. nephrosclerosis
38. neuritis
39. ostalgia
40. osteometry
41. osteomalacia
42. pericarditis
43. periosteum
44. prosoponeuralgia
45. protobiology
46. scleriasis
4 7. stenocephaly
13
48. stereology
49. synalgic
50. toxicosis
7. Pertaining to poison
14
LESSON 1
15. Headache
2. acardia
3. angiitis
4. angiocarditis
5. angiolith
6. angiosclerosis
7. angws1s
8. antiarthritic
9. anticytotoxin
10. antilithic
11. arteriolith
LFssoN 1
12. arteritis
13. arthroneuralgia
14. atoxic
15. cardioangiology
16. craniomalacia
17. craniosclerosis
18. cytobiology
19. cytotoxin
20. dysostosis
21. ectocardia
22. encephalic
2 3. encephalolith
24. endangiitis
2 5. endangium
26. endarteritis
27. endocranium
28. erythroleukemia
29. erythrotoxin
30. exencephalia
15
16
Li~soN 1
31. hemianalgesia
32. hyperalgia
33. hypologia
34. lithonephritis
35. malacosteon
36. mesocephalic
37. monocyte
38. nephralgia
39. neurosclerosis
40. neurotoxin
41. osteosclerosis
42. periarteritis
4 3. periarthritis
44. perinephrium
45. periosteitis
46. sclerencephalia
4 7. stenosis
48. synarthrosis
49. toxicology
50. toxin
LESSON
NOUN
H IRD
F THE
ECLENSI ON
The learning of medicine cau be compared to the growth ofplmzts in the eartb.
Our inherent ability is the soil. Tbe precepts ofour teachers are the seeds.
Learning from childhood is like the seeds falling into the plowed land at t!Je
proper season. The place of learning is like the nourishment that arises from the
SztJTOtmding ail to the seeds that are planted. Love of work is the labor. Time
snengthens all of these things so that their nurtme is completed.
[HippoLrarcs, Lau 3]
derma, demtatos
gastet; gastros
skin
stomach
derm-algia
hypo-derm-ic
dermat-ology
dermat-itis
gastr-ic
gastr-itis
epi-gaster
the skin
the liver
one of the coverings of the
brain and spinal cord
the body
PREFIXES
amphi-, ampho-: on both sides, around, both:
amphi-bious
ampho-cyte
ana-: up, back, against:
ana-tomy
ana-gen
apo-ptosis
17
18
LESSON
- - - -- - - - - - - - -
--- - ---- - - - - -
eu-thanasia
--------- -- - - - --
met-hemoglobin
- - - - - - - - - - - - ------ - - - - - - - - -
par-onychia
pro-phylaxis
eryth-emat-ous
- -- ---- - ----
sudor-esis
- ------ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
sympath-etic
- - - - - - - - - --- - - - - -
therapeu-tics
synerg-ism
pharyng-ismus
--------------
- - - --
SUFFIXES
-al: a Latin-derived adjectival suffix: pertaining to, located in:
parenter-al
bronchi-al
psychologic-al
h}-pogloss-al
-ase: forms names of enzymes:
lip-ase
amyl-ase
malt-ase
eryth-ema
arachn-oid
pro-gnosis
lact-ase
-ema: forms abstract nouns: state, condition. The combining form of nouns ending in -ema is -emat-:
emphys-emat-ous
emphys-em a
blepharochal-asis
vanc-ose
gluc-ose
------------ - - - - - - - - - -
venom-ous
tics: See-ics.
-us: a Latin noun-forming ending: condition, person
(sometimes a malformed fetus):
microphthalm-us
hypothalam-us
tetan-us
hydrocephal-us
LEssoN
Verb-Forming Suffix
internal-ize
CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES
There are many suffixes used to form names of chemical substances. Some of these are:
-ate
(chlor-ate)
-ide
(brom-ide)
-ite
(nitr-ite)
-one
(testoster-one)
Words beginning with or containing coliusually refer to the colon bacillus, Escherichia coli.
Words containing cyst(i)- usually refer to the urinary
bladder.
Words containing cholecyst- refer to the gallbladder.
VOCABULARY
Creek
Combining Form
akron
ACR-
amblys
karkinos
kele
cbei1
cboll:
kolon
kyanos
kystis
diploos
enteron
e1gon
gaste1; gastros
baima, baimatos
bepar, bepatos
lipos
makros
megas, mega/out
me/as, melanos
mikros
nyx, nyctos
odyne
onkos
pacbys
pseudl:s
pyon
sa1:v, san os
:.pasmos
:.pien
stoma, stomatos
AMBLYCARCIN-CEL-''
CHEIR-, CHIRCHOL(E)COL(I)-, COLONCYANCYST(I)-, -CYSTIS
DIPLOENTERERGGASTRHEM-, HEMAT-, -EMHEPAR-, HEPATLIPMACRMEGA-, MEGALMELANMICRNYCTODYNONCPACHYPSEUDPYSARCSPASMSPLENSTOM-, STOMAT-
*See the Ety mological Notes in this lesson for uses of -CEL-.
tThe forms of this adjective are irregular.
19
PRECEDING HYPHENS
Meaning
Example
acr-odermatitis
amhly-acousia
carcin-oma
hydro-cel-e
cheir-ospasm
chol-olith
colon-oscope
cyan-otic
cyst-itis
diplo-bacillus
enter-algia
erg-ometer
gastr-ectomy
hem-orrhage
hepat -itis
lip-osuction
macr-opodia
mega-colon
melan-in
micr-obe
nyct-algia
odyn-ophagia
onc-ologist
pachy-derma
pseud-arthritis
py-emia
sarc-olysis
neuro-spasm
splen-omegalia
stomat-odynia
20
ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES
T he word surgeon has come into English indirectly from
two Greek words: cheir (hand) and ergon (action, work)
(Fig. 2-2). T he G reek verb cheirourgoun, meaning to work
with the hands, and the noun cheirourgos, one who works
with his hands, were applied to the surgeon. T he words
came into Latin as chzrurgus. Celsus, the Roman writer of
the 1st century AD, had this to say about the surgeon:
A surgeon (chirurgus) should be a young man, or certainly one not long out of youth. He shou ld have a strong and
steady hand, one which never trembles, and he should be
able to use both the ri ght and left hand equally well. He
must have a sha rp and keen eye and be of a firm spirit,
feeling a sense of pity deep enough that he wishes to cure
his patient, but not so sensitive as to be so influenced by
his cries of pain that he acts in haste or cuts less than necessary; on the contrary, he shou ld go about everything just
as if he were not at all affected by the moans that he
hears. [Oe Medicina, Preface 4]
Figure 2-2. Operating on the upper arm. M anuscript illustration for Chirurgia by Theodoric of Cervi a, 13th century AD.
(From Special Collections, University of Leiden , Netherlands:
Leiden, University Library, ms. Voss. Lat. F. 3, fol. 43r. with permission .)
21
cele, an accumulation of urine in the scrotal sac; hydrocele, an accumulation of serous fluid in a saclike structure
such as the scrotum in a newborn male child; or galactocele, a milk-filled tumor caused by obstruction of a milk
duct. A keloid is a scarlike growth of tissue on the skin
(kel- is an alternate form of eel-, from Greek kele).
T he term cyst refers to either a cyst or the bladder (Fig.
2- 3). Taber's Cyclopedic M edical Dictionmy (2 001) defines
cyst as "A closed sac or pouch, with a definite wall, that
contains fluid, semifluid, or solid material. It is usually an
abnormal structure resulting from developmental anomalies, obstruction of ducts, or parasitic infection." There
are many types of cysts, including the following: dermoid
cyst, a cyst containing elements of hair, teeth, or skin;
ovarian cyst, a sac that develops in the ovary; sebaceous
cyst, a cyst of the sebaceous, or oil-secreting, glands of
the skin . Cystalgia is pain in the bladder and cholecystitis is inflammation of the gallbladder. Words containing
cholecyst- refer to the gallbladder. In ophthalmology,
the dacryocyst is the lacrimal sac and the phacocyst is
the capsule of the crystalline lens of the eye. Some
words containing cyst- refer to the growth called a cyst:
cystoid.
Words beginning with, ending in, or containing colirefer to the colon bacillus Escherichia coli, named after the
German physician T heodor Escherich (185 7-1 911).
Colinephritis is inflammation of the kidney caused by the
presence of Escherichia coli (usually abbreviated E. colz).
Some words beginning with, ending in or containing
-gaster refer to embryonic structures: archigaster, epigaster.
Parietal peritoneum
Detrusor muscle
Internal
urethral sphincter
Figure 2- 3. Urinary bladder. (From Scanlon, VC, and Sanders, T: Essentials of Anatomy and
Physiology, ed 3. F. A. Davis, Philadelphia, 1999, p 41 4, w ith permission.)
22
LEssoN 2
2. allodynia
3. amphocyte
4. anastomosis
5. anem1c
6. anerg1a
7. anodyne
8. arthropyosis
9. asynergy
10. cheirology
11. cholelithiasis
12. colicystitis
13. coloenteritis
14. colonalgia
15. colostomy
16. cyanosis
17. cystoma
LEssoN 2
18. dysentery
19. endogastritis
20. enterocholecystostomy
21. enterodynia
22. epigastrium
2 3. eucholia
24. gastrocele
2 5. gastrolithiasis
26. hematoma
27 . heparin
2 8. hepatosplenitis
29. heteroprosopus
30. hyperemia
31. lipemia
32. melanoma
33. metabiosis
34. microbe*
35. microcephali a
36. nephrocystanastomosis
The b in microbe is the only surviving part of the Greek noun bios. The ti na! -r is an English noun-forming suffix.
23
24
LEsso N 2
37. nephropyosis
38. nyctalgia
39. pachycephalic
40. paracanthoma
4 1. parenteral
42 . proencephalus
4 3. protogaster
44. pseudoanemia
45. pyonephrosis
46. sarcocarcmoma
47. spasm
48. splenomegaly
49. stomatitis
50. synergy
LEssoN 2
4. Resembling pus
9. Fat cell
25
26
2. allochiria
3. antianemic
4. arthrodynia
5. cephalodynia
6. cholangioma
7. cholecystenterostomy
8. colicolitis
9. colinephritis
10. colonitis
11. cystoid
12. cystolith
13. dyscephaly
14. endocystitis
15. endostoma
16. enterocystocele
17. enteromegaly
18. enterostenosis
LEsso N 2
19. erythrism
20. gastrology
21. hemangioma
22. hemangiomatosis
23. hemarthrosis
24. hemocytology
2 5. hepatomalacia
26. hepatomelanosis
27. heterotoxin
28. hypoliposis
29. leukocytoid
30. lipocele
31. macrocardius
32. macrocheiria
33. megalocystis
34. melanomatosis
35. mesogastrium
36. microlithiasis
37. microstomia
27
28
39. ostempyesis
40. pachyostosis
41. paracolitis
42. periangiocholitis
4 3. periosteoma
44. protoleukocyte
45. pseudocyst
46. pyemic
4 7. pyocephalus
48. splenocele
49. stenostomia
50. toxemia
LESSON
UILDING GREE
B LARY
l oN u s
AND
DJECTIVES
Fm those who have a .fover, ~{jaundice occurs on the seventh, the ninth, the eleventh, or
the fourteenth day, it is a good sign, provided the right hypochondrium does not become
rigid. Otherwise it is a bad sign.
IHippocrJtes, Ap/JoriSifu 4 .64]
VOCABULARY
Greek
Combining Form
Meaning
Example
arachne
ARACHN-
arachn-ophobia
chloros
chondmr
da!?t)'lo.r
CHLORCHONDRDACTYLDERM(AT)-,
-DERMA
(H)ELCHIDR(OT)-,
-IDRHIST(I)-'.'
chlor-ine
costo-chondr-al
dactyl-ospasm
dermat-oplasty
ulcer
sweat
helc-osis
hidr-opoiesis
(web] tissue
water, fluid
sleep
jaundice
fiber, muscle
hist-oblast
hydr-olysis
hypn-osis
icter-ohepatitis
in-otropic
derTIUl, d e777tfltOS
helkos
bidros, bidioto.r
bistos
bydo1; bydatos
bypnos
ikteTOS
1s, mas
HYDR- t
HYPNICTERIN-, INOS-
29
30
G reek
tSOS
meninx, meningos
(plural, meninges)
mys, myos
mykes, myketos
myelos
narke
nekros
oligos
onyx, onychos
pozts, podos
polios
Combining Form
Meaning
Example
ISMENING-,
-MENINX
MY(S)MYC(ET)MYELNARCNECROLIGONYCHPODPOLl-
is-ocytosis
meningeal membrane,
meninges
[mouse] muscle
mening-itis
[mushroom] fungus
mycet-hemia
myel-ocyte
stupor, numbness
corpse; dead
narc-olepsy
necr-olysis
few, deficient
olig-ospermia
fingernail, toenail
onych-omycosis
foot
pod-iatrist
POLYPOR-
polys
pmos
sthenos
trachelos
xanthos
many, excessive
poli-ovirus
poly-morphic
osteo-por-osis
body
psych-iatric
somat-ization
strength
sthen-ia
neck, cervix
trachel-omyi tis
yellow
xanth-ochromia
[soul] mind
PSYCHSOM(AT)-,
-SOMA
STHENTRACHELXANTH-
psyche
soma, somatos
my-okinesis
Fascia of
muscle
Eccrine sweat gland
Venule
Figure 3-1. Skin section. (From Scan lon, VC, and Sanders, T: Essentials of Anatomy and
Physio logy, ed 4. F. A. Davis, Philadelphia, 2003, p 85, with permission.)
LEssoN 3
ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES
Arachne, in G reek mythology, was a young girl of
i\!Iaeonia, a land of Asia i\!Iino r, who became so ski lled in
the art of weaving that she challenged Athena , a goddess
unequaled at the loom, to a contest (Fig. 3-2). O vid, the
1st cenmry BC Roman poet, tells us the story in the
Metammphoses, a poem that deals with mythological metamorphoses.
Athena took up the challenge, and the two, goddess and
girl of humble origins, began to weave th eir tapestries.
T he goddess began by depicting the Acropolis in Athens
with the 12 O lympian gods seated on their lofty thrones in
serene majesty, with J ove [Z eus] in their midst. T hen, so
that Arachne might know what reward she could expect for
her mad presumption, she wove in the four corners scenes
sh owing punishments meted out to morta ls who had da red
to challenge the gods.
Arachne, in her tapestry, wove pictures of the gods in
various disguises seducing mortal women. Athena could
find no flaw in Arachne's work but, indignant at her success, tore the tapestry showing the celestial crimes, and
with her shuttle struck Arachn e again and ag<1 in. T he
wretched girl could bear the punishment no longer and
bound a noose around her neck and hanged herself. O vid
tells us th<lt as Arachne hung there, Athena felt pity and
lifted her, saying:
Live, wicked girl, but hang forever; and so th at you may
never feel secure in time to come, let this same pun ish-
31
morphoses 6 .1 3 6- 145 1
32
LEssoN 3
is the one that in Latin is cal led ga lgulus (the golden oriole). [Pliny, Natural History 30.28)
2. angiosclerotic myasthenia
3. anisocytosis
LEssoN 3
33
10. dermatosclerosis
11 . dermatomycosis
12. helcoma
15. histiocytosis
16. hydronephrosis
17. hyperchlorhydria - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
20. inosemia
21. isodactylism - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
22 . macrodactylia - -- - - - - -- - - - -- - - - -- - - - - -- - - - - -- -- - 2 3. melanoleukoderma
24. meningitis
2 5. mesoderm
26. mycethemia
2 7. myoendocarditis
28. narcosis
34
LEssoN 3
29. narcotize
30. necrocytotoxin
3 1. necrosis
32. neurasthenia
35. pachyderma
36. pachyonychia
37. perionychium
38. poliomyelitis
39. polymyositis
40. polyp
41 . pseudoicterus
LEsso
35
49. xanthoma
50. xanthosis
3. Skin cyst
36
LEssoN 3
2. acrohyperhidrosis
3. amyosthenia
4. anonychia
5. antasthenic
6. anti-icteric
7. antinarcotic _______________________ _______________________________________________
8. chondroangioma
9. chondrocyte
10. chlorosis
11. cyanoderma
12. dermalgia
Lr:ssoN 3
37
13. dermatomyoma
14. dyshidrosis
15. epidermitis
16. helcosis
17. hematomyelia
18. histocyte
19. hypnoidal
22. isocytotoxin
23. lipochondroma
24. megalonychosis
2 5. melanonychia
26. meningoarteritis
2 7. meningomyelocele
28. metamyelocyte
29. myeloid
30. myodynia
31. myolipoma
38
3 3. myosclerosis
34. neurohistology
3 5. neuromyelitis
36. osteoporosis
37. paronychomycosis
38. podencephalus
39. podocyte
40. polyarthritis
41. polyneuritis
42. psychometry
4 3. scleronychia
44. splenicterus
45. symbiotic
46. syndactylism
4 7. toxicodermatitis
48. trachelismus
49. xanthemia
50. xanthocyte
LESSON
GREEK VERBS
In tbe winter edt as much m po~sible tlllrl rl ink as latle as polsible. The ell mk ~boulrl be
unrliluterl wine, ti/1(! the food dJould be b1u1d mrl1 o t,f rfl,letlt. Eta m f~u tegetables as
possible during this l'ttTson. In this way the body will be IJUJ\t dry and !Jot
)<>l
fit ltf. I
for tbose wbo hme tl fevtr (py eto~;, if de,l(7Le~j ou 11 , rJ bloodflow~ from th nose, o, 1f'
tbt bowels become drsordned, the disease uill btu ,td.
1tp
ll
fl'
Jj
V.t' I ' l 10
le~ymai,
e!ytbe11
39
40
VOCABULARY
Greek
Combining Form
Meaning
Example
ffltfO.\
AUT -
self
aut -ism
/ainein
C RIN-
endo-crin-ology
ai.rtbesi.r
ESTHE(S)-
esthe-tics
gigne.1tbai
GEN(E)-, -GEN
gene-tics
grmn ma
GRAM-
cardio-gram
grapl.ein
GRAPH-
write, record
graph-ology
iatTO.I"
IAT R-
iatr -ogenic
idios
IDI-
of one's self
idi-opathic
l<inein
KINE-
move
kine-tics
kinesi.l"
KINES (I)-
movement, motion
kines-iology
lyein
LY(S)-
hemo-lys-is
myxa
MYX-
mucus
myx-ocyte
ortboj
ORT H -
orth-odontia
om, otos
OT-
ear
ot-algia
pathos
PATH-
[suffering] disease
path-ogen
pbilein
PHIL -
hemo-phil-iac
piptein
PT-
hystero-p t-osis
PJ11; pyros
PYR-
pyr-omania
pyreto.l"
PYRET-
fever
anti-pyret-ic
pyre.l"sein
PYREX-
be feverish
pyrex-m
rbei11
RHE-
diar-rhe-a
rhegnynai
RHAG-
menor-rhag-ia
rbe.t:i.r
RHEX-
rupture
rhex-is
1bis, 1blnos
RHIN -
nose
rhin-oplasty
.1"/wpcin
SCO P -
oto-scop-y
.repei11
SEP-
sep -sis
tmis
TA-
stretching
myo-ta-tic
telos
TEL-
end, completion
tel-angion
tenon, tenonto.'
TEN- , T ENON(T )-
tendon
ten-odesis
tbempeuein
THERAP(EU) -
therapeu-tics
tmn;
TOM-
tom-ography
f071 0.\'
TON-
ton-icity
1Compound
Su ffix F o rm
Meaning
Examp le
di lation, enlargement
surgical excision; removal of all (total excision)
or part (partial excision) of an organ
~----------------------+-------~----------------------------------+---------------------------~
-ectasia, -ectasis
1 -e<:tomy
L b~ON 4
1 -geruc,
-gen~sis
I
1
-genous
-gram
-graph
1-graphy
-lysis
! -lytic
1-pathy
! -p tosis
-rrhagia:*
1-rrhea
-rrhexis
-scope
1 -scopy
J-tome
-tomy
Meaning
Greek Verbs
41
Example
antitoxino-gen, carcino-gen
lipo-genesis , patho-genes is
carcino-gen ic
hepato-geno us 1
cardio-gram , angio-gram
poly-graph, cardio-grap h
cholangio-g raphy, cysto-graph y
spleno-grap hy, osteo-graph y
hemo-lysis, pyreto-lysis
hemo-lytic, bacterio-lyti c
neuro-pathy , ca rdio-pathy
gastro-ptosi s, colo-ptosis
leuko-rrhag ia, meningo-rrh agia
rhino-rrhea , myxo-rrhea
angio-rrhex is, entero-rrhex is
rhino-scope , colpo-scope
endo-scopy, cysto-scopy
<ldenoma-tom e, gastro-tome
cholecysto-t omy, abdominohystero-!
to my
Stric tly spe:1king, -gen, -gmmt and -graph are n ot suffix forms bec wse th e re is no suffix o n the combining fo
rm. 1t seem ed dcsir:1ble , howcn.:r, th:l t -gen, -gen esis, -genic,
:md -g eno us as well as -g ram, -g raph and, -g raphy sho uld be listed togethe r in nrdc r rn sho w the rel atio ns hip
be tween words us ing these fo rms.
t Because these suffix forms can m c:m eithe r producing o r produced hy, th e meilni n g of som e words is ambig
uous: pyretogen o us lll t:<lllS e ither pro d uci ng fever n r p rod uced
by fever.
t \ ,Vor ds beginning wi t h the letter r- !G r eek rboj usually d o uble this lette r when foll owing :m
uther c le me nt. r he re arc so m e exce ptions: pcri rh in:ll. cr:m io r hach isc hisis (so m e times spe lled cran io rrhachischis is).
I 5 mm
1 I
- -
l+i
r-0.2 SECOND
I
I
I;--
PR
SEGMENT
'
S-T
SEGMENT
:. .......... ~
'i-1-!
p-
~~
'
'
I
!\II
!
I
..i.
INT~:VAL- f-l-,0I
I
-1-
'' ~
I
I
''
''
QRS
I~TER~AL
'
: _!
I
I
l't'
1- l
'
0 -T
INTERVAL
I I I
--
:I
~
I
S-T
INTERVAL
I
I
I
.....
1,1111
'
I I
SECOND
t!
~-
r- -
I
I
I
I
.
I
Figure 4--1. Q RST complex of electrocardi ogram. (Fro m Taber's Cyclopedic M edica l
Diction ary, eel 19. Phi ladelphia: F. A. Davis, 2 001, p 646, w ith permi ssion.)
42
L1'>SON
Greek Verbs
ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES
There is no disease more grievous or severe than that
which, by a certa in stiffness of the nerves, now draws the
head back towa rd the shou lder blades, now draws the
chin clown towa1cl the chest, and now holds the neck
stretched out immobil e . The Greeks ca ll the first
opi.rthotono.,, the second emprosthotonos, and the third
tetanos. [Celsus, De Medicina 4.6]
T he name of the disease tetanus (Greek tetrmos) is related
linguistically to the n ouns tnsis (stretching), and tonos (tension) ; this acute disease was known to ancient physicians.
H ippocrates wrote, "Spasm or tetanus following severe
burns is a bad sign." [Aphm-i.wus 7. 13] Signs of tetanus are
stiffn ess of the muscles of the jaw, esophagus, and neck.
For this reason, the disease is often ca lled lockjaw. In the
advanced stage, these and other muscles become fi xed in a
rigid position. If the body is stretched bacbvard in a tetanic spasm, th e position is called opisthotono s (Gr eek opisthen, in back) (F ig. 4-2); if stretched forward, it is called
emprosthot onos (empmrthen, in front); if stretched to the
side, pleurothoto nos (pleurothen, on the side); and if the
body is held rigidly stretched in a suaight line, the condition is called orthotonos (mthos, straight, upright).
T he causative agent of tetanus is the bacillus Clostridium
tetani, which takes its name from ldoster (spindle), from the
rodli ke shape of these bacilli. T he suffix -id indi cates a
member of a genus, and -ium is a Latin diminutive ending,
from the G reek -ion. T he word kloster is derived from the
verb klotbein (spin). C lotho, the Spinner, is the one of the
three sisters, the Fates (in G reek !Vfoimi, in Latin Parcae),
who spins the thread of li fe for each of us. Her sister
Lachesis, the Apportioner , determines the length of the
thre:o~d, and the third sister, Atropos, Irreversible, cuts it
(Fig . 4-3).
The adjective idios meant of one's self, pertaining to
o ne's ovn interest. Galen, the 2nd century AD Roman
phy~;ician, used the term idiopatheia, idiopathy, to refer
to an ailment having a local origin-that is, originating
within the body. \Ve speak of an idiopathic disease as one
without a recognizable cause. T here was a noun idioma,
meaning a pecu liarity or particular feature of something.
Our word idiom is ultimately derived from this noun. An
idiotes was a person in private life, as opposed to one holding public office. It came to mean one who was unlearned
or unslcilled. T he word idiot entered the En glish language
early in the 14th century in the sense of a person who was
so h cking in mental ability as to be incapable of acting in
a rational way: an idiot. In th e 16th century, the term "an
idiot" m istaken ly came to be "a nidiot," and then, through
the influence of the pronunciatio n of the term, th e spelling
was changed to nidget or nigit. T homas He)'\'\'Ood, the
17th-century E nglish dramatist, wrote in The Wise Wonum
of Hogsdon (1638), "I think he saith we are a company of
fooles and nigits."
permission.)
As a remedy for these swellings he recomm ended a mixture of pumice, liquid pine resin, frankincense , soda scum,
iris, wax, and oil. Pliny, the Roman encyclopedis t, recommended a mixture of foxes' testicles and bull's blood, dried
43
2. anesthesiology
3. angwgram
4. arachnolysin
5. atelocardia
6. autism
7. autohemolysis
8. cardiotomy
44
LEssoN 4
Greek Verbs
9. crinogenic
10. dysgraphia
11. dyskinesia
12. endocrinology
13. gastroscope
14. genetics
15. hemidysesthesia
16. hemophiliac
17. hepatogenous
18. hepatorrhex:is
19. histokinesis
20. hypertonus
21. iatrogenesis
22. idiopathic
2 3. leukorrhagia
24. meningorrh ea
2 5. myectomy
26. myelatelia
27. myotatic
LrssoN 4
28. myxoma
29. necrogenous
30. onychorrhexis
31 . orthodiagrap h
32. orthosis
33. otomycosis
34. pachyrhinic
35. pathogenic
36. ptosis
37. pyreXJa
38. pyrogen
39. rhinomycosis
40. sepSIS
41. spasmolytic
42. splenectasia
4 3. telangioma
44. telangiosis
45. tenodynia
46. tenontograp hy
Greek Verbs
45
46
LEssoN 4
Greek Verbs
4 7. tenontomyo tomy
48. tenostosis
49. therapeutics
50. toxolysin
4. Right living
5. Branch of medicine dealing with the ear and nose and their diseases
47
2. anesthesia
3. antihemorrhagic
4. apyrexia
5. apyrogemc
6. atelocheiria
7. autoantitoxin
8. autosepticemia
48
LEssoN 4
Greek Verbs
9. chondrectom y
10. cystoscopy
11. dermatotherapy
12. ectogenous
13. encephalomyelopathy
14. endotoscope
15. epiotic
16. erythrocytorrhexis
19. hepatolytic
20. histopathology
21. hypnogenic
22. hypomyxia
23. iatrology
24. idiogram
25. isotonia
26. kinesiatrics
2 7. macrotia
LEsso"' 4
28. meningorrhagia
29. metakinesis
30. mycetogenetic
31. mycosis
32. myotasis
33. myxangitis
34. myxochondroma
35. nephrolithotomy
36. oncolysis
37. orthopsychiatry
38. osteoarthropathy
39. osteogen
40. otoncus
41. ototoxic
42. parotic
43. polyotia
44. pyretolysis
45 . rhinolithiasis
46. rhinorrhea
Greek Verbs
49
50
LEssoN 4
4 7. sarcolysis
48. telangiitis
49. tenalgia
50. therapy
Greek Verbs
LESSON
BUILD I G GREEK
VocA
yvwfh mxVTr5 v. Know thyse(f
[Thales, 6th-century BC philosopher, as quoted by Diogenes L<lertius (3rd century AD), Lives of'the Philosophen.J
VOCABUlARY
Greek
Combining Form
akouein
Meaning
Example
hear
acous-tics
amnion
AMNI-
amni-ocentesis (Fig.
5- l )
askites*
ASC-, ASCIT-
ascit-es
barys
BARY-
bary-lalia
kentein
CENTE-
pierce
cardio-cente-sis
chroma, ch1omatos
CHROM-, CHROMA-,
CHROMATDIPSECHOEDEMA, EDEMAT-
color, pigment
chromat-ography
dipsa
ekho
oiaema, oiaematos
emein
gignoskein
thirst
dips-ophobia
echo-cardiogram
swelling
edemat-ogenic
EMEGNO(S)-
vomit
eme-sis
know
loga-gnos-ia
lalein
lapa1a
LAL-
talk
lal-iatry
LAPAR-
lapar-omyitis
legein
LEX-
read
dys-lex-ia
mimneskein
MNE-
remember
mne-momcs
neos
NE-
new
ne-onatal
51
52
LESSO N
Greek
Combining Form
Meaning
Example
nous
NO-
para-no-Ia
oregem
o.:tys
OREC-, OREXOX(Y)-
phenai
PHA-
phagein
pharmakon
pheme
PHAGPHARMAC(EU)-*
swallow, eat
medicine, drug
PHEM-
speech
phag-ocyte
pharmaceu-tics
a-phem-ia
pbobos
pbone
phrassein
PHOB-
(abnormal) fear
hydro-phob-ia
PHON-
voice, sound
enclose, obstruct
phon-ograph
nephrem-phrax-is t
poly-phras-ia
phren-ospasm
PHRAC-, PHRAG-
an-orex-Ia
oxy-cephalous
dys-pha-sia
pbmzein
phren
pbylattein
PHYLAC-
speak
mind; diaphragm
protection (against disease)
physis
phyton
PHYS(I)PHYT-
nature, appearance
plant (organism), growth
physi-ology
phyt-otoxin
poiein
sapros
stem; steatos
POlESAPR-
produce, make
leuko-poie-sis
sapr-ophilous
PHRASPHREN -
STEAR-, STEAT-
phylax-is
steat-adenoma
The combining form PHARMACEU- is from rhe Greek adjective pbamw keutikos (concerning drugs).
t \"'o rds ending in -cmphraxis are from PHRAC- and -sis.
ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES
On August 1, 1774, Joseph Priestley, a British clergyman
and experimental chemist, focused the rays of the sun
through a magnifying glass onto red oxide of mercury and
produced a vapor that he named dephlogisticated air.
Scientists of that time commonly believed that all matter
contained a substance called phlogiston (Greek pblogistos,
inflammable), which was released during burning.
Priestley, after discovering that his lungs felt particularly
light and easy for some time after breathing the vapor,
asked, "Who can tell but that, in time, this pure air may
become a fashionable article in luxury? Hitherto, only two
mice and myself have had the privilege of breathing it."*
53
AMNIOCENTESIS
54
LEssoN 5
Horace, the Roman poet of the first century BC, mentions in two of his poems a girl whom he calls Lalage. She
is otherwise unknown, and Horace may have m ade up the
name from the Greek verb lalein (talk), because his Lalage
seems to be fond of chattering.
pone me pigris ub i nulla campis
arbor aestiva recreatur aura,
quod latus mundi nebulae malusque
luppiter urget;
pone sub curru nimium propinqui
so/is in terra domibus nega ta:
d ulce ridentem Lalagen amabo,
dulce loquentem.
[Odes 1.22 .1 7- 24]
Place me on a barren plain
w here no tree grows in the summer breeze,
a land overhung by mists and gloomy skies;
55
2. agnosia
3. amniography
4. anaphylaxis
5. anoXIa
6. aphemia
7. ascus
8. barylalia
9. bradylexia
10. cholemesis
11. chromophobia
12. dermatophyte
13. diaphragmitis
14. dipsophobia
15. dysacousia
16. dysmnesia
56
LEssoN
18. edema
19. emetic
20. hypophrenia
21. lalopathology
2 2. laparocholecystotomy
2 3. leukopoiesis
24. logagnosia
25. monophasia
26. myelopoiesis
27. neostomy
28. nephremphraxis
29. osteophyte
30. oxyacusis
31. oxyesthesia
32. paracentesis
33. paranoid
34. paraphemia
35. parorexia
LEssoN 5
57
36. periphrenitis
37. phage
38. phagocytosis
39. phoniatrics
40. phrenicotomy
41. physical
42 . physiognosis
4 3. polyphrasia
44. psychochromesthesia
45. saprobe
46. saprophyte
4 7. stearodermia
48. steatoma
49. tachyphasia
50. toxophylaxin
58
4. Loss of memory
5. Difficulty in swallowing
7. Dullness of hearing
9. Abnormal thirst
59
2. algophobia
3. amblychromatic
4. amniocentesis
5. amniorrhexis
6. anisochromatic
7. baryophobia
8. centesis
9. chromatogenous
10. ch romidrosis
11. chromotherapy
12. dyslalia
13. echopathy
14. ectophyte
15. erythrophage
16. erythropoiesis
1 7. euphonia
18. gastrophrenic
60
20. homogenize
21. hypacousia
22. hyperphrenia
2 3. hypomnesia
24. isochromatic
25. lalopathy
26. laparoenterostomy
27. laparomyitis
28. leptochromatic
29. leukopoietic
30. monophagia
31. necrophagous
32. odynacusis
33. oligohydramnios
34. onychophagy
35. paranoia
36. paraphrenitis
37. phagocytolysis
Li sso,'l 5
61
38. pharmacotherapy
39. phonopathy
40. phytogenous
41. polyphagia
42 . prophylactic
43. pyemia
44. saprogemc
45. splenemphraxis
46. steatolysis
47. steatopathy - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
48. steatorrhea
49. tachylalia
50. tachyphrasia
LESSON
REEK
ILDING
CAB LAR
III
VOCABULARY
Greek
Combining Form(s)
Meaning
hample
aner, and1os
ankylos
Aphrodisios
ANDRANKYL-, ANCYLAJ!>HRODIS(I)-
andr-ogynous
ankyl-odactylia
aphrodis-iac
brachys
kryptos
demos
dolichos
dramas
E1os, Erotos
CRYPTDEMDOLICHDROMER-, EROT-
man, male
fused, stiffened; hooked, crooked
[of or pertaining to Aphrodite,
G reek goddess of love] sexual
desire
short
hidden, latent
people, population
long, narrow, slender
a runnmg
[Eros, son of Aphrodite, Greek
goddess of love] sexual desire
woman, female
(intestinal) worm
thread (worm)
disease, illness
tooth
back, again
gyne, gynaikos
helmins, helminthos
nema, nematos
nosos
odous, odontos
palin
BJRACHY-
GYN(EC)-
HELMINT(H)NEMAT-
NOSODONT-
PALI(N)-
brachy-dactylia
crypt-ic
epi-dem-ic
dolich-omorphic
drom-omania
erot-ic
gynec-ologic
helminth-icicle
nemat-ode
nos-ophobia
orth-odont -ist
pali-lalia
63
64
LESSON
Greek
Combining form(s)
Meaning
Example
pas, pantos
phoros
phos, photos
piessein
rhachis
schizein
spondylos
staxis
thanatos
tithenai
PAN(T)-
pan-carditis
phos-phor-us
phot-osynthesis
para-pleg-ia
rachi-tome
schiz-ophrenia
spondyl-arthritis
THAN(AT)-
spme
split, cleft, fissure
vertebra
dripping, oozing (of blood)
death
THETRICHTROPH-
place, put
hair
nourishment
syn-the-sis
thrix, trichos
trophe
ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES
Trichinosis (Greek trichinas, of hair) is a disease caused by
ingesting the larvae of the parasitic worm Trichinella spiralis
as a result of eating raw or insufficiently cooked pork or,
rarely, infested bear meat. The larvae penetrate the
mucous lining of the intestinal tract and, in a few days,
mature and mate, after which the males die. The females
begin to discharge their young larvae after about a week, a
process that continues for up to 6 weeks. These tiny larvae
enter the bloodstream of the host and are carried to the tissues and organs of the body, where they lodge in muscle
epi-staxis
thanat-obiological
trich-ogen
a-troph-y
tissue, causing, among other symptoms, pain, nausea, diarrhea, edema, fever, chills, and general weakness. Most people afflicted with trichinosis recover, although involvement
of the respiratory muscles can lead to death.
The name 'Tricbinella spiralis is N ew Latin. T his term is
applied to words and names that have been coined in modern times in the form of, and on the analogy of, Latin
words. In some instances, N ew Latin has been used for
new meanings applied to extant Latin words. In the name
Trichinella spiralis, -ella is a Latin diminutive ending added
to the stem of the Greek adjective tricbinos, and spiTalis is a
modern adjectival formation of the Latin noun sptm (coil
Fluke (x4)
./1-;::::n
~~
C
Hookworm (x3)
D Pinworm (x2)
F igure 6-1. Representative helminths. (From Scanlon, VC, and Sa nders, T: Essentia ls of
Anatomy and Physiology, ed 4. F. A. Davis, Philadelphia, 2003, p 493.)
65
but you will not escape. May the gods grant me this, that
no day ever come that will take him from me. The gods
heard her. Their two bod ies were joined togeth er, one face
and one form for both . just as one grafts a twig onto a
branch and sees them join and grow together, so were
t hese two bodies joined in close embrace, no longer two
66
Analyz~
separatm~
1. amyotrophia
4. ankylosis
7. atrophy
LEssoN 6
80 autoerotism
9o brachycephalous
100 chromatophore
11. cryptanamnesia
12 demography
o
13 dermonosology
o
140 diaphoresis
15 diplegia
o
160 dolichocephalic
17 dysphoria
o
180 dystrophy
190 endemic
200 endodontitis
210 epistaxis
2 2 erogenous
0
2 3 euphoria
0
240 euthanasia
2 50 gynandroid
260 gynecopathy
67
68
LEssoN 6
27. helminthiasis
28. hemidiaphoresis
29. hermaphrodite
30. heterodromus
31. homoerotic
32. hydrorrhachis
33. hypertrichosis
34. mesodont
35. nematology
36. nosophyte
37. odontonecrosis
38. osteosynthesis
39. palindromia
40. pancarditis
41. pandemic
42. paraplegia
4 3. photodysphoria
44. photosynthesis
45. prosopoplegia
LEssm.: 6
69
46. schistocytosis
4 7. schizonychia
48. spondylolysis
49. thanatophobia
50. trichogen
2. Absence of hair - - -- - - -- - -- - -- - -- -- -- - - - -- - - -- - - - 3. Abnormal shortness of the fingers and toes - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - - -- -- -4. Congenital deformity in which the head is inapparent
9. Srodyofworms - - -- -- - - -- - - - - -- -- -- - - - -- - - - - -- -- 10. Pertaining to nutrients carried in the blood - - - - -- - -- - - - - - -- -- -- - - 11. Science (of description or classification) of diseases
12. Srudyofdeath _ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ __ _ _____________________
70
15 . Around a vertebra--- ----- -- - -- - -- - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - 16. Dissolution or disintegration under stimulus of light rays - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 17. Inflammation of the spine - - - - - - - -- -- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -18. (Congenital) fissure of the face - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 19. Relating to (the processes of) life and death - - - -- -- -- - - -- - - - - - - - -20. Concerned with nourishment - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
'
' I
_.f.l,(_
t ~--)
.3. androgynoid
4. antatrophic
5. anthelmintic
6. aphrodisiac
7. brachycheilia
8. chondrodystrophy
9. chromophore
Lrssoi': 6
71
100 craniorachischisis
110 cryptogen ic
12 endocrinothen1py
0
13
erotoph obi ~
150 gastroschisis
160 gynandrism
190 helminthemesis
200 hypertrophy
21. hypotrichosis
22 0 melanophore
23 0 metachromasia
240 microdontism
250 nematoid
2 7 n osomycos1s
0
72
LEssoN 6
28. odontodynia
29. odontogenic
30. oligodontia
33. palilalia
34. palingraphia
35. panasthenia
36. panoptosis
37. periodontal
38. photogenic
39. plegaphonia
40. protopathic
4 3. sclerotrichia
44. spondylarthritis ------------ ------------ ------------ ------------ ------------ ------45. spondylopyosis ----- - - -- - - - -- - - - - - -- - - - -- - - - -- -- - -
LEssoN 6
46. syrnphysodactyly
47. synthetic
48. toxonosis
49. trichophagia
50. trophedema
73
LESSON
UILD IN
GRE EK
The art of medicine would never have been discovered, nor would there have been any
medical research- for there would htwe been no need for medicine-ifsick men had benefited by the same manner ofliving and by the same food and drink of men in health.
[Hippocrates, Ancient Medicine 3]
VOCABUL ARY
Greek
Combining Form(s)
Meaning
Example
aden
ADENAERBLENNCEL(I)CH(E)IL-
gland
aden-oids
mr, gas
aer-obe
mucus
blenn-orrhea
aer
blennos
lwilia
cbeilos
cbTonos
klan
desis
desmos
dynamis
gem s
gnatbos
iscbein
kleptein
leios
lepsis
mainestbai
melos
morpbe
nomos
omphalos
CHRONCLA(S)-, -CLAST
-DESIS
DESMDYNAMGERGNATHISCH-, -SCHEKLEPTLEILEPMANMELMORPHNOMOMPHAL-
abdomen
celi-ocentesis
lip
cheil-oschisis
time, timing
chron-ic
polio-clast-ic
binding
syn-desis
dynam-ic
old age
ger-iatrics
(lower) jaw
pro-gnath-ous
suppress, check
isch-emia
desm-ocyte
steal
klept-omania
smooth
lei-otrichous
attack, seizure
epi-lep-tic
be mad
man-iac
limb
mel-algia
form, shape
meta-morph-osis
law
nom-ogram
navel, umbilicus
omphal-oncus
75
76
LESSON 7
Greek
Combining Form(s)
Meaning
pais, paidos
PED-
child
ped-iatrics (British:
paediatrics)
penia
decrease, deficiency
fixing, (surgical) attachment
leuko-pen-ia
gastro-pex-y
form, develop
old, old age
[one who stands before] prostate gland
a-plas-ia
prostates
PEN-PEXPLAS(T)PRESBYPROSTAT-
ptyein
PTY-
ptyalon
PTYAL-
spit
saliva
pty-sis
ptyal-in
1'haptein
-RRHAPHSITSTA(T)TAXTHERMTROP-
suture
cardio-rrhaph-y
food
stand, stop
(muscular) coordination
heat, (body) temperature
sit-otoxin
sta-sis
turning
trop-ism
pexis
plassein
p1esbys
sitos
histanai
taxis
therme
uope
presby-opia
prostat-itis
a-tax-ia
therm-ometer
-PLASTY, -TROPISM
Words ending in -plasty (molding, surgically forming)
refer to plastic or restorative surgery: rhino-plasty,
angio-plasty (Fig. 7-1).
W ords ending in -tropism refer to the turning of living organisms toward (positive tropism) or away from
(negative tropism) an external stimulus: photo-tropism, aero-trop-ism.
Body temperature
2. TOTALINFLATION OF
BALLOON CATHETER
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
37
30
20
10
oo
-10
- 20
DILATED VESSEL
212
194
176
158
140
122
104
98.6
86
68
50
32
14
-4
3. CATHETER IS DEFLATED
AND REMOVED.
4. PROCEDURE COMPLETED.
DIAMETER OF LUMEN
HAS BEEN INCREASED.
Fig-ure 7-1. Arterial balloon angioplasty. (From Taber's Cyclopedic Medical D ictionary, ed 19. F. A. Davis, Philadelphia,
2001, p 11 6, with permission.)
INSTRUME NTS
Words ending in -clast indicate an instrument or device
for breaking or crushing: litho-clast
Words ending in -stat indicate a device or agent for
stopping the flow of something: hemo-stat
Words ending in -meter (Lesson 1) indicate an
instrument for measuring: cephalo-meter
Words ending in -tome (Lesson 4) indicate a device
for cutting or excising: gastro-tome
LEssoN 7
77
ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES
The verb mainesthai (to be mad) is one of several words in
both G reek and Latin that have the root MN-, all having
to do with mental processes: Greek, mimneskein (remember) (cf. Mnemosyne (Memory), manteia (prophetic power),
manthanein (learn), ma(n)thematikos (mathematical), mantis
(prophet or prophetic); and Latin, mens, mentis (mind),
mentiO, mentiOnis (mention), mentlrl (lie, cheat). In the
beginning of the Iliad, Apollo rains his arrows upon the
Greek camp. Agamemnon, the leader of the Greek army,
refuses to return the girl whom he has taken captive to her
father, a priest of Apollo. Achilles rises in the assembly and
speaks:
Come, let us consult some seer (mantis) or priest, or some
interpreter of dreams-for dreams are sent by Zeus-who
can tell us why Phoebus Apo llo has conceived such anger
ilfiad 1.62-64].
78
LEssoN 7
2. aerobe
5. ankylochilia
6. aplasia
7. arthroclasia
8. ataxophobia
9. blennadenitis
10. celiocentesis
12. cholestasia
LEssoN 7
79
19. erythromelalgia
20. erythropenia
21. exomphalos
22 . geriatrics
23 . gnathalgia
24. hematomphalocele
2 5. hemiataxia
26. hemodynamics
2 7. hyperthermalgesia
28. hypoplasia
29. idiotropic
30. ischesis
31 . kleptomania
32. leiomyoma
33. macrocheilia
80
37. omphaloncus
38. osteoclast
39. pancytopenia
40. parasite
43 . polyadenomatosis
44. presbyiatrics
45. prognathous
46. sitophobia
47. stasis
48. syndesmopexy
49. tenodesis
50. thermanesthesia
Lrsso" 7
81
3. Resembling mucus
4. Abdominal tumor - - - - - -- -- - - -- - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
9. Destructive to cells
82
lEssoN 7
2. aerotitis
3. aerothermotherapy
4. anerythroplasia
5. angiorrhaphy
6. aptyalia
7. atelognathia
8. blennemesis
9. celiac
10. cheilophagia
13. desrnorrhexis
14. dynamic
15. endoparasite
16. enterosepsis
17. gastropexy
LEssoN 7
83
18. geriatric
19. gnathoschisis
20. hemostasis
21. hidradenitis
22. hydropenia
2 3. hypoptyalism
26. leptomeninges
2 7. maniacal
28. melalgia
29. myodynamometer
30. myoischemia
3 1. nephrotropic
32. nomography
33. odontoclasis
34. omphalorrhexis
35. oreXlmama
36. pachycheilia
84
38. pedomorphism
39. periomphalic
40. phototropism
41. phrenohepatic
42. prostatodynia
43. pseudoedema
44. ptyalolithiasis
45. schistocelia
46. scleradenitis
47. sitotoxism
48. stereotropism
49. synchilia
50. tenorrhaphy
N-0
RIVE
MEDICA
T RMIN L GY
LATIN NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
LATIN VERBS
85
ROMAN NUMERALS
A line placed over a letter increases its value one thousand times.
1
2
3
4
5
I
II
III
IV
6
7
8
9
10
VI
VII
VIII
IX
11
12
15
20
30
XI
XII
XV
XX
XXX
40
50
60
70
80
XL
L
LX
LXX
LXXX
90
100
500
1000
2000
XC
c
D
M
MM
Source: Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary, ed 19. F. A. Davis, Philadelphia, 2001, p 2368, with permission.
5000 v
10,000 X
100,000 c
1,000,000 M
LESSON
LATIN NOUN
AN
EC
YES
just as agriculture promises nourishment to healthy bodies, so does the practice of medicine promise health to the sick.
lCelsus, De M edicina, Prcrmium l)
fistula
v_ag"ina
tzbia
Iaxilla
larva
6mzpha
forrna
palma
tunim
membranrr
Meaning
English Derivative
ptpe
sheath
shin bone
armpit
ghost
clear water
shape
palm
garment
skin
fistula
vagin a
tibia
axilla
larva
lymph
form
palm
tunic
m embrane
II
/trt11(1
sutura
tuba
valva
urme
seam
trumpet
folding door
u rine
suture
tub e
valve
Meaning
bacillus
small staff
wedge
mushroom
upper arm
sphere
CU11el/S
fungus
bume1us
globus
English Derivative
J
b acillus
cuneu s
fungus
h umerus
globe
87
88
:digitus
,I ileum
ovum
:cerebrum
,palatum
intestlnum
finger
grom
egg
brain
palate
intestine
Latin Noun
Combining Form
Meaning
English Derivative
auris (auris)
AUR-
latus, lateris
LATER-
ear
side
auris, auricle
latus, lateral
OS, OSSIS
OSS-
radix, radtcis
RADIC-
bone
root
sopor (soporis)
SOPOR-
vas (vasis)
J-'li.S-
os coxae, ossify
radix, radical
sopor, soporific
vas deferens, vascular
sleep
vessel
Motor area
area
Parietal lobe
Visual association
area
Auditory
association
area
Temporal lobe
Figure 8- 1. Cerebrum (left hemisphere). (From Scanlon, VC, and Sanders, T: Essentials of
Anatomy and Physio logy, ed 4. F. A. Davis, Phi ladelphia, 2003 , p 170, with permission .)
89
Example
Mea ning
-ae
vesicae
of the bladder
-l
uteri
of the uterus
-arum
neonatorum
of newborns
- lS
den tis
of the tooth
First Declension
Singular
Second Declension
Singular
Plural
T hird Declension
Singular
GENITNE SINGULAR
The genitive singular of nouns of the first, second, and
third declensions is sometimes found in descriptive terminology and can be translated by the word "of': coron a capitis (corona, crown, caput, capitis, head), crown of
the head.
There are a few nouns of the fourth and fifth declensions in medical terminology. Most fourth-declension
nouns are masculine and end in -us in the nominative singular, with the plural ending in -us: meatus (passage): meatus (plural, meatus), meatoscopy, meatotomy; plexus (a
braid): plexus (plural, plexus or plexuses). Neuter nouns
of the fourth declension end in u in the nominative singular: genu (knee): gen upectoral, pertaining to the knees and
chest (pectus, pectoris, chest). The nominative plural of
fourth-declension neuter nouns ends in -ua: cornu (horn):
cornu (plural, cornua). The nominative singular of
fifth-declension nouns ends in -es: caries (decay); rabies
(madness); scabies* (itch). Most fifth-declension nouns are
feminine; the plural is identical to the singular in the nominative case.
"Most fifth-declension nouns end in -les in the nominative singular and plural.
Example
-us
-a
fungus
larva
-um
ovum
cerviX
Plural
Exam ple
Feminine
ova
cervicest
viscus
-es
-(z)a
viscera:!:
-us
-u
meatus
genu
-us
-ua
meatus
genua
-es
rabies
-es
rabies
Neuter
Fourth declension
Masculine
N euter
Fifth declension
-ae
-a
fungi
larvae
90
LATIN ADJECTIVES
There are two classes of Latin adjectives: they are either of
the first and second declension, with endings like those of
masculine, feminine, and neuter nouns of the first and second declensions; or of the third declension. Latin dictionaries and grammar texts cite first- and second-declension
adjectives by using the masculine singular, ending in -us, as
the entry form, and following it with the feminine and
neuter endings -a and -um; bonus, -a, -um (good); nzagnus,
-a, -um (large); medius, -a, -um (middle). In this manual,
adjectives of this class are cited only in the form of the
masculine nominative singular, ending in -us, the dictionary form. There are some adjectives of the first and second
declension with masculine forms ending in -e1', but with
the feminine and neuter forms ending in -a and -um,
respectively: asper, aspera, asperum (rough); tour, tene1a,
tenentm (tender). Some adjectives ending in - e1' drop the
-e- in the feminine and neuter: intege1', integra, integrum
(whole); 1'ztber, rubra, rubrum (red).
Third-declension adjectives usually have two terminations: -is for the masculine and feminine and -e for the
neuter: gravis, -e (severe); jo1tis, -e (strong); levis, -e (light).
There are some adjectives of the third declension with
masculine forms ending in -er; these have -1'is in the feminine and -rein the neuter: (acer, ao'is, acre (sharp); safiiber,
safiibris, safiibre (healthful). Some adjectives of the third
declension have one form for the masculine, feminine, and
neuter genders: atrox, genitive atrocis (fierce), praegnans,
genitive praegnantis (pregnant); sapiCns, genitive sapientis
(knowing, wise). There are no adjectives of the fourth and
fifth declensions.
Latin adjectives usually follow the nouns they modify
and agree with them in gender and number:
ap-pendix
ac-cessory
af-ferent
as-sist
a-spirate
ag-glomerate
al-Ii tera ti on
at-traction
af-fection
ambi-: both:
ambi-dextrous
ambi-opia
ambi-lateral
ambi-valence
ante-version
his-acromial
circum-: around:
circum-articular
circum-ocular
circum-duction
circum-renal
myasthenia gravis
col-lapse
cor-rosive
genu r ecurvatum
com-edo
co-habitation
vena cava
contra-ception
contra-fissura
LATIN PREFIXES
Latin prefixes, like Greek prefixes, modify or qualify the
meaning of the word to which they are affixed. It is difficult to assign a single specific meaning to each prefix, and
often it is necessary to adapt a meaning that will fit the
particular use of a word. A word may have more than one
prefix and, in compound words, a prefix may follow a combining form. Latin prefixes (and suffixes) are frequently
used with Greek combining forms.
ab- (a- rarely before certain consonants; abs- before c
and t): away from:
ab-ductor
abs-cess
ab-lation
abs-tract
ab- ortion
ante-pyretic
a-vulsion
contra-indication
contra-lateral
de-sensitize
de-saturation
di-vert
di-lation
dif-fuse
ex- (e- before certain consonants; ef- before f): out of,
away from:
ex-halation
ef-ferent
e -visceration
ex-pectoration
LESSO N
extro-vert
extra-vasation
extro-version
(1) in- (il- before l; im- before b, m, and p; ir- before r):
in, into:
in-cubation
im-bibition
in-farct
in-gestion
im-mersion
il-lumination
ir-radiate
im-pregnate
im-balance
in-firm
im-mune
in-nominate
im-potent
ir-reducible
il-legal
(3) in-: very, thoroughly:
in-duration
in -ebriation
91
post-partum
post-nasal
post-uterine
pre-tibial
pre-gnant
pre-urethritis
pro-jection
pro-cess
pro-tection
re-cess
re-sonance
re-fraction
re-suscitation
infra-maxillary
infra-umbilical
infra-sternal
infra-mammary
retro-grade
retro-peritoneal
retro-nasal
retro-pharyngeal
inter-: between:
inter-costal
inter-meningeal
inter-dental
inter-renal
se-gregation
se-duce
se-paration
intra-venous
intra-muscular
intro-version
non-: not:*
non-conductor
non-toxic
non-protein
non-viable
multi-cuspid
multi-gravida
multi-parous
semi-: half:
semi-conscious
semi-permeable
semi-normal
semi-prone
suf-fusion
sub-dural
sup-purate
supra-mastoid
super-virulent
supra-renal
ob-session
oc-cult
trans-parent
trans-thoracotomy
oc-clusion
op -position
trans-plant
trans-vaginal
ultra-sonic
ultra-microtome
ultra-violet
ultra-sound
92
Meaning
Example
one
two, twice, double, both
uni-form
bi-modal, bin-aural, his-iliac
tri-
three
tri-cyclic
quadrquint-
four
five, fifth
quadr-iplegia, quadr-uped
quint-ipara, quint-uplet
sex-, sext-
six, sixth
sept-
seven
oct-, octa-
eight
sept-ivalent, sept-uplet
oct-ane, octa-hedron, oct-ogenarian,
oct-ipara
non-
nine, ninth
ten, one-tenth
non-ose, non-igravida
dec-inormal, deca-meter,
LATIN SUFFIXES
ren-al
medi-an
ovan-an
vascul-ar
herb-arium
mortu-ary
axill-ary
caud-ate
macrolab-ia
mortic-ian
rhythm-ic
rab-id
Note that the re is a Greek-derived suffix -id, an alternative form of -oid, mean ing
"having the fom 1 of'': hominid (bomo, bomi11is, man).
LEsso N 8
febr-ile
93
ventricle
-culus
ventriculus
-ella
rubella
-ellurn
cerebellum
uter-ine
amygdal-ine
-il
-ola
fibril
roseola
-illa
-olus
fibrilla
alveolus
sangu-ine
femin-ine
-ule
globule
-ulus
calculus
palliat-ive
DIMINUTIVE SUFFIXES
puru-lent
- - - - - - - - --- -- - - - -
varic-ose
sanguine-ous
morbidi-ty
remed-y
-AD
The English suffix -ad forms adverbs from nouns.
These adverbs indicate direction toward a part of the
body: dextrad, toward the right side (dextra, the right
hand); sinistrad, toward the left side (sinistra, the left
hand); cephalad, toward the head (G reek kephale, head).
(See the E tymological Notes in this lesson.)
DIMINUTIVE SUFFIXES
T here was a group of suffixes in Latin that formed diminutive nouns from other nouns. T hese diminutives were
nouns of the first or second declension, ending in -us, -a,
or -um, depending on the gender of the noun to which
they were affixed, and were all characterized by the presence of a single or double f. T hese diminutives usually
appear in E nglish in their original Latin form, but the final
-us is sometimes changed to -e, -cztlus to -d e, and -ilia to
-if. A diminutive suffix expresses the idea of smallness, as in
fibril, meaning a small fiber.
94
LEssoN 8
VOCABU LARY
NOTE: Beginning with this lesson, combining forms of Latin words will be printed in bold italics.
latin
Combining Form(s)
Meaning
Example
abdomen, abdominis
ABDOMINADIPAURBACILLBURSCALC-
belly, abdomen
abdomin-algia
fat
adip-ose
ear
aur-icular
bacill-emia
burs-itis
calc-iferous
CALORCAPITCEREBR-
heat, energy
calor-ic
head
de-capit-ate
brain
cerebr-al
COSTDENTDORSEXTERNFIBRFISTUL-
rib
cost-algia
tooth
dent-ist
dors-al
outer
extern-al
fiber, filament
fibr-ous
fistul-ectomy
FRIG-, FRIGORINSULINTERNMEAT-
cold
re-frig-erate
island*
insul-in
mner
intern-al
meat-oscope
nose
nas-al
pus
pur-ulent
root
radic-es
kidney
ren-ogastric
blood
sangui-colous
son-ogram
SANGUI(N)SONSYNOV-
tuba
TUB-
[trumpet] tube
tub-oovaritis
tussis
TUSSVACCVIR-, VIRUSVISCER-
cough
cowt
anti-tuss-ive
vacc-me
vir-al
internal organ(s)
viscer-al
adeps, adipis
auris
bacillus
burstt (Medieval Latin)
calx, calcis
calm
caput, capitis
cerebrum
costa
dens, dentis (Fig. 8-2)
dorsum
extenzus, -a, -um
fibra
fistula
frzg;us, frzgoris
insula
internus, -a, -um
meatus
nasus
pus, puris
radix, radlcis
ren, rems
sangltls, sangumzs
son us
vacca
vzrus (Fig. 8-3)
viscus, visceris
sound
synovial fluid, synovial membrane or sac
(plural, viscera)
*See the E tymological Notes in this lesson.
1Words containing vaccin- have to do with vaccine.
*W ords like virulent are fro m the Latin adjective vrmlentus, strong, powerful (literally, full of poison).
synov-mm
nounced like the g of gate. T he letter t is always pronounced like the t in tin and never has the sound of the t
in nation. It is customary to pronounce i like they in yes
and v like the w in win. Vowels may be long or short and
are pronounced as follows:
--Enamel
Crown
- - - - Dentin
Pulp
cavity
~~
!~
Neck
Short Vowels
~ Gingiva
(gum)
a as in adrift
e as in bet
i as in tin
o as in hot
u as oo in look
I"
r--\
Root
Cemeotom
~ ~ Periodontal
jJ
membrane
Long Vowels
Diphthongs
aas in father
ae as ie in tie
au as ou in house
ei as ei in eight
oe as oi in boil
eas in they
1 as in machine
oas in tone
u as in rude
NOMINATIVE SINGULAR
LATIN PRONUNCIATION
In L atin, all consonants and vowels are pronounced, with
no silent letters. T he sound of the consonants is the same
as in English, except that c and g are always "hard"; thus,
cancer is pronounced "kanker," and the g of genus is pro-
Relative sizes
(X 25,000)
(A)
Herpes simplex
(D)
Rabies virus
95
(B)
Poliovirus
(C)
Influenza virus
) E. coli
Rabies
Influenza
Polio
(E)
Bacteriophage
Figure 8-3. Viruses. (From Scan lon, VC, and Sanders, T: Essentials of An atomy and Physiology,
ed 4 . F. A . Davi s, Philadelphia, 2003, p 489, w ith permi ssion .)
96
LEssoN s
ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES
As spoken Latin gradually became French, a number of
sound changes took place. T he sound of an initial Latin c,
when followed by a, usually developed into chin French:
Latin caballus (horse), French cheval; Latin caldus (hot),
French chaud; Latin castus (pure), French chaste. Latin cancer (crab, ulcer) became French chancre, which is used with
the same spelling in English. A chancre is a venereal ulcer,
the first outward manifestation of syphilis. This disease
takes its name from Syphilus, the hero of a kind of medical
poem entitled Syphilis sive Morbus Gallicus (Syphilis, or
the French Disease) by the Italian physician and poet
Girolamo Fracastoro (1484-1553). In this poem, Syphilus
suffered from an infectious disease that Fracastoro named
syphilis, perhaps from the Greek verb philein (love).
Insulin (insula, island) takes its name from the islets of
Langerhans, cell clusters in the pancreas. These cells are of
three types: alpha, beta, and delta, and it is the beta cells
that produce the protein hormone insulin, which regulates
the metabolism of carbohydrates in the body. Deficient
production or utilization of insulin causes hyperglycemia
(Greek glykys, sweet), the characteristic of the disease
diabetes mellitus (Latin mel, m el/is, honey), commonly
known as sugar diabetes. T he islets of Langerhans were
named after the German pathologist Paul Langerhans
(1847-1888), who first realized their existence and function.
T he words vaccine and vaccination come from the
Latin vacca (cow). In 1789, Edward J enner, an English
country physician, announced to the world his discovery
that injection of the cowpox virus into humans (i.e., vaccination) provided immunity against smallpox. It was known
then that people who were employed on dairy farms and
who happened to contract the bovine disease cowpox
became immune to smallpox. Jenner began his experimentation in 1796 by inoculating a healthy young boy with
m atter taken from an ulcerating sore on the hand of a
milkmaid suffering from cowpox. Later, this boy was inoculated with the smallpox virus and resisted the disease.
This was the first vaccination. Smallpox has now virtually
disappeared from the U nited States, G reat Britain, and
Europe, and in recent years mass vaccinations in Africa
and Asia have reduced the incidence of this disease to isolated areas in these continents.
T he English words viscous and viscid bear no relationship to the internal organs, the viscera, but are derived
from Latin viscum (mistletoe) (Fig. 8-4). The ancient
Romans prepared a sticky substance from the berries of the
mistletoe plant that they spread on branches of trees.
Unfortunate birds that perched on those branches were
caught and held fast by this glutinous substance, which we
call birdlime. T he Roman poet Virgil writes of the olden
days when men had to toil for their living and hunt for
their food:
It was then that men found a way to snare wild beasts in
nets, to trap birds with birdlime (viscum) and to surround
LEssoN 8
97
Corpus callosum
Pariolal lobo
_J.
Occipital lobe
Choroid plexus in
third ventricle
Pons
Medulla______..
Spinal cord _...-
Figure 8- 5. Midsagittal section of brain as seen from left. (From Scanlon, VC, and Sanders, T:
Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, ed 4. F. A. Davis, Philadelphia, 2003, p 167, with permission.)
98
LEssoN 8
3. auricula
4. auris externa* - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
5. bacillar
6. biceps
7. bursae
8. calcipenia
9. calciumt
LEssoN 8
99
11. capitulum
12 . cerebellum
13 . costotome
14. denticle
15. diplobacillus
16. dorsad
17. externalize
18. fibromyoma
19. fistula
22. internal
2 3. leiomyofibroma
24. meatoscopy
2 5. myelofibrosis
26. myofibril
27. nasal
100
31. osteosynovitis
32. pertussis
33. polyradiculitis
34. postnasal
35. quadriplegia
37. radiculomeningomyelitis
38. radix
42 . subaural
43. synoVla
44. tubectomy
45. tussive
46. vaccme
to
LEssoN 8
101
48. viscerotropic
49.
VISCUS
wording below.
1. Plastic repair of any tube
7. Formation of calculi
8. Behindtheear _______________________ _______________________ ______________________
10. (Morbid) fear of bacilli --------------------- --------------------- --------------11. Pertaining to the blood supply of the kidneys
102
2. abenteric - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - - - - - - - - - - -
3. adipectomy - - - -- -- - -- - - - - - - - - -- - -- -- -- - -- - - - - -
4. antepyretic
5. auris interna - - - -- - - - -- - -- -- - -- -- -- -- - - -- - -- - - --
6. avirulent - -- - -- -- - -- - - - - -- -- - - -- - -- - - - -- - - -- -
7. binotic
8. bursopathy
9. cerebellar ataxia - -- - -- - - -- -- - -- - - -- -- - - - -- - -- - - -- -
103
10. chronograph
11. circumrenal
12. chondrocostal
13. costalgia
14. decimeter _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ ____________
15. dentin ---------------- ---------------- ---------------- ---------------- -------------16. dorsodynia --------------- --------------- --------------- --------------- -------17. extrahepatic
18. fibromyalgia
19. fistulatome
20. hemic calculus ---------------- ---------------- ---------------- ---------------- -----21 . homophobia _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______
2 3. insulinemia
24. interauricular
2 5. internalize
26. intracranial ---------------- ---------------- ---------------- -------------------------27. myeloradiculodysplasia --------------- ------------------------------ -------------- - -
104
LEssoN 8
28. nasogastric
29. nontoric ------------ ------------ ------------ ------------ ------------ ------------ ---30. occipital
33. pertussoid
34. polyblennia - - -- - - - - -- - -- - -- - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - 3 5. posticteric ------------ ------------ ------------ ------------ ------------ ------------ 36. prenarcosis
38. renogram
43. supervirulent ------------ ------------ ------------ ------------ ------------ ------------ 44. supradiaphragmatic
45. synovectomy
LFSSON
105
4 7. tuborrhea
48. vaccinotherapeutics
49. v1ruse1ma
LESSON
ATIN VER BS
I would have given the name insectology to that part of natural history which has insects
as its object: that ofentomology . .. would undoubtedly have been mme suitable... but its
barbarous sound terrify'd me.
[Benner's Contemporary Natura! History, Londo n 177GI
Earache and dismders of the ear are cured by the urine ofa wild boar that has been kept
in a glass jar, or by the gall ofa wild boar or ofa pig or an ox with equal portions of citrus and rose oil added. But the best cure of all is warm gall ofa bull with leek juice. If
there are suppurations, honey should be added, and if there is a foul odor the gall should
be warmed with the rind ofa pomegranate.
[Pliny, Natum! History 28.48.1n]
Example
Meaning
seco
secare
secuz
sectus
I cut
to cut
I cut, have cut
having been
cut
Latin Verbs
108
LESSO N
Conjugation
Present Indicative
Present Infinitive
Perfect Indicative
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
seco (cut)
habeo (have)
secme
habere
fundere
scne
secuz
habui
fiidi
fundO (pour)
sew (know)
sectus
habitus
fimts
scztus
SC1V1
SUFFIXES
Many suffixes are added only to the stems of verbs. Latin
suffixes often undergo some changes in English words and
are presented here in the form in which they appear in
English.
ENGLISH SUFFIX -E
Note the use of the English suffix -e to form verbs from
Latin infinitives: reduce (dUcere, lead), excite (exci{are,
rouse), inspire (spirare, breathe), and so forth.
---
------
------
correct-ion
nat-ive
----- - - - -- - -
- -
PRESENT PARTICIPLES
The Latin present participle is a third-declension adjective
that is formed on the stem of the present infinitive. The
forms of the nominative and genitive singular are -tins,
-antis for the first conjugation; ens, -entis for the second
and third; and -lens, -ientis for some of the third and for the
fourth conjugation. The combining form of participles is
found by dropping the -is ending of the genitive case. In
some instances this combining form becomes an English
adjective translated with -ing added to the meaning of the
verb, as in the following:
sounding
lying hidden
falling
beginning
feeling
a person who
inhabits
a drug that produces
sleep
- - - - - -- ------ - ---- -
The suffixes -arium and -ary, with the same meaning as -orium and -ory, are usually found with nouns: sanitarium (sanitlis, health), library (libe, book).
INCEPTIVE VERBS
The letters -sc- inserted between the stem and the ending of the Latin infinitive denote the beginning of an
action. Example: valere, be well, valescere, begin to get
well. The present participles of inceptive verbs give us
many English derivatives. English: convalescent,
beginning to get well.
VOWEL WEAKENING
D uring the prehistoric period in the development of the
Latin language, there seems to have been a strong stress
accent on the first syllable of words; as a result of this, vowels in internal syllables became weakened, both quantitatively and qualitatively. T he effects of this can be seen in
both nouns and verbs. The -u- of caput (head) becomes
weakened to -i- in cases other than the nominative singular: caput, capitis. Virgo (maiden) loses the final -n- of the
nominative singular, and the long -o- of the final syllable is
reduced to short -i-: virgo (n), virginis; pater (father), and
mate1 (mother) drop the -e- of the final syllable: patris,
matris.
T his phenomenon is most apparent with verbs, especially when prefixes are added: caede1e, caesus (cut): inczdere,
inc/sus, dhidete, aeczsus; capere, captus (seize): incipe1'e, inceptus, n cipere, receptus; fame, factus (make): ejfice1e, effectzts,
inficere, infectus. Sometimes the perfect passive participle
was not affected by this change: cadere, casus, fall: incidere,
incasus. In the vocabularies in this manual, the verbal stems
that undergo these changes are indicated by a dash before
the stem in question: fam e, f actus, make: FAC-, FIC-,
-FECT , and so forth.
L atin verbs often took on new and different meanings
when compounded with prefixes. T he verb capere, captus,
meant to take; the compound verb incipere, inceptus, meant
to take in hand, to undertake, and thus, to begin. The word
incipient is from the present participle of this verb.
T he Latin compound verb i11jicere, infectus, meaning to
stain, dye, spoil, corrupt, gives rise to the word infection.
VOCABULARY
Note: Latin combining forms appear in bold italics.
Latin
Combining Form(s)
Meaning
Example
anterio1
ANTERBRACHI-
front, in front
(upper) arm
anter-ior
brachi-um
cut, kill
take
(begin to) grow
finger, toe
lead, bring, conduct
make
in-cis-or
in-cept-ion
ex-cresc-ence
digit-al
ab-duct
petri-fac-tion
super-fici-al
febr-ile
carry, bear
bend
[mushroom) fungus
pour
bring forth, give birth
carry, bear
odori-fer-ous
re-flex
fung-al
b1fichium (Fig. 9- 1)
caede1e, caesus
cape1e, captus
crescete' cretus
digitus
ducere, ductus
face7'e, factus
facies
febris
fen-e, lri.tus
fleetere, flexus
fungus
fimdere , fosus
gignere, genitus
gerere, gestus
GENITGER-, GEST-
109
dif-fus-e
genit-al
di-gest
110
LESSON
Lati n Verbs
Latin
Combining Form(s)
Meaning
Example
zmmunzs
IMMUN(I)INFERIORLAB-, LAPSLATEROR-, OS
immun-ologist
inferior-ity
re-laps-e
later-al
or-al
inferior
Iabl, lapsus
latus, lateris
os, orzs
side
mouth, opening
bone
louse
behind, in back
OSSPEDICULPOSTER-, -POSTERIO R
SECT-
ossa
pediculus
posterior
secare' sectus
somnus
re-sect
cut
sleep
SOMNSTABIL -, STABLSUPERIORTUM(E) -
stabilis
superior
tumere
oss-ify
pedicul-osis
poster-olateral
somn-olence
stabil-e
superior-ity
tum-or
stable, fixed
above
be swollen
Both principal parts of Latin ver bs are not always productive of English derivatives.
BRACHIAL ARTERY
AXILLARY A R T E R Y - - --
ANTERIOR HUMERAL
CIRCUMFLEX ARTERY
POSTERIOR HUMERAL
CIRCUMFLEX ARTERY
- - - ---+-....
- -- - -+----T......J~
- - - - - - L_.A
11-f-
f'.l--1-f-
,...,.M-#+--
COMMON INTEROSSEOUS
AATEAY
--....
ULNAR
ARTERY
BRACHIAL
ARTERY
SUPRATROCHLEAR
ARTERY
+--H/'-/8-
-....___
_ _ METACARPAL ARTERY
LEssoN 9
Superior aspect
1H
latin Verbs
Midsagittal
plane
Section of
small intestine
An erior
8
Inferior aspect
Figure 9-2. Body planes and sections. (From Scan lon, VC, and Sa nders, T: Essentia ls of
Anatomy and Physiology, ed 4. F. A. Davis, Ph iladelphia, 2003, p 14, top, with perm ission.)
ABDUCTION
OF LIMB
ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES
Aristotle and Pliny discuss insects.
There are creatures called insects, as their name (en toma)
indicates. They have inc isions either on th eir upper or
lower parts, or on both. They have neither separate bony
parts (ostodes) nor fleshy parts (sarkodes) b ut consist of
something intermediate, as thei r bodies, both inside and
outside, are uniformly hard (skleron). [Aristotle, History of
Animals 4 .523 b 13- 18].
There are living creatures (animalia) of immeasurable
min uteness w hich some people maintai n do not breathe
and are actually bloodless. There are great numbers and
many kinds of these, some livi ng on land and some in the
ADDUCTION
OF LIMB
F. A .
Davis,
112
LEssoN 9
Latin Verbs
"
Figure 9-4. Insects. (A) Ant. (8) Bee. (0 Centipede. (Drawings by Laine McCarthy, 2001.)
2. ablation --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- ------3. adduct --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- ----4. afferent --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- 5. antebrachium --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- -----6. anterolateral
7. arefleria- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- -8. bisection --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------
11 3
9. e<llcific<ltion - -- - - -- - -- - -- - - -- - -- -- -- - - -- -- - -- - -- -
I 0. calorific
12 . deca lci fy
1-+. detoxify
15. digestion - -- - - - - -- - - - -- -- - -- - -- -- - - - - - - -- - -- -- -
16. digiti
17. dorsiflect - - - - - -- -- - - - -- - - - -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
18. d uctile
19. excrescence - - - - - - -- - - - - -- -- - -- - -- -- -- - - - - - - - - - - -
20 . frigola bile - - - - -- -- -- - -- - - - - -- -- - -- -- - -- -- -- - - - -
22 . fun gistasis - -- - - - - -- - - - -- - -- - -- -- - - -- -- - - - - - -- - -
27. inception - - -- -- - - - -- - - -- - -- - - - -- - - - - - - -- - -- - - - -
114
30. ingestant ---------------- ---------------- ---------------- ---------------- ----------31. introflerion ---------------- ---------------- ---------------- ---------------- --------32. intumesce ---------------- ---------------- ---------------- --------------------------33. labile - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 34. orad - - - -- - -- -- -- -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 35. orifice ---------------- ---------------- ---------------- ---------------- -------------36. ossification --------------- --------------- --------------- ---------------- ---------37. pediculus --------------- --------------- --------------- --------------- -----------38. posteroexternal -------------------------------- ------------------------------------39. prolapsus - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 40. reflex - - -- - - - - - -- - -- -- -- -- -- - - - - -- - - - -- - - - 41. relapse --------------- --------------- --------------- --------------- -------------42. section -------------------------------- ---------------- ---------------- ------------43. somnifacient ---------------- ---------------- ---------------- ---------------- --------44. somnolent ----------------------------------------------------------------------- - 45. stabile (pronounced stay'bile)
46. subfebrile - - -- - - - - - -- - - - - - -- - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - -- -
115
3. Pertaining to the arm ----------------------- ----------------------- ----------- - - - 4. Paralysis (of the muscles) on one side of the face (two words)
5. Tocutout _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ __
7. (Occurring) after a fever --- - - -- -- -- - - -- - - -- -- - - - -- - -- - 8. Carrying away from (a central organ or section)
116
LEssoN 9
latin Verbs
15. Pertaining to the nose and mouth - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- -- -- - - 16. Incapable of being destroyed by low t e m p e r a t u r e - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20. Toturnintobone - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
3. afebrile - - - --------------------- - -- - - -- - - ------ - - -- - - -- ------- 4. brachialgia ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- --5. calcemia _ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________
7. cyanhidrosis - - - -- - - - -- - -- - - - - ---- --- -- - - -- -------- - --------- - 8. cystigerous ______________________ _______________________ ____________ ___ ______
LessoN 9
latin Verbs
117
11. deossification
118
LEsso 9
latin Verbs
33. melaniferous ----------------------- --------------------------------------------- 34. microbicide ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- --35. microgenitalism ----------------------- ----------------------- --------------------36. ossific _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ ______
42. reflexogenic ----------------------- ----------------------- ----------------------- 4 3. resectable ----------------------- ---------------------------------------------- --44. sanguinopurulent ----------------------- -------------------------------------------
LESSON
Latin Verbs
119
45 . schizophrenia - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - -- -- - - - - - - - - - - --
50. viscerosomatic - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - UNIT
BODY SYSTEMS
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
OPTIC SYSTEM
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
URINARY TRACT SYSTEM
121
LESSON
CARD I VA CULAR
YS EM
Ifyou kill a living animal by severing its great arteries, you will find that the veins
become empty at tl1e same time as the arteries. This could never happen unless there were
anastomoses between them.
[Galen, On the Nat11ml Fam!tifs 3.1 5 J
Rigid adherence to the theory that blood passed directly through the septum from the right to the left ventricle
prevented the realization of the true nature of the circulation of the blood for 15 centuries.
H owever, one man, the theologian M ichael Servetus,
dared to challenge the theories of Galen concerning the
nature of the movement of the blood. Servetus was born in
123
124
LEssoN 1 o
Cardiovascular System
CIRCULATION OF BLOOD
Blood commences its journey through the body as it is
pumped from the upper end of the left ventricle into the
great artery, the aorta (Figs. 10-1, 10-2). T he aortic valve
prevents the blood from flowing back into the ventricle
(aortic regurgitation). Blood can flow in only one direction, away from the heart, the direction in which the entire
arterial network carries the blood. As the blood moves
away from the heart, it enters the many branches of the
arteries, of which two (the coronary arteries) supply
blood to the muscle of the heart. Myocardial infarction (MI) is the loss of living heart muscle as a result of
coronary artery occlusion. MI usually occurs when an
atheromatous plaque in a coronary artery ruptures and the
resulting clot obstructs the injured blood vessel. Perfusion
of the muscular tissue that lies downstream from the
blocked artery is lost. If blood flow is not restored within
a few hours, the heart muscle dies.
BRACHIOCEPHALIC
TRUNK
I
VEIN)
AORTA
INFERIOR
MESENTERIC
ARTERY
Figure 10- 1. Circulation of blood through heart and major vessels. (From Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary, ed 19. F. A.
Davis, Philadelphia, 2001, p 407, with permission.)
As the arteries branch, they become increasingly smaller and are called arterioles, until they unite in a network of
tiny vessels, the capillaries. Here the oxygenated blood
from the left side of the heart delivers needed oxygen to
the tissues of the body. From these microscopically small
vessels, blood passes into the venules, small veins, and then
into the venous system. The blood finally enters the right
atrium through the two venae cavae. The superior vena
cava returns blood from the organs and parts above the
diaphragm (except the lungs), and the inferior vena cava
returns blood from organs and tissues below the
diaphragm.
From the right atrium, the blood passes through the
tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. Here the blood
begins another journey, the pulmonary or lesser circulation. Deoxygenated blood from the venous system returns
to the heart and flows through the pulmonary circulation,
where it is oxygenated in the capillary networks of the
lung. The deoxygenated blood passes into the pulmonary
artery, which branches out in the lungs, becoming smaller
LessoN 10
Cardiovascular System
125
Circumflex artery
--:--:--
Right ventricle
Brachiocephalic artery
Superior vena cava
""'
Apex
Papillary
muscles
Fig-ure 10- 2. The heart. (A) Anterior view. (B) Frontal section . (From Scanlon, VC, and
Sanders, T: Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, ed 4. F. A. Davis, Phi ladelph ia, 2003, p 262,
w ith permi ssion. )
which accelerates it. Regulation is achieved with a pacemaker, the sinoatrial node. If this natural pacemaker is
defective, an electrical device called an artificial or electrical pacemaker can be installed either externally or internally to control the heartbeat through rhythmic electrical
discharges. D efects and malfunctions, either congenital or
acquired, along this complicated network of vessels and
valves can cause numerous potentially fatal disorders that
we call heart disease.
126
LEssoN 10
Cardiovascular System
VOCABULARY
Life is short, the Art lasting, opportunity elusive, experiment perilous, judgment difficult. The physician must be
ready not only to do what is necessary, but to see to it that
Greek or Latin
Combining Form(s)
Meaning
Example
amy/on
AMYL-
starch
amyl-ase
angina
ANGIN-
angin-a
aorie
AORT-
aorta
aort-osclerosis
aniare, arctatus
ARCT(A7)-
compress
aort-arct-ia
ATHER-
ather-oma
atrium
ATRI-
atri-otome
bole
BOL-
a throwing
em-bol-us
capillus
CAPILL
[hair] capillary
capill-ary
kinos
CIRS-
drs-omphalos
claudere, clausus
-CLUD-, -CLUS-
close
oc-clus-ion
cor, co1dis
COR, CORD-
heart
cord-ate
corona
CORON-
crown
coron-al
cuspis, cuspidis
CUSP, -CUSPID
point
bi-cuspid
dexter
DEXTR-
right (side)
ambi-dextr-ous
forma
-FORM
shape
coli-form
gurgitare, g;urgit"atus
GURGIT-, GURGITAT-
flood, flow
re-gurgit-ant
pectus, pectoris
PECTOR-
breast, chest
pector-al
phleps, phlebos
PHLEB-
vem
phleb-otomy
pulmo, pulmonis
PULM(ON)-
pulmon-itis
rhythmos
RHYTHM-
ar-rhythm-ic
saeptum
SEPT-
wall, partition
sept-um
sinus
SIN-, SINUS-
sinus-itis
sinister
SINISTR-
left (side)
sinistr-ocerebral
sphygmos
SPHYGM-
pulse
sphygm-oid
stellein
STAL-, STOL-
send, contraction
sy-stol-ic
tendere, tensus
TENS(l)-
stretch
hyper-tens-ive
thrombos
THROMB-
blood clot
thromb-osis
topos
TOP-
place
top-ical
vagus
V-4G-
vaso-vag-al
varix, varicis
V-4RIC-, VARIX
varic-es
vas
V-4S-
vas-ectomy
vena
VEN-
vem
ven-ostat
venter, ventris
VENTR-
ventr-ose
LESSON 1 0
Cardiovascular System
127
ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES
I swear by Apollo the healer, by Asclepius, by Hygieia, by
Panacea and by all the gods and goddesses as witnesses,
that I wi ll fulfill this oath and this covenant.[The beginning of the Hippocratic Oath]
mitral defect can cause mitral regurgitation, a backflowing of the blood. It is also called the bicuspid valve because
of its two cusps. T he Latin word mitral comes originally
from the Greek word mitra, referring to a type of turban
worn by certain people of Asia Minor. In Virgil's Aeneid,
the M oorish king larbas was scorned by Dido, a
Phoenician princess who had recently settled in North
Africa. O n hearing that Dido and Aeneas, a wanderer from
Troy, were openly flaunting their love, l arbas prayed to
Jupiter for vengeance, referring contemptuously to Aeneas
as anoth er Paris:
et nunc ille Paris cum semiviro comitatu,
Maeonia mentum mitra crinemque madentem
subnixus, rapto potitur.
128
LEssoN
Cardiovascular System
10
clition , called coronary occlusion or coronary thrombosis, can and often does lead to ischemia, which can be the
cause of myocardial infarction, cardiac arrest, and sudden
death.
An aneurysm (Greek rnlfl-, up, emys, wide, -m(fl) ,
noun-forming suffix) is the local distention of the wall of a
blood vessel, usually an <1rtery, and often the aorta (Fig.
10-5). T he dilation is caused by a weakening of the vascular wall, often as a resul t of arteriosclerosis coupled with
hypertension. Aneurysms of the aorta may occur anywhere
along this great artery. T hey often occur in the abdominal
region (abdominal aortic aneurysm [AAA]) or in the area
of the pulmonary arteries (thoracic aortic an eurysm
[TAA]). Rupture of ~m <meurysm with subsequent massive
hem orrhage is a frequent cause of death.
Cerebral apoplexy, or stroke, is caused by intracerebral
hemorrhage (often resulting from an aneurysm) or by
thrombosis, embolism, or a reduction in or loss of the
blood supply to the brain (vascular insufficiency).
D igitalis (Latin digit11s, fi nger), a heart stimulant that
acts by increasin g the force of muscular contractions, is
made of the dried leaves of the plant Digitfllis pmpurea, so
called because of the fi ngerlike shape of its corolla.
T he G reek verb bflllein (throw) has many derivatives.
T he science of projectiles is ballistics. But it is in the form
BOL-, from the noun bole (a throwing), that it is most pro-
Coronary sinus
Left coronary arte ry
Anterior
interventricula r branch
Posterior
artery and
vein ---~.;2:;<~1
Small
card iac vein
Figure 10-4. Coronary arteries. (A) An terior (8 ) Posterior. (From Scanl on, VC, and Sanders,
T: Essentials of Anatomy and Physio logy, eel 4. F. A. Davis, Philadelphia, 2003, p 263 , w ith
permission.)
LEssoN 10
Cardiovascular System
129
SACCULATED
ANE URYSM
AORTIC ANEURYSMS
1. amylase - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - - - - -- -- - - -- - - - - -- -- - - - -
2. amylol ysis - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
3. <m g ino id
-+.
aortocbsia
5. arccltion
6. <lth erorm1 - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- -
130
LEssoN 1o
Cardiovascular System
7. atheronecrosis
17. ectopia cordis----------------------------------------- -----------------------------18. endaortitis ----------------------------------------------- --------------------------19. entopic----------------------------------------------------------------------------20. expectoration ---------------------------------------------- ------------------------21. extravasation
LEssoN 10
Cardiovascular System
13 1
26. nonseptate - - - -- - -- -- - - -- -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
34. s1nogram - -- -- -- -- -- -- - -- - - - - -- - -- - - -- -- -- - - 35. systole - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- -- - - - - - - - - 36. tachyarrhythmia - - -- - - -- - - - -- - - - -- -- - -- - - - - -- - - 37. tensiometer - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- -- - - - - - - - - - -- - - - 38. thrombectomy - - - - - - - -- - - - -- - - -- - - -- - -- - - -- - - - -39. thromboclasis - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - - 40. topagnosis - - - -- -- - - - - - - - -- - - - -- - -- -- - - - - - - - - - 41 . toponarcosis - - - -- - - - -- - - - -- -- - - -- - - - - - - - - -- -- - - -
132
LEssoN 10
Ca rdiovascular System
50. ventroscopy - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
5. Shaped like a heart ---------------------- ---------------------- --------------- - 6. Toward the right (side) --------------------- --------------------- --------------7. Having the stomach on the right side of the body - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- -- -- - -
133
12. Resembling a sinus - - - - - - - - -- - -- -- - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - 13. Shaped likeacrown _______________ _______________ _______________ ________________
15. Process or act of stretching - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - 16. Producing a blood clot - - -- -- - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- 17. Fear of being in a (particular) place-- -- -- - - -- - -- - - -- - - - - -- - -18. Having three points - - - - - -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- - - -- - - - - - - --
134
LEssoN 10
Cardiovascular System
8. cirsotomy - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
9. cordiform
12. dextral - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
14. dysrhythmia
18. homogeneous
19. immunobiology - - - -- - - -- - - -- -- - - -- - - - - - - -- -- - -- - --
22. kleptomaniac - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
13 5
26. osteothrombosis - - - -- - - -- - -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -
29. phlebolith - - - - -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 30. polysinusitis - - -- -------------- --------------- -------------- -------------- -3 1. prediastolic ------------- -------------- --------------- -------------- --------
36. sinistral --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- 37. sphygmogram --------------- ------------------------------ -------------- -----38. stereognosis - - -- - - -- - - -- - - - -- -- -- -- - - -- - - -- - - - - - 39. subpulrnonary _______________ ______________________________ _______________ _____
42 . toponeurosis
136
LEssoN ~~ 0
Cardiovascular System
45. varicophlebitis - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 46. vasculitis - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 47. vasorrhaphy ----------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ---------48. venectasia
LESSON
11
SP RATORY
EM
It is through the veins that we take in most of our b1eath, for they are the vents of the
body, taking in the air and briuging it to the smaller vessels where it is cooled and t!Jen
released.
IHippocrates, I I,
All organs, parts, tissues, and cells of the body require oxygen to function. T he purpose of the respiratory system is
to provide the blood with air in order for the blood to
carry oxygen to all parts of the body. In all cells of the
body, oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide, which is
carried in the bloodstream to the lungs to be discharged
into the atmosphere. T he process of the inspiration
(breathing or inhaling) of oxygen and expiration (breathing out or exhaling) of carbon dioxide is called respiration. T his is one of the vital processes of life. (Fig.11 - 1).
Air enters the body through the nose and mouth and
travels downward through the pharynx and larynx, past the
vocal cords, and into the trachea or windpipe. T he trachea
branches into two tubes, the right and the left bronchi,
which enter the lungs (Fig. 11-2). After these bronchial
tubes enter the lungs, they branch off into increasingly
smaller tubes called bronchioles until they finally reach a
dead end. T he inner surface of the lungs is lined with
innumerable tiny sacs called alveoli, which become filled
with air at each inspiration (Fig. 11-3). T he pulmonary
arteries from the heart branch off into arterioles in the
lungs and then into capillaries. Blood in the capillaries
receives the oxygen from the alveoli as the hemoglobin
molecules in the blood become saturated with oxygen
from the alveoli. H emoglobin saturated with oxygen is
~,rcrC'd LJisetlSC'
7]
138
Arteriole
Frontal sinuses
-=='F:: : :D~
sinuse~
Sphenoidal
Nasal
Alveolar duct
cavity ~
Nasopharynx--
-:---.,=.---_.:....:::...
Alveolus
Middle lobe
Inferior lobe
Pleural membranes
Pleural space
Figure 11- 1. Respiratory system. (A) Anterior view. (B) Alveoli and pulmonary capil laries.
(From Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary, ed 19. F. A. Davis, Philadelphia, 2001, p 203 6,
with permission.)
RESPIRATORY
BRONCHIOLE
ALVEOLAR SAC
ALVEOLAR
DUCTS
ALVEOLUS OF LUNGS
Figure 11-.Z. Lungs. Anterior view of (A) upper and lower respiratory tracts and (B) alveoli and pulmonary capillaries. (From
Scan lon, VC, and Sanders, T: Essentials of Anatomy and
Physiology, ed 4. F. A . Davis, Philadelphia, 2003, p 33 0, with
permission.)
LEssoN 11
VOCABULARY
I especially approve of a physician who in the acute diseases, those which are fatal to the majority o f the people,
shows a certain amount of superiority over the others.
Respiratory System
Greek or Latin
Combining Form(s)
Meaning
Example
alveus
ALVE-'.'
hollow, cavity
alve-us
amygdale
AMYGOAL-
(almond] tonsil
amygdal-ine
antbrax, antbrakos
coal; anthrax
anthrac-oid
grow, mcrease
aux-m
auxein
bakterion*
brw1cbos
kapnos
lwkkos
koms
CAPNCOCC-, -COCCUS
lmynx, lmyngos
paresis,1
PARESIS
labium
bacteri-a
(windpipe) bronchus
bronchi-al
hypo-capn-ia
strepto-coccus
dust
coni-ofibrosis
lip
labi-onasal
larynx
laryng-itis
slackening of strength,
paralysis
vasa-paresis
pbmynx, pbaryngos
PHARYNX,P~YNG
[throat) pharynx
pharyng-eal
pbysa
PHYS-
air, gas
phys-ometra
pleura
PLEUR-
[side) pleura
pleur-itis
pnein
breathe
a-pne-a
pneum-arthrosis
lung
pneumon-Ia
iron
sider-ocyte
spzrare, spzratus
PNEPNEUM(AT)PNEUM(ON)SIDERSPIR(AT)-
stapbyle
ste111011
pneuma, pneumatos
pneumon
siaeros
stetbos
streptos
sudor
139
breathe
a-spirat-or
STAPHYL-
staphyl-oderma
STERNSTETHSTREPT-
stern-ocostal
[twisted) streptococci
(microorganisms
that form twisted chains)
sweat, fluid
steth-oscope
strept-icemia
tborax, tho1akos
pneumo-thorax
tmchys
TRACH(E)-, TRACHY-
[rough] trachea
trache-ostomy
tran-sud-ate
\ords containing the diminutive form alveol- refer to alveoli of the lungs or to dental alveoli.
1T hese forms of aux-, auxe-,
and -auxin indicate no uns meaning increase in size, abnormal growth of a part.
1bactcrim11
(plural, bncterin) is the Latinized form of this word.
vVords beginning with, ending with, or containing bronchi- are from broncbin, the bronchial tubes.
~The Greek noun pm.,is is formed from the preposition pnm and the verb bienni (send, throw). The compound verb pnrieuai meant to let fall,
and thus the noun pmesis meant
falling or slackening (of strength).
140
LEssoN
11
Respiratory System
ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES
In the winter occur pleurisy, pneumonia, col ds, sore
throat, coughs, pains in the side, chest, and hip, headache,
dizziness, and apoplexy. [Hippocrates, Aphorisms 23]
Those with hemorrhoids do not get pleurisy or pneumonia [Hippocrates, Humors 20].
Li ssoN II
Respiratory System
141
2. amygdalopathy - - - - -- - - - -- - - - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - -- --
4. anthrax ------------------------------------ ----------------------------------------5. antisudorific ------------ ------------ ------------------------ ------------ ------------ 6. apnea ------------ ------------ ------------------------------------------------ -----7. aspiration ------------------------------------ ------------------------ --------------8. awan ------------------------------------------------------------------------ -------
142
LEssoN 11
Respiratory System
12. coccobacilli - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 13. coniosis - - - - - -- - - - - - -- - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 14. dermatoconiosis - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 15. diplococcemia - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 16. dyspnea ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- -----17. hemilaryngectomy - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 18. hydropneumothorax - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 19. hypocapnia -- - - -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - -- - - - 20. koniometer - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 21. labiomycosis - -- - - - - -- - - -- - -- - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -22. laryn~smus - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 23. meningococcemia - -- - - -- - - -- - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 24. mycobacterium - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 25. myxadenitis labialis - - - - -- - - - - -- - -- - - - - - -- - - - - -- - - - 26. oligopnea - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - 27. oropharynx - - - - -- - - - - - - ----------- ----------- ----------- ----------- --
LEssoN 11
Respiratory System
143
28. otorhinolaryngology - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 29. paresis - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 30. peripleuritis - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 31. pharyn~smus - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 32. pneumatosis - - -- - - - -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - 33 . pneumocephalus ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
34. pneumolith - - - - - -- - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- - - - -- - -- - - - 35. pneumonolysis - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 36. pyohemothorax - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - -- - - - -- - - -- - - -- - --37. respiration - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 38. siderofibrosis - - - -- - - - -- - -- - - - -- - -- - - - - - - -- - - - -- 39. spirogram - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 40. staphylococcus _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ __
4 1. staphylolysin - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 42. sternotracheal - - - - - -- - -- - -- - -- - - -- - - - - -- - - -- - -- 43. stethoscope - - - - - -- - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 44. streptococcolysin - - - -- - -- - - -- - - -- - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - - 45. sudor _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ ____
46. thoracic - - -- - - - -- - -- - - - -- -- - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - -- - -
144
LESSON
11 Respiratory System
2. Any fungal infection of the bronch i or bronchial tubes - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - 3. Bronchial hemorrhage - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- 4. Study of dust (and its effects) - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- - - - - -- - - - - - - - --
- - - - -
6. Increased carbon dioxide (in the blood) - - -- - --- - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - 7. (Abnormal) enb1rgem ent o f the spinal co rd - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -8. Specialist in the study of the ear, (nose), ~111d larynx - -- - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - 9. Hernia through the pharynge~1l w ~1 l l - - -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10. Surgical p uncture of a lun g - - - - - - -- - - - -- - - -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -
LEssoN 11
Respiratory System
145
15. Inflammation of the muscles of the chest - -- - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- -16. Secreting or promoting the secretion of sweat - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
17. Surureofalung - - - -- -- -- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- 18. Any disease of the thorax - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - 19. Instrument used to open the trachea - - - -- -- - - -- - - - -- -- - - - - - - - -
4. amygdalolith - -- - - -- - - - -- -- - - - -- - - - - -- - -- - - --
5. antifungal - -- -- - - - -- - - -- - - - - - - - - -- - - - -- - -- - - - 6. antistaphylococcic
7. bacteriostatic - -- - - -- -- - -- - - - -- - -- - - -- -- - - - - -- - - -
8. blennorrhagia - - -- - - - -- - -- - - - - -- - -- - -- - - - -- -- - - - -
146
11. coniofibrosis
12. diaphoretic
14. dromomania
15. dysmorphic
16. echocardiogram
17. esthesioscopy
18. fungitoxic ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- ---19. hemiparesis ----------------------- --------------------------------------------- -20. hemosiderosis
2 3. inspiration - - ----------------------- ----------------------- ---------------------24. kinesioneurosis - - ----------------------- ----------------------- -----------------2 5. laparohepatotomy ---------------------- ----------------------- ------------------26. laryngocentesis ----------------------- -------------------------------------------27. meatoplasty -------------------------------------------- ------------------ - --
LEssoN 11
Respiratory
System
147
28. odontatrophy --------------------- --------------------- --------------------- 29. orexogen ----------------------- ----------------------- ----------------------- --30. pachypleuritis ---------------------- ---------------------- ----------------------
31 . pedoriliist ---------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------- --32. peribronchiolitis ----------------------- ---------------------------------------- - 3 3. photophilic --------------------- --------------------- --------------------- -34. pneumohypoderma
36. presbyacusia ----------------------- ----------------------- ----------------------- 37. prostatorrhea ----------------------- ----------------------- ---------------------
45. streptococci ----------------------- ----------------------- ---------------------- 46. sudoresis - ----------------------- ----------------------- ----------------------- -
148
LESSON 1 1
Respiratory System
4 7. thoracomyodynia
LESSON
DI
12
ESTVE
Y TE
There is but one entrtmce, the mouth, for the vmious kiuds ojfood. But what is no urisheri is 110t one single part, but many, and they are widely separated. And so, do not be
smprised ttt the great number oforgmzs which Nature has created for the pwpose of
nutritiou.
[Galen, 011 the Mzt11ml Fam!ties 1.1 0.2Jj
Every part of the body needs nutrition to maintain its ability to function and to repair and replace damaged cellular
tissue. Cells receive their nutrition from the circulating
blood, which carries the usable material from digested
food in the intestine to all parts of the body. When the
cells receive this digested food, it is changed into other
compounds for use by the body. T his is called metabolism
and involves two processes: anabolism and catabolism.
Anabolism, the constructive phase of metabolism, is the
process by which simple substances are converted into
complex substances and then into protoplasm- that is, the
conversion of nonliving material into living cellular material. Catabolism, the destructive phase of metabolism, is
the process by which complex substances are converted
into simpler substances; it is usually accompanied by the
release of energy. T he sum of anabolism and catabolism
maintains, builds up, and repairs the cellular structure of
the body and provides energy for the body to function
properly. All of this depends on nutrition.
N utrition is achieved in the body through the various
processes of ingestion, digestion, absorption, and metabolism (Fig. 12-1). T he first three of these processes take
place in the alimentary tract. T his passage begins at the
mouth and ends at the anus, where undigested, unabsorbed, and unused wastes are eliminated from the body.
Ingested food is softened by mastication and by the addi-
cion of saliva. T hree pairs of glands secrete and supply saliva: the parotid, the submandibular, and the sublingual. The
masticated, moistened, and softened food, called a bolus, is
swallowed (a process called deglutition) and passes
through the pharynx into the esophagus. A thin structure
of membranous cartilage called the epiglottis folds over the
larynx during deglutition to prevent food from entering
the larynx and moving into the respiratory passage.
T he esophagus is a tube about 10 inches long; its only
function is to convey food to the stomach. At the juncture
of the esophagus and the stomach is a muscle called the
cardiac sphincter (also known as the lower esophageal
sphincter). It lies at the entrance to the upper orifice of the
stomach, called the cardia (Greek, kardia, heart) because of
its proximity to the heart. This sphincter muscle prevents
the reflux of food and acid from the stomach into the
esophagus. If the cardiac sphincter malfunctions and food
and acid regurgitate into the esophagus, there is an irritation to the esophageal mucosa from the gastric acid called
gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), which causes
heartburn or pyrosis. Damage to the esophageal mucosa
caused by long-term reflux of gastric acid is called Barrett's
esophagus, named for British surgeon Norman Barrett
(1903-1979).
Most of the organs of the alimentary tract lie in the area
known as the abdominopelvic cavity, which is lined with a
149
150
LEssoN 12
Digestive System
Teeth
:-c-- - Parotid gland
_.;-'--;--Sublingual
- --
Pharynx
gland~
Submandibular gland
Liver
~""'''' /'"'~''
/_____--Spleen
Right lobe
Gall bladder -~--
Bile duct - - + - ---;--''"":
~'m/
- - - - Anal canal
Vermiform appendix
Figure 12-1. The digestive system. (From Scan lo n, VC, and Sanders, T: Essentials of Anatomy
and Physiology, ed4. F. A. D avis, Philadelphia, 2003 , p 35 1, with perm ission .)
serous membrane called the peritoneum. The outer surface of this membrane is called the parietal (Latin paries,
parzetis, wall) peritoneum, and the inner surface covering
the visceral organs is called the visceral peritoneum.
Inflammation of this membrane is the condition known as
peritonitis, which can originate from inflammation or
infection of any of the peritoneal organs. E ach portion of
the alimentary canal lying within the enclosure of the peri toneum is attached to the posterior wall of the body by a
double fold of peritoneal membrane known as the me sentery. Individual mesenteries are named for the specific
organ to which each is attached, for example, the mesog astrium, the m e soduodenum, and so forth. 'lwo other
double folds of the peritoneum, called the om enta (plural
LEsso N 12
151
Digestive System
Fundus of stomach
/
Longitudinal muscle
layer
Cardiac orifice
Figure 12-2. The stomach, anterior view, sectioned. (From Scan lon, VC, and Sanders, T:
Essentials of Anatomy and Phys iology, eel 4 . F. A. Davis, Phi ladelphia, 2003, p 357, part A,
w ith permission.)
digestive tract from th e esoph agus to the anus is p eristalsis, an involuntary wavelike series of contracting and relaxing m otion s of the walls of th e organs through which the
digesting and digested food pass. At the juncture of the
stomach and the duodenum is the pyloric sphincter, which
is normally closed but relaxes and opens to allow partially
digested food to pass into the duodenum.
T he du odenum is the fi rst of th ree divisions of the
small intestine. I t is followed by the je junum and th e
ileu m . T he process of digestion is completed h ere. 'i\lhen
fats enter the duodenum, the gallbladder sends bile
through the bile duct to emulsify the fat. Bile is manufactured in the liver and sent through the hepatic duct to the
gallbladder to be stored until fatty substances enter the
duodenum, stimulating its release. Bile and other juices,
including p ancreatic juice and juice from the intestine
itself, sucws ente1icus, complete the process of digestion.
T h e nutrients of digested food pass into the bloodstream
in t h e small intestine. T h e mucous lining of the small
intestine contains thousands of minutely small projections
called villi (plural of villus); th ese contain a network of capillaries th at carry the nutrients from the digested food to
the arterial capillaries, which then unite with the venous
capill aries to join the venules and venous system.
T he residue of the digested food passes through the
ileocecal sphincter into the large intestine, which consists
of the cecum, co lon, and r ectum. T h e rectum ends at the
anal opening (Fig. 12- 3). T he colon itself consists of four
segments: t he ascending colon, the transverse colon, th e
INTO CECUM
SIGMOID COLON
VERMI FORM
APPEND IX
ANAL OPENING
152
LEssoN 12
Digestive System
/
Hepatic artery
Portal vein
LEssoN 12
Digestive System
153
VOCABULARY
manne r of cold, all sweets, all kinds of beans and whatever e lse contributes to flatulen ce should be avoided.
/Celsus, De Medicina 7.6.7]
Greek or l a tin
Combining Form(s)
Meaning
Example
b//,~
BILl-
bile
bili-rubin
CARDI -
cardi -oesopbagea I
caec/1.\'
CEC-
[blind] cecum
cec-um
l:~)'Z.Ci17
CLY(S)-
cly-sis
!eopros
COPR-
copr-olith
kuas, kreato.1
CREAT-
fl esh
pan-creat-i c
dochos
-DOCH-
duct
chole-doch -al
duorfe71f
DUODEN-
[12] duodenum
duoden-um
oi.mphagos
ESOPHAG-
esophagus
esophag-ismus
fa ex, fr!cci.l
FEC-
fec-es
gwem
GEUS(T)-
taste
oxy-geus-Ia
gmg!Va
GINGIV-
gingiv-itis
g[rj.l:l'(/
GLOSS-
tongue
gloss-olabial
Ileum
ILE-
ileum
ile-um
JEJUN-
lempty] jejunum
jejun-um
lien (pronounced in
two syllables: lie' -en)
LIEN-
spl een
lien-ocele
li77gfl(/
LINGU-
tongue
lin gu-al
.
lcrm/ia
154
LESSO N
12
Digestive System
Greek or Latin
Combining Form(s)
Meaning
Example
osme
OSM-
dys-osm-ia
ospb1esis
OSPHR-
sense of smell
osphr-esis
peptein
PEPS-, PEPT-
digest
dys-peps-ia
p1oktos
PROCT-
anus
proct-oscopy
pyre
PYLE-
pyle-thrombosis
py!Oros
PYLOR-
[gatekeeper] pylorus
pylor-ic
1-ectus
RECT-
[straight] rectum
rect-al
sk(n, skatos
SCAT-
scat-ology
sialon
SIAL-
sial-osyrinx
szgma
SIGM-
sigm-oid
sphincter
SPHINCTER-
sphincter muscle
sphincter ani
splanclmon
SPLANCHN-
splanchn-a
typhlos
TYPHL-
[blind] cecum
typhl-opexy
zyme
ZYM-
en-zym-e
"l:nnlin is the G reek word for heart; it is also used to designate the upper orifice of the stomach connecting with the esophagus. It is so named because of its proximity to the
heart.
ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES
Celsus, the 1st-century AD Roman physician, was aware of
the shape, size, and position of the internal organs, knowledge that he acquired, seemingly, by dissection. In his discussion of these organs, after a description of the liver, he
turns his attention to the digestive tract.
These are the locations of th e visceral organs. The gul let
(sto machus), which is the beginning of the intestines, is
sinewy and begins at the seventh vertebra of the spine. It
joins the stomach (ventriculum) in the region of the precord ia. The stomach, which is the receptacle of food, is
comprised of two coats, and it is located between th e
spleen and the liver, w ith both of these organs overl apping it a little. There are also thin membranes by w hich
the stomach, the spleen, and the liver are connected, and
they are joined to that membrane w hich I have described
above as the transverse septum.
The lowest part of the stomach turns a little to the ri ght
and narrows as it enters the top of th e intestine. This entry
is cal led by the Greeks pylorus because, like a gateway,
it allow s through to the lower parts whatever is to be
excreted.
From this point begins the jejunum intestinum, w hich is
not folded upon itself as much. It is called the empty
intestine because it does not retain w hat it has received,
but immed iately passes it along to the lower parts.
After that comes the thi nner intestine, folded into many
loops, whi ch are connected to the more internal parts
w ith membranes. These loops are turned toward the right,
end ing in the region of the hip, occupying, however,
mostly the upper parts.
LEssoN 12
Digestive System
155
156
LESSm.J 12
Digestive System
<
2. azym1a - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
3. biliary - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - -- - - --
9. colorectostomy - -- - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - -- - - -- - -- -
10. coprolith - - - - - - -- - - - - -- - - - -- -- - - -- - - -- -- -- - - -
11. creatorrhea - - - -- - -- -- -- -- -- - - - -- - -- -- - -- -- - -- -- -
13. dolichosigmoid - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - -
Lmm' 12
Digestive System
157
14. duodenohepatic
17. fecaloid - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
2 3. jejunostomy ----------------------------------------------------------------------
25. laparotyphlotomy - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
27. lingula - - - - -- - -- -- -- - - -- - - - - -- - - - -- - - - - - - - -
2 8. melanoglossia -------------------------------------------------------------------
2 9. orolingual -----------------------------------------------------------------------
3 1. oxygeus1a -----------------------------------------------------------------------
3 2. pancreatic -----------------------------------------------------------------------
158
LEssoN
12
Digestive System
44. retrolingual - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
46. sigmoiditis - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
4 7. sigmoidopexy -----------------------------------------------------------------
50. zymolysis - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
LEssoN i 2
Digestive System
159
2. P ertaining to bile - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
12. Branch of medicine dealing with diseases and disorders of the organs of smell _ _ __ __ _ _ _ __
160
LEssoN 12
Digestive System
3. allolalia - - -- - -- - -- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- -
4. ankyloproctia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
5. biligenesis - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - -- --
8. capnophilic - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
9. cardiopyloric - - - - - -- - -- - - -- - - - - - - - - - -- - -- -- - - - - -
10. cecostomy - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
11. coprolalia - - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - -- - - -
12. dearterialization - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
13. dromotropic -- - - -- - - - - - - - -- -- - -- - - - - -- -- - - - -- --
LLssor..; 12
Digestive System
161
14. duodenojejunostomy
2 2. immunotherapy -------------------------------------------------------------------
2 5. mesenteriopexy -------------------------------------------------------------------
2 7. nasopharyngography ---------------------------------------------------------
162
37. p r e s p h y g m i c - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
38. prosopodiplegia - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
39. rectorrhaphy - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
LESSON
0PTI
YSTEM
There is a certain weakness of the eyes in which people see well in the daytime but not at
all at night. This condition does not exist in women whose menstruation is regular. Those
who Sl~ffer with this disability should anoint their eyeballs with the drippings from a liver
while it is roasting-preferably that ofa he-goat; if that is not possible, one from a shegoat; and the liver itselfshould be eaten.
!Cdsu~ ,
The globe of the eye is surrounded by three layers of tissue (Fig. 13- l). Portions of each layer have different
names as described in the following sentences. T he outermost layer, or sclera, is a tough, fibrous coat that forms a
protective covering for the delicate nerves and membranes
beneath. The anterior, visible, and transparent portion of
the sclera is called the cornea. The sclera and the cornea
form one continuous coat. The anterior portion of the
sclera is covered with a transparent mucous membrane,
the conjunctiva, an extension of the lining of the eyelids.
The portion of the conjunctiva that lines the eyelids is
called the palpebral conjunctiva (Latin palpebta, eyelid)
and the membrane covering the sclera is the bulbar conjunctiva; the loose fold connecting the two is the fornix
conjunctivae (Latin fornix, arch).
The exterior surface of the sclera is covered with a thin
layer of tissue called the episclera, which contains blood
vessels to nourish the sclera. A common disease of the sclera is episcleritis. Its cause is unknown, and the inflammation usually subsides after a few days of treatment.
The cornea is subject to bacterial, viral, and fungal
infection as well as to injury by foreign bodies. Ulceration
and abrasion of the cornea are common and usually resolve
with application of ophthalmic medications. Streptococcus
pneumoniae is a common cause of bacterial corneal ulcers
called keratitis. The most common viral cause of corneal
ulcers is herpes simplex virus (HSV); this condition is
known as herpetic keratitis. Herpes corneae, an inflam-
De Mcdicina 6.6.38)
163
164
Lens
Anterior cavity
Canal of Schlemm
Figure 13- 1. Anatomy of the eye. (From Scanlon, VC and Sanders, T: Essentials of
Anatomy and Physiology, ed 4. F. A. Davis, Philadelphia, 2003, p 194.)
Ll-550"' 13
Optic System
165
T here are three fairly common abnormalities that interfere with normal focusing: hyperopia (hypermetropia),
myopia, and astigmatism (Fig. 13-3).
Myopia, or nearsightedness, is caused by a larger than
normal eye that causes light rays to focus in front of the
retina. T his condition is corrected by the use of eyeglasses
or concave contact lenses.
H yperopia, or farsightedness, results from the failure
of light rays to focus directly on the retina. Hyperopic eyes
tend to be small, with a shallow anterior chamber. Parallel
rays of light entering the eye are focused behind the retina
instead of on the retina. Hyperopia can be corrected by the
use of eyeglasses or convex contact lenses.
Astigmatism results when the lens or the cornea is egg
shaped rather than spherical, causing some of the light rays
to focus behind the retina and some to focus in front of
it. T he condition is so named because those who suffer
from it have difficulty in focusing their sight on a point
(G reek stigma).
Surgery using lasers to correct these three common
focusing conditions is called LASIK. T he acronym stands
for laser in ~itu keratomileusis (in situ, L atin, in the natural
or normal place; ker'atos, G reek, cornea; mileusis, Greek,
shaping). As the name suggests, the procedure involves
using a ~aser to reshape the cornea into the proper configuration.
-OMA
In the terminology of ophthalmology, many words ending in -oma do not designate tumors, but various
abnormalities.
LIGHT
RAYS
EMMETROPIA
LIGHT RAYS FOCUS
ON RETINA
n '):- -
MYOPIA
LIGHT RAYS FOCUS
N FRONT OF RETINA
~.).- - -
RETINAL DETACHMENT
~~
' ~~
-~LI GHT
HYPEROPIA
RAYS FOCUS
PAST RETINA
166
VOCABULARY
It is a bad sign if hiccough and redness of the eyes follow
vomiting.[Hippocrates, Aphorisms 7.2]
Combining Form(s)
Meaning
Example
blepharon
BLEPHAR-
eyelid
blephar-ostat
chorioeicfes
CHOROID-
[skinlike] choroid
choroid-itis
kore
COR(E)-
core-oplasty
kyklos
CYCL-
dakryon
DACRY-
dacry-elcosis
l.mpes, he1petos
HERPES, HERPET-
iris, iridos
IR(ID)-
[rainbow] iris
jungere, junctus
JUNCT-
JOin
irid-ectomy
con-junct-ivitis
kems, kemtos
KERAT-
[horn] cornea
kerat-itis
lacrinta
LACRIM-
tear
lacrim-al
nzycm
MY-
close, shut
my-opia
oculus
OCUL-
eye
ocul-ar
ops
OP(S)-
VISIOil
dys-ops-ia
ophthahnos
OPHT HALM-
eye
ophthalm-ia
aptos
OPT-
opt-ical
phakos
PHAC-, PHAK-
rete, retis
retin-a
stigma, stigmatos
xeros
ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES
If the winter is dry and the winds are from the north, and
if the spring is rainy and the winds are from the south, the
summer w ill be laden with fever and w ill cause ophthalmia and dysenteries. [Hippocrates, Airs, Waters, and
Places 70]
cycl-oplegia
herpet-iform
a-phak-ia
a-stigmat-ism
dry
xer-oma
167
Figure
13~.
Iris,
168
6. binocular - - -- - -- -- -- -- -- -- -- - -- - - - -- - -- - - -- - - --7. blepharism - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - 8. blepharostat-- - - -- -- - -- - - - - -- -- - - - -- -- - - - -- - - - 9. chloropia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - 10. choroid - - -- -- -- - -- -- - - - - -- -- - - - -- - -- - -- - - - - -11. corestenoma - -- -- -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - - - -- - - 12. cyclokeratitis - - - - - - - -- -- - - -- - - - -- -- - -- - - - - -- -- --*Dis is an other name for Hades or Pluto, king of the underworld.
169
13. dacryohemorrh ea - - - - - -- -- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
14. enophthalmos - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
17. hydrophthalmo s - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
18. hypermetropia - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- -
19. hypometropia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20. iralgia - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - --
21. iridadenosis - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - -- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
22 . iridocyclectom y - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - -- -- - - -- --
24. keratorrhexis - - - - - - -- - - - -- - - - - -- - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - - -
25 . lacrimation - -- - - - - -- - - -- - - - - -- -- - - - -- -- - - - -- -- - -
28. tmcrops1a - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
29. myopta - - - -- - -- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - -- - - - - -
30. nasolacrimal - - -- - - - - - -- -- - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - - - -- - -
31. nyctamblyopia - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- -- - - - - - - - -- - -- -
170
LEssoN
13
Optic System
34. orthoptic ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----35. oxyopia ----------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ---36. palinopsia ----------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ---------37. phacolysis ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- -38. photopia ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---39. polycoria - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - -- -- - - - - - - - - - 40. presbyopia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 41. pseudopsia - - -- - - - - -- - -- - -- - - - -- - - - - - -- - - - - - - - 42. purulent conjunctivitis - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 43. retinodialysis - - - - - - -- - -- - -- - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - -- - -- 44. schizoblepharia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 45 . sinistrocula r--- - -- - - -- - - -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - -- - - - - - - -
46. stigmatism - - -- - - -- - - - -- - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 47. suppurative choroiditis - - - -- - -- - - -- - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - -- 48. varicoblepharon - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - 49. xanthopsia - -- - - -- - -- - - - -- - - - - -- - - - -- - - - - - - -- - 50. xeroma - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - - -- - - -- --
LEsso N 1 3
Optic System
171
6. Vision in which all objects appear to be blue - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7. Paralysis of the ciliary muscle - -- - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - -- - -- - - 8. Agent that stimulates the secretion of tears - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - 9. H aving a double pupil in the eye - -- - - -- - -- - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - 10. Pertaining to herpes - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - -- - - - -- - -- 11. Excision of a portion of the cornea - - -- - - - - -- -- - -- - - -- - - - - - - -- 12. Incision of the lacrimal duct - - - -- - - - -- -- - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - 13. C oncerning or affecting one eye - - - -- - -- -- - -- - - - - - -- -- -- - -- -14. Any fungal disease of the eye - -- - -- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - -- 15. Paralysis of the eye (muscles) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -
172
Lr:ssoN
13
Optic System
15. cyclectomy - - -- - - -- - - -- - - - -- - - - - -- - - - - - - -- - - - -
173
16. dentoalveolitis - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - -- - - - - - - -- - -- -
17. ergophobia - -- - - - -- - - - - -- - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - -- - 18. flerile - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- --19. herpes labialis - -- - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - -- -20. herpetiform - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -21. hypergeusesthesia - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - -- - -- - - 22. immunotorin - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
23. infusion - - -- - - - -- - - -- - - -- - -- - - -- - - - -- - -- - - - -24. intubation - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 25. intumescent - -- - -- - -- - - -- - - - - - - -- - -- - - -- - -- - - -26. iridotasis - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - -- - - -- - -- - - -- - - - - - - - 27. keratocele - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - -- - -28. macrolabia - - -- - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - -29. megalophthalm us - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - 30. monobrachius - -- - - -- - - - - -- - - - - - - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - 31 . rnyope - -- - -- - - -- - -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - 32 . oculonasal - - - - - -- - - - -- - -- - - - -- - -- - -- - - -- - -- - - 33. ophthalmatrop hy _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
34. optometry _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ _
174
LEssoN 13
Optic System
35. osmesthesia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 36. pancreatolith - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 37. pediculosis capitis - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 38. phacoanaphylaxis - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 39. posterolateral - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - 40. prostatomegaly - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 41 . protanopia _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
42. retinopathy _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
45.
SOlllC _ __ _ _ _ __
_ __
_ _ _ __
_ _ _ __ _ _ __
_ __
_ _ _ _ __
46. stereo-ophthalmoscope - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 47. sternocostal - -- -- - -- - -- - - -- - - -- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - 48. tachypnea - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 49. thyrotropin - -- - -- - - - -- - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 50. variciform - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
LESSON
FEMAL E REPRO
CTVE
STE
It is not easy for large creatznes, whether animal or anything else, to reach full development in a short time. For this 1eason horses and similar animals, although their life span
is shorter than that ofhumans, have a longer period ofgestation. The birth ofhorses
occurs after a yem~ but in humans it is about ten months. For the same reason, birth
takes a long time in elephants, whose gestation period is two years because of their peat
szze.
[Aristotle, G'meration ojAnimaLi 777b)
GYNECOLOGY
T he principal organs of the female reproductive system
are the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina. The
ovaries are two almond-shaped glands lying on either side
of the cavity of the pelvis. The ovaries produce ova (Latin,
plural of ovum, egg) and hormones. These hormones,
among which are estrogen and progesterone, are responsible for the development and maintenance of female secondary sexual characteristics and the regulation of the
menstrual cycle. Within each ovary are hundreds of
thousands of structures called follicles (Latin folliculus,
diminutive of follis, bag), each consisting of epithelial cells
surrounding a primitive ovum, the oogonium, which
develops into an oocyte, and then into an ovum (Fig.
14-1). During the normal sexual life of a woman, on an
average of once every 28 days, a single ovum matures and
is released from the ovaries. T his process, called ovulation, occurs approximately 14 days before the next
menstrual period begins. T he mature ovum enters the fallopian tube and is transported toward the uterus. If sperm
are present, it may become fertilized; if not, the ovum
175
176
LFssoN
14
ZONA PELLUCIDA
HUMAN OVUM
The uterus, or womb, is a hollow, muscular, pearshaped and pear-sized organ that lies in the true pelvis
between the bladder and rectum (Fig. 14-2). It consists of
three parts: the fundus (Latin fundus, base, foundation) or
uppermost portion; the corpus (Latin corpus, body), or
central area; and the en docervix, the lowermost portion of
the uterus, which opens into the vagina. The mucous
membrane lining the inner surface of the uterus is called
the endometrium (Greek metra, uterus); the muscular wall
of the endometrium forming its main mass is called the
myometrium. During a woman's childbearing years, from
the beginning of menstruatio n (menarche) to the end
(menopause), the uterine endometrium passes through the
cyclic changes of menstruatio n each month.
The menstrual cycle consists of four phases: the
menses, the proliferative phase, the ovulatory phase, and
the secretory phase. During the proliferative phase, the
endometrial lining proliferates, or thickens, in response to
the main hormone of this phase, estrogen. During the
ovulatory phase, the proliferative endometrium is transformed into the secretory endometrium at the time of
ovulation. During the secretory phase, the endometrium
is stabilized and prepared for implantation of the fertilized embryo. If the ovum is not fertilized and implantation
Fimbriae
Fallopian tube
Symphysis pubis
Opening of ureter
labium major
Bartholin's gland
Figure 14--2. Female genital organs. Midsagittal section. (From Scanlon, VC, and Sanders, T:
Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, ed 4. F. A. Davis, Philadelphia, 2003, p 441 , with permission .)
LmoN 1-1
177
and for the discharge of the menstrual flow. It is the passageway, or birth canal, through which the fetus passes
during labor and delivery.
T he uterine cervix is the most inferior portion of the
uterus, and opens into the vagina. The ectocervix is the
portion of the cervix visible through the vagina during
gynecologic examination. Dysplasia of the cells of the
ectocervix, ifleft untreated, can progress to cervical cancer.
H uman papillomavirus (HPV) infection is a known cause
of cervical dysplasia. The Papanicolaou test (named for
the Greek-born American scientist N icholas Papanicolaou
(1 883- 1962), commonly called a Pap test or P ap smear, is
used to screen for the presence of cervical dysplasia.
Colposcopy is a procedure used to evaluate abnormalities
of the ectocervix.
VOCABULARY
If a woman is going to have a male child her complex ion
w ill be good; if a female child, her complexion will be
bad. [Hippocrates, Aphorisms 42]
Greek or Latin
agogos
arche
cervtx, cervzczs
kolpos
kyein
eznynem
gala, galaktos
(g)nasc/., natus
gonad*
gravidust
hymen
hystera
lac, lactis
mamma
mastos
men
metra
oophoron
ovlirium'll
ovum
parere, pmws
Combining Form(s)
Meaning
Example
AGOG-
lact-agog-ue
men-arche
cervic-al
colp-oscopy
cye-SIS
metr-euryn-ter
galact-orrhea
pre-nat-al
gonad-otropin
primi-gravid-a
hymen-otomy
hyster-ectomy
lact-ation
mamm-ography
mast-ectomy
men-opause
metr-algia
oophor-ectomy
ovari-an
ov-iduct
primi-para
ARCH-, -ARCHE
CERVIC-, CERVIX
COLPCYEEURY(N)-
'T he word gonad did no t exist in either G reek or Latin; it is a modern formation as if from a G reek gonns, gonndos, probably de rived from the noun gone (birth).
tThe adjective grnvidus, in the feminine singular form, gravida, was used ns a noun to mean a pregnant woman.
*In Greek maz as was an alternate form of the word 1nnstos: micromazia.
T he compound word oophmwz did not exist in Greek. It is '' modern formation from G reek (Don, egg, and phor-, from plmein, bear, carry).
1The word ovfi,ium did not exist in Latin , although there is a rare word, ovli1ius, found only in an inscription, meanin g an egg-keeper, that is, one who takes charge of newly
laid eggs (Latin ovum). The Latin suffix -twium meant "a place (for something)"; thus, ovfi1ium, "a place for the ovum," is a valid formation. Such formations are called N ew
Latin.
HVords ending in -para indicate a woman who has given birth: primipara (Latin p1'imus, first); nullipara (Latin nul/us, none).
178
L ESSON
14
Greek or Latin
Combining Form(s)
Meaning
Example
pelvi.,
[basin] pelvis
pelv-ic
pube.l"
PELVPUB-
pub-ic
pubertas
PUBER(7)-
[manhood] puberty
puber-al
salpinx, salpingos
salping-ography
synnx, syrmgos
SALPING- , -SALPINX
SYRING-, -SYRINX
there
THEL(E)-
nipple
thel-ium
tokos
TOC-
childbirth, labor
toc-ophobia
utents
UTERVA GIN-
uter-ine
[sheath] vagina
vagin-itis
vagma
syring-e
Noun-Forming Suffix
Meaning
Examples
-ter
instrument, device
metreuryn-ter, rhineuryn-ter
ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES
The Amazons, legendary warrior women of Asia Minor,
were said to have one breast removed so as not to interfere
with the use of the bow; thus their name: a-maz on. T he
Amazon River was discovered in 1500 by the Spanish
explorer Vincente Pinzon , who named it Rio Santa A1aria
de Ia Mar Dulce. The first descent of the river from the
Andes mountains to the sea was made in 1541 by Francisco
de O rellana, who renamed it the Amazonas from a battle
that he and his followers had witl1 a fierce tribe whose
women fought alongside the men. De Orellana may have
thought that these were indeed the Amazons described by
the Greek writers.
T he word bymen meant any of a variety of membranes;
various writers used it to designate the pericardium, the
periton eum, the membrane that enclosed the brain, the
nictitating (Late Latin* nictitare, nictitatus, blink, wink)
m embrane (a third eyelid present in birds and some reptiles), parchment, and so forth. T he ancients seem not to
have used the word hymen in its modern anatomical
meanmg.
In G reek mythology, Hymen was the god of marriage
and weddings, often invoked in a wedding song, Hymenaeus,
the Hymeneal. In his great poem, the M etam01phoses, Ovid
recites the story of a wedding that was attended by the god
Hymen, but one to which he failed to bring his customary
auspices. The bridegroom and bride were Orpheus and
Emydice (Fig. 14-3). Ovid tells us that the wedding torches of Hymen sputtered and smoked, but however much
they were swung about, they failed to blaze. In further witness of tl1is ill-starred wedding, as Eurydice was crossing
the lawn, she was bitten on the ankle by a poisonous serpen t
and perished on the spot. As is well known, Orpheus wen t
*Latin of t he 3rd and 4th centuries AD is usu;tlly called Late Latin.
179
T he ancient Greeks believed that women were especially susceptible to emotional disorders and that these
disorders arose from the womb. G alen used the word bysterikos (hysterical), and seems to have used it to refer to
suffering in the womb and the emotional upheaval caused
by this distress. H ippocrates says, "vVh en a woman suffers
from hysterics or difficult labor, it is a good thing to
sneeze" [Apborioms, 5.35].
T he two oviducts senre to convey the ovum from the
ovary to the uterus. T hese tubes are called the fallopian
tubes, named for Gabriele Falloppio (1 523-1562), the
Italian anatomist who discovered the existence and the
purpose of the ovaries and the tubes that bear his name.
Like his teacher, Andreas Vesalius (1514-15 64), the most
important figure in European medicine after Galen and
before Harvey, he was accused of vivisection of humans in
his enthusiasm for research.
Another name for the fallopian tubes is the salpingian
tubes, a term that is also used for the eustachian tubes of
the ear (named for the 16th-century Italian anatomist
Bartolommeo E ustachio). T hese two sets of tubes are
named salpingian from the G reek word salpinx, salpingos
(war trumpet) because of their shape. T he common medical terminology for a complete hysterectomy, or removal
of the uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries, is total abdominal hysterectomy bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy (TAH
BSO).
T he combining forms sping- and -syrinx have varied
meanings in medicine, but usually refer to a cavity or hollow area, a fistula, or some other tubelike passage.
Syringomyelia is a disease of the spinal cord characterized
by the development of cavities in the surrounding tissues.
A sialosyrinx is a fistula into the salivary glands or a tube
for draining these glands. Syringosystrophy (Greek strophe, turning, twisting) is a twisted condition of the oviduct.
A syringe is an instrument for injecting fluids into body
cavities, tissue, and vessels.
In Greek, the syrinx was the shepherd's pipe, or pipes of
Pan. Ovid, in the Metammpboses, tells how the pipes of Pan
came into existence (Fig. 14-4). O nce upon a time there
lived on the mountain slopes of Arcadia in Greece a young,
beautiful woodland nymph named Syrinx. One day, Pan,
that rustic divinity, saw Syrinx and pursued her. Pan almost
180
LEssoN
14
Deianira sent him the cloak that Nessus had given her,
mindful of his advice. The cloak burned into the hero's
flesh and, as he lay dying in the greatest agony, he cursed
his "ill-mated" wedding bed (dyspareunon lektron) and
Deianira herself. Zeus, at length, rescued him from his suffering and brought him up to Mount Olympus as a god,
with Hebe, the daughter of Zeus and Hera, as his companion for eternity.
Epithelium (Greek epi-, over, theTe, nipple) is the layer
of cells that forms the epidermis of the skin and the surface
of mucous and serous membranes. It was first discovered
by the German histologist Jacob Henle (1809-1885). It is
not clear why this type of tissue was named "membrane
over the nipple" except for the obvious fact that epithelial
tissue does cover the nipple of the breast. Endothelium,
the layer of cells that lines the vessels and organs of the
cardiovascular system, was named by the Swiss physician
Wilhelm H is (1 831-1904).
2. antepartum ------------------------ ------------------------------------------------ -3. antenatal ------------------------ ------------------------ ------------------------ ---4. archigaster ------------------------ ------------------------ ------------------------ -5. celiohysterectomy ------------------------------------------------ ------------------6. cervicovaginitis ----------------------------------------------- ---------------------7. colpocystocele --- -- --- - - - -- -- - -- - -- -- - - - - -- - -- -- - -
LFssoN14
181
11 0 gonadal dysgenesis - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - -- -- - - - - - - - -- -- -
17 hyperlactation
0
180 hysterosalpingography - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
190 inframammary - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - - -- -- - - - - - - - - -- - - - - -
182
LEssoN 14
31 . oligomenorrhea - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
32. oophorocystosis - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
46. syringoma - - - -- - - -- - -- - - - - - -- - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- -47. theloncus - ---------------------------------------- --------- - - -- -- - - 48. tocophobia - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - ---- - - - 49. uterorubal - - - - - -- -- -- - -- -- - - -- -- -- - -- -- - - -- - - 50. vagm1smus - - -- - - - -- - - -- - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -
LEssoN 14
183
4. M ilk production - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6. Inflammation of a membrane - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - -- - - -
184
LEssoN 14
19. Concerning the uterus and rectum - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 20. Drylabor ________________________________________ ________________________
2. archenteron - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3. astigmometer _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
4. cheirognostic - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
5. colpomicroscope - -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- -- -- -- - - - -- -
8. digitus - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
9. dysthanasia - -- -- -- - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - - - - - - - - -- - -- -
11. expiration - - -- - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - -- -
12. gonadotropin - -- - - - - -- - - -- -- - - - -- - - -- - - - -- - -- - - -
13. heterokeratoplasty - - - -- - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - - -- - - - - -- -- - -
14. hydrometra - - - - -- - - - -- - - - - -- - - - -- - - -- - - -- - - - --
LLsso
14
185
15. h y p e r t h y r o i d i s m - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
16. hysterolith - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
17. ileocystoplasty - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - -- - --
18. ischidrosis - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
19. lacrimotome
20. lactation - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
21. mammography - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - -- - -- -
22. mastochondroma - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
23 . melanin - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - - - - - -
24. metrectopia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
25 . osmes1s - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - -- - - - -- - - - - - -- - --
28. panhysterocolpectomy - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - -- - - - - - - -- - -- - - -
30. phacohymenitis - - - - - - - -- - - - -- - - - - - - - -- -- -- - - - -- - -
3 1. poliovirus - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -- - -- -- - - - -- - - - -- -- - - - --
32. prenatal - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - -- -- - - - -- - -
33. pseudocyesis - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -- - - -- - - - -- - -- -- - - -
186
LEssoN
14
34. psychopharmacology - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
35. pubalgia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
36. quadriceps - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
40. sarcoadenoma - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - - -
4 1. sclera-oophoritis - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
42. sialagogue - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- -
43. splanchnoptosis - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
44. stethoparalysis - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -
45. syringocarcinoma - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
46. thelarche - - - - - - -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - - - - - - - -
47. uterine - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - -
48. vaginogenic - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - - - - - - - - - -
49. xanthocyanopia - - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - - -- - -
50. xeroderma - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - -- - - - - - - - -- - --
LESSON
GENITOURINARY
STEM
If fl Cflrbzmcle forms on the penis,
187
188
LEssoN 15
Genitourinary System
" ~ Sacrum
\
Opening of ureter
Rectum
Seminal vesicle
Ejaculatory duct
Prostate gland
Membranous urethra
Testis
Figure 15- 1. Male genital organs. Midsagittal section. (From Scanlon, VC, and Sanders, T: Essentials
of Anatomy and Physiology, ed 4 . F. A. Davis, Philadelphia, 2003, p 438, with permission.)
Mitosis
Spermatogonia
Spermatozoa
(mature sperm)
Figure 15- 2. Spermatogenesis. (From Scanlon, VC, and Sanders, T: Essentia ls of Anato my and
Physio logy, ed 4 . F. A. Davis, Philad e lp hia, 2003, p 43 5, with permission .)
LEssoN
D uring the development of the male fetus, the testes are
lodged within the body. Some time before birth, in the late
stages of gestation, the testes descend into the scrotum.
Occasionally, this descent does not take place, or occurs
incompletely, so that one or both testes remain within the
abdomen or somewhere along the line of descent. T his is
called cryptorchidism. Spermatogenesis is not possible in
a testicle that remains within the body, perhaps because of
the destruction of epithelium from body heat. T herefore,
surgery is frequently performed to relocate the undescended testicle into the scrotum. Such an operation
(suturing the testicle to the tissue of the scrotum) is called
orchidopexy (formerly orchiorrhaphy). T his surgery is
commonly referred to as "button surgery" because of the
tiny button sutured to the exterior of the scrotum, which
holds the testicle in place during the healing process.
T here are anywhere from 120 to over 500 million
sperm in a normal amount of ejaculate (2 to 5 mL). The
ejaculate must contain this large number of sperm for a
single sperm to find and fertilize the ovum. Any one sperm
is capable of fertilizing the ovum of the female. vVhen
male sperm count falls substantially, infertility usually
results.
URINARY SYSTEM
T he kidneys are a pair of organs lying on the left and right
side of the upper abdominal cavity behind the peritoneum.
T hey are, therefore, referred to as retroperitoneal organs
(Fig. 15- 3). T he kidneys filter wastes from the blood and
maintain its proper acid-alkaline balance. End products of
metabolism include the following: (1) those from proteins,
15
Genitourinary System
Renal artery
Renal vein
....,..........._...,:,._
189
Interlobar
artery
-Ureter
Figure 15- 3. Kidney, fronta l section . (Reproduced from Scanlon, VC, and Sanders, T:
Essentials of An atomy and Physio logy, eel 4. F. A . Davis, Philadelphia, 2003, p 401, with permissio n.)
Renal tubule
190
Prerenal
Inadequate blood
flow to the kidney
Severe dehydration;
prolonged hypotension; renal ischemia
or emboli; septic or
cardiogenic shock
Renal
Injury to kidney
glomeruli or tubules
Glomerulonephritis;
toxic injury to the
kidneys (e.g., by
drugs or poisons)
Postrenal
Obstruction to urinary
outflow
Prostatic hyperplasia;
bladder outlet
obstruction
agenesis is not necessarily fatal because one kidney is sufficient to sustain life.
Complete loss of function, or ARF, often results immediately after kidney damage from a number of causes: (1)
parenchymal damage to the kidney caused by toxins, such
as contrast dye, or from infectious etiologies, such as
glomerulonephritis; (2) certain drugs, such as cyclosporines, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors
for the treatment of hypertension, or nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), all of which cause functional impairment; (3) decreased blood flow to the kidneys
resulting in renal ischemia secondary to shock or dehydration; and (4) obstruction of the urinary outflow tract.
The immediate result of ARF is a rapid concentration
of ur ea, uric acid, potassium, and other undesirable substances in the blood. Failure to excrete nitrogenous wastes
in the urea and uric acid causes the condition known as
uremia, or azotemia. Failure to excrete potassium causes
the condition called hyperkalemia. O liguria usually
accompanies ARF and is present when the daily urine volume is insufficient to remove the solute loads that are the
end products of metabolism.
Streptococcal infection, particularly in the respiratory
tract , can result in acute glomerular nephritis, or
glomerulon ephritis. It is not the infection itself that
causes damage to the kidneys; rather, the glomeruli
become inflamed in a reaction to the antibodies that are
formed to combat the infection. T his causes malfunction
of the nephrons in varying degrees, sometimes resulting in
ARF. U sual symptoms of glomerulonephritis include
hematuria , pr otein u ria, albumin u ria, oliguria, red
blood cell casts, pruritus, nausea, constipation, hypertension, and edema. Treatment with immunosuppressive
drugs may reverse the lesions caused by glomerulonephritis in patients with ARF.
Rhabdomyolysis is a potentially fatal disease in which
the by-products of skeletal muscle destruction accumulate
in renal tubules, causing ARF. Rhabdomyolysis may result
from crush injuries, toxic effects on skeletal muscles produced by drugs or chemicals, extremes of exertion, shock,
sepsis, and severe hyponatremia (Greek, hypo-, deficient,
N ew Latin, natrium, sodium, G reek, hainza, blood), or can
result from a decreased concentration of sodium in the
blood. Life-threatening hyperkalemia and metabolic acidosis may result from untreated rhabdomyolysis.
Inflammation of the renal pelvis is called pyelitis, but
the disease invariably extends into the body of the kidney
itself, the renal parenchyma. T he proper term for the disease when it affects both the pelvis and the body of the kidney is pyelonephritis. Almost any pyogenic bacterium can
cause this disease, although in most cases Escherichia coli is
the responsible microbe. Prompt therapy with antibiotics
is effective in treating this disease. Sometimes it is desirable to obtain an x-ray view of the movement of blood
through the renal veins. This procedure, called an intravenous pyelogram (IVP), involves injecting a radiopaque
substance through the renal vein and taking a series of
DIABETES MELLITUS
D iabetes mellitus, or sugar diabetes, is a chron ic disease
characterized by varying degrees of inability to metabolize
carbohydrates. T his is caused by inadequate production
and secretion of insulin by the beta cells of the islets of
Langerhans in the pancreas (named after Paul L angerhans,
a G erman path ologist, 1847- 1888). Another cmse is
resistance to the metabolic effects of insulin in the ce lis of
the body. .Mani festations of th e di sease are elevated blood
sugar (hyperglycemia) and sugar in the urine (glyco suria). Symptoms include polydipsia, polyuria, loss of
weight (despite polyphagia), and fatigue. when the
course of diabetes is allowed to advance with out proper
treatment, diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and coma can
result. DKA is characterized by severe nausea, vomiting,
dyspnea, and delirium .
191
Usually < 30
Usually > 40
Symptom onset
Abrupt
Gradual
Body weight
N ormal
Obese (80%)
HLA association
Positive
Negative
Family hist01y
Insulin in blood
Common
Little to none
N early universal
Some usually
present
Islet cell
antibodies
Present at onset
Absent
P revalence
0.2% to 0.3%
6%
Symptoms
Eventually develop
Usually develop
Fluctuates, may be
difficult to control
May be difficult to
control in poorly
motivated
Control
Vascular and
neural changes
Stabi lity of
condition
Sou rce: From "fi1ber\' C)'dopcdic Mcdim/ Dictionmy, eel 19. FA Davis, P hiladelphia,
2001 , p 557, with pe rmissio n.
192
LEssoN 15
Genitourinary System
VESICLE
The word vesicle, as well as words beginning in vesicul-,
is a modern formation (New Latin) as a diminutive of
vesica; these words mean either (1) a small sac containing
fluid, especially a seminal vesicle, or (2) a small, blisterlike elevation on the skin containing serous fluid, as in
the word vesicopustular.
ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES
The word kalium, the chemical name for the element
potassium, was formed from the Arabic word qali, the
name of the plant now known in English as saltwort, from
the ashes of which potash was made. Sir Humphry Davy
(1778-1 829) first separated potassium from potash, which
previously had been considered an element, and gave it the
name potassium. T he Swedish chemist J ons Jacob
Berzelius (1779-1848) coined the name kalium and applied
it to the newly isolated element. Such formations are
VOCABULARY
Note: Latin combining forms are in bold italics.
Greek or latin
Combining Form(s)
Meaning
Example
aktis, aktinos
agra
ACTIN-AGRA
actin-ogenic
pod-agra
cm'1:e:r:, conicis
k1y(m)ost
CORTIC-, CORTEX
CRY(M)-
[ray] radiation
[hunting] (sudden) pain, gout
[bark, rind] outer layer (of an organ)
glykys
GLYC-
inf!;uen, inguinis
sperma, spermatos
INGUIN-LAGNIA
ORCHI(D)-,* ORCH (E)PENPHALLPYELRHABDSCROTSEM-, SEMINSPERM(AT)-
ouron
OU1eteT
lagneia
orcbis, onbios
penis
phallos
pyelos
Thabdos
scrotum
semen, seminis
ourethm
vestca
z oon
icy cold
sugar
groin
abnormal sexual excitation or gratification
testicle
adrenal cortex
cry-otherapy
hypo-glyc-emia
inguin-al
[tail] penis
pems
algo-lagnia
mon-orchid-ism
pen-ile
phall-ic
renal pelvis
rod
[bag] scrotum
pyel-onephritis
rhabd-omyolysis
scrot-ocele
UR-
seed, semen
seed, sperm, semen
urine, urinary tract, uric acid
in-semin-ation
sperm-icide
ur-ine
URETERURETHR-
ureter
urethra
ureter-ostoma
urethr-itis
VESICZO-
(urinary) bladder
animal, organism
vesic-ocele
zo-ophyte
193
3. actinogenic
194
5. algolagnia - -- - - -- - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - - - -- -- - -- - - -
6. anuresis - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - - - -- - --
7. azoospermia - - - - -- - -- - - -- -- - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - - - - - - - --
8. cerebellar cortex - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -
11. cryalgesia - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - -- - -- - -- -- - - -- -
12. cryrnophilic - - -- - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -
13. cryptorchidism
14. dysuria
15. epizoon
16. euglycemia
20. mosuna
21. insemination _ _ _ _ _ __ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ _
LESSON 15
Genitourinary
System
195
23. monorchi d - -- -- -- - - - - - - -- - -- - - -- -- -- -- -- - -- - - -
26. orcheoplasty
2 7. orchidoncus
28. paravesical - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - -- - - - - -- - - - - -- - -- - - -
3 1. phalliform
34. protozoology
35. pseudohemaruria _ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ __ __ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ __
36. pyelogram
37. pyosemJa
41. seminiferous
196
LEssoN
15
Genitourinary System
4. (Congenital) absence of one or more testicles ------------------------ --------------------5. Pertaining to the cervix uteri and bladder ------------------------ --------------------------
6. Ulceration of the urinary tract ------------------------ ------------------------ --------7. Loss of sense of cold ----------------------- ----------------------------------------8. Study of the effect of cold on biological systems ----------------------- --------------------
LEssoN 15
Genitourinary System
197
13. Inflammation of the penis - -- - -- -- -- - -- -- - -- - - -- - - -- -- - 14. Dilation of the renal pelvis - - -- -- - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - -- - - - - - - 15. Suppression of the semen
17. Resembling a rod - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- 18. (Irritability or) spasm of the urethra - - -- - - - - -- - -- - - -- - - - - - - - -19. Yellow pigment of the urine - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- - -- -- - - - - - 20. (Abnormal) love of animals
2. actinotherapy - - - -- - - - - - - - -- -- - - - -- -- -- -- -- - - -- 3. agnathia _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ __
4. antigalactic
5. brachygnathia
198
7. c~odynia --------------- --------------- --------------- --------------- -------8. cryoilierapy _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ ________
9. dacryopyorrhea _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ ________
10. dactyledema --------------- --------------- --------------- --------------- ------11 . dysthyroidism --------------- ------------------------------ --------------- -----
12. fecaluria
13. hemocytozoon - --------------- --------------- --------------- --------------- ----14. homeo-osteoplasty --------------- --------------- --------------- --------------- --15. hydrophilism ------------ -- -- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
16. hyperuricemia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
17. hyposynergia -------------- --------------- --------------- -------------------18. immunifacient - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 19. inguinolabial _ _ ___________ ___________ _____ _________ __________ _
20. leukocoria _______ _ _ ___ ~----------------------------------21. mastatrophia --------------- ------------------------ - --------------- ----------- -
2 3. neurocrine ----- - ------------- -------------- -------------- ---------- ------24. nosophobia - - ---- ------ - --------------- ------ - -------------- --------- -----
LEssoN 1s
Genitourinary System
199
30. phalloncus
35. pyelocystostomosis
36. rhabdovirus _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ __ __ __ __ _ _ __ _ __ __ __ _
37. scrotoplasty _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
200
LESSON 1
s Genitourinary System
44. thyroaplasia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
45. trophocyte
46. ureteroureteros tomy ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ___
4 7. urethrotome
48. vesicoclysis
49. ventrose ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ____
50. zoopsia - - - -- - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - -- - -- - - -- - - -- - -- - -
UNIT
ADDITIONAL STUDY
HEMAT OPOIET IC AND LYMPHATIC SYSTEMS
MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM
NERVO US SYSTEM
ENDOC RINE SYSTEM
201
LESSON
ERYTHROCYTES
Erythrocytes are mature RBCs. In adults, erythrocyte
formation (called erythropoiesis ) takes place in bone
marrow, principally in the vertebrae, ribs, and sternum
(breastbone); the spongy layer within the cranial bones
(diploe); and the long bones of the arms and legs.
Immature erythrocytes are called erythroblasts, and each
contains a nucleus (Latin nucleus, kernel, diminutive of
nux, nucis, nut), the structure within a cell that contains the
chromosomes and is responsible for the cell's metabolism,
growth, and reproduction. \Vhen erythroblasts mature,
they expel their nuclei and become fully developed erythrocytes called akaryocytes, cells without a nucleus. t
Each erythrocyte has a typical cell membrane and an
*Greek plate (flat); -let is an English diminutive suffix derived from French.
Taber ) Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary, ed 19. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis, 200 l , entry
for erythrocyte for fu rther explanation of this process.
*For a discussion of this function of blood, see Lesson ll, The Respiratory System.
1Sec
204
Water 91.5%
Blood cells
(per cubic
millimeter)
Thrombocytes 150,000-300,000
Leukocytes 5,000-10,000
Nutrients
Fibrinogen 7%
Hormones
Globulins
38%
Nitrogenous
wastes
Respiratory
gases
Lymphocytes
20-35%
Albumins
55%
Neutrophds
55-70%
i
Electrolytes
Other substances
II
Proteins
Leukocytes
Figure 16-l. Blood compositio n, showing components of blood and thei r relationship to
other body tissues. (From Scanlon, VC, and Sanders, T: Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology,
ed 4. F. A. Davis, Philadelphi a, 2003, p 239, with permission .)
LEsso ' 16
percentage of total blood volume that consists of erythrocytes, or as the volume in cubic centimeters of erythrocytes packed by centrifugation. The normal average for
men is about 47 percent and that for women about 42 percent. A decrease below the normal number is called erythropenia, and an abnormal increase in hematocrit is
called polycythem ia or erythrocyto sis.
LEUKOCYTES
Leukocytes can be classified into two groups, both of
which possess nuclei. One type, called granulocyte s, contains granules (Latin g;ranulum, diminutive of granum,
grain, seed), minute, grainlike bodies located in the cytoplasm, the substance of a cell outside its nucleus.
Leukocytes without granules are called agranulocyt es.
Granular leukocytes, which readily accept certain kinds of
dyes, are characterized and grouped according to the type
of dye that will stain them. T he granules of some leukocytes stain red; these cells are called eosinophils , or
eosinophilic leukocytes, from the acid dye that stains
them, eosin, a red dye. Other cells stain blue and are called
basophils (Greek basis, base), or basophilic leukocytes,
because the dye that stains them is a basic, or nonacidicthat is, alkaline-dy e of a bluish color. M ost leukocytes,
however, take on a purplish color and are called neutrophils, or neutrophilic leukocytes, because they can be
stained only by neutral dyes (dyes that are neither acidic
PLATELETS
Platelets are flat round or oval disks of microscopic size
found in the blood (Fig. 16-2). They number 130,000 to
400,000 per mm 3 . Sometimes called thrombocyt es, they
play an important part in the coagulation of blood, in the
Fibrin
205
Figure 16-2. Platel et plug formation and clotting. (From Scanlon, VC, and Sanders, T:
Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, ed 4. F. A. Davis, Philadelphia, 2003, p 25 1, with permission.)
206
CLOTTI NG
When blood is exposed to air, it changes into a soft, jellylike mass called a blood clot. This process is called blood
clotting or blood coagulation. This physical change from
a liquid to a nonfluid mass is caused by a protein substance
normally present in plasma, fibrinogen. When blood
escapes from the vessels that normally contain it, a substance called thrombin is formed from elements present in
the blood. T he thrombin acts on the fibrinogen and converts it into fibrin, an insoluble, elastic, stringy substance
that forms a network in which platelets are caught. These
platelets cling together, and a clot is formed. Clotting is
slowed down by cold, by a deficiency of calcium, by the
presence of certain mineral salts, and by anticoagulants
such as h eparin or co umadin, as well as by hemolytic
agents such as snake venom.
Hemophilia is a rare, hereditary blood disease that
occurs almost exclusively in males. It is characterize d by a
prolonged coagulation time; that is, the blood fails to clot
in the normal time because of a deficiency of bloodclotting proteins. There are two types of hemophilia:
hemophilia A, which affects 1 in 5,000 to 10,000 boys in
whom blood clotting factor VIII is either missing or defective; and hemophilia B, which affects 1 in 30,000 boys in
whom blood clotting factor IX is deficient or missing.
Treatment for hemophilia includes intravenous replacement of the deficient clotting factors and the addition of
chemothera peutic agents that promote clotting.
Individuals with hemophilia should avoid drugs that interfere with the coagulation process (such as heparin), and
must be careful to avoid trauma.
ANEMIA
LEUKEMIA
Leukemia is a class of hematologic cancers in which immature blood cells multiply at the expense of normal blood
cells. As normal blood cells are depleted from the body,
L[SSON 16
207
Normal hemoglobin
Sickle
hemoglobin
(Hb S)
Figure 16- 3. Sickle cell anemia. (From Scanlon, VC, and Sanders, T: Essentials of Anatom y
and Physiology, eel 4. F. A. Davis, Philadelphia, 2003 , p 55 , with permission.)
advances in chemotherapy, nearly 80 percent of children and one third of adults with ALL are cured.
Acute myeloid leukemia or AML (also called acute
myelogenous leukemia and acute nonlymphocyti c
leukemia, ANLL), refers to a group of hematologic
cancers in which neoplastic (Greek neos, new and plassein, form, develop) cells form in the blood and bone
marrow. Treatment with cytotoxic chemotherapy and
with bone marrow and stem cell transplantation currently results in complete remission for approximately 65 percent of patients with AML.
Chronic lymphocytic leukemia or CLL is a malignancy in which abnormal lymphocytes, usually B
cells, grow and infiltrate body tissues, often resulting
in enlargement of lymph nodes and immune system
dysfunction. Patients with early stage CLL are frequently not treated, but for patients in advanced
stages of the disease, various cytotoxic chemotherapeutic regimens are available.
Chronic myeloid leukemia or CML (also called
chronic myelogenous leukemia) is a disease marked
by chronic increase in the number of granulocytes,
splenomegaly, and a genetic anomaly in the bone
marrow called the Philadelphia chromosome, the
208
body where all of these vessels empty into either the right
lymphatic duct or the left (thoracic) duct. These two ducts
empty into the venous system, thus returning the tissue
fluid to the circulating blood. The function of the lymphatic system is twofold: (1) to return to the circulating
blood proteins that have leaked out of the capillaries and
into the tissues, and (2) to filter foreign matter, especially
bacteria, and destroy it through the phagocytic action of
the lymphocytes.
All along the lymphatic vessels are accumulations of tissue called lymph nodes (Latin nodus, knot) (Fig. 16-5).
Within the nodes are spaces called lymph sinuses (Latin
sinus, curve, hollow); lining the walls of these sinuses are
phagocytes called reticuloend othelial cells,* which
engulf and destroy foreign material and bacteria from the
lymph as these substances pass through the nodes. It is this
phagocytic activity in the nodes that causes the nodes to
become swollen during severe infection. Lymph nodes are
par ticularly abundant in the axillae (Latin axilla, armpit)
Cubital nodes
Figure 16-4. The lymphatic system. (From Scanlon, VC, a nd Sa nders, T: Essentials of Anatomy
and Physiology, ed 4 . F.A. Davis, Philadelphia, 2003, p 309, with permission .)
*Latin reticulum, diminutive of rete, net, Greek endon, within, the/e, nipple. Lymph sinuses are lined with endothelial tissue.
L LSSO"< 1 6
209
Efferent lymphatic
vessel
Antigen
(enlarged)
Fig-ure 16-5. Lymph node. (From Scanlon, VC, and Sanders, T: Essentials of Anatomy and
Physiology, ed 4. F. A. Davis, Phi ladelphia, 2003, p 310, w ith permission.)
and neck because the right and left lymphatic ducts empty
into the right and left jugular veins (Latin jugulum, throat,
neck) in the neck.
T he phagocytes of the lymph nodes are able to destroy
some cancer cells, but many of these malignant cells may
be transferred to other parts of the body through the lymphatics, creating metastases (singular metastasis, from
Greek meta-, change, and stasis, position), secondary
growths of malignancies spread from the site of a primary
growth.
Inflammation of the lymph nodes is called lymphadenitis and inflammation of the lymphatic vessels is
called lymphangitis. Abnormal enlargement of the lymph
nodes is one of the symptoms of Hodgkin's disease,
named for British physician Thomas H odgkin
(1798- 1866), a form of carcinoma characterized by inflammatory infiltration of lymphocytes into the bone marrow,
which results in disturbed hematopoiesis and anemia.
Lymphoma refers to any malignancy originating from
lymphocytes.
VOCABULARY
Note: Latin combining forms appear in bold italics.
Greek or Latin
Combining Form(s)
Meaning
Example
blastos
BLAST-
eos
EOS-
globus
GLOB-
myelo-blast
eos-m
glob-ulin
210
Lrsso'" 16
Greek or latin
Combining Form(s)
Meaning
Example
granulum
GRANUL-
granul-ar
kmyon
KARY-
lympha
LYMPHMONNEUTR-*
-PHIL-t
granule
[nut] nucleus
[clear water] lymph
monos
neuter
philcin
kary-ophage
single
lymph-atic
mon-ochromatic
neither
neutr-ophil
baso-phil
*In this terminology, words beginning with or containing NEUTR- refer to neutral dyes-those that are neither acid nor alkaline (basic).
tin this terminology, words containing the combining form PHIL- refer to the capacity of a cell to accept dye. A neutrophil is a cell that stains easily with neutral dyes.
ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES
The Greek and Latin languages are called cognate, which
means literally "coming into being together," because both
are derived from a parent language called Indo-European.
Thus, just as there are many words in the Romance languages (which are all derived from Latin) with similar
form and meaning, so there are words in Greek and in
Latin with these similarities. The -penia in erythropenia,
for example, is from the G reek penia (poverty, need), and is
related in this way to the Latin noun penuria (want, need,
scarcity). T he words penury, poverty, and penurious,
stingy, are from this Latin word. The same relationship
exists between Greek leukos (white), and Latin lux, lucis
(light), as in the words lucid (clear) and translucent
(transmitting light).
Another group of words with this same relationship is
derived from the Greek verb histanai (stand) and the two
Latin verbs stan, siatus (stand), and statuere, statutus,
-stituere, -stitutus (stand, set in place). These verbs have
given rise to such words as hemostat, stasis, metastasis,
homeostasis, st ation, statue, interstitial, constitution ,
and consistent.
Eosin, the red dye for which eosinophils have a special
affinity, takes its name from the G reek word for the dawn,
eos. In early Greek times, Eos (Dawn) was thought to be a
goddess, a daughter of H yperion and Theia, two of the
Titans, primeval children of Sky and Earth. Dawn's sister
was Selene, the moon, and her brother was Helios, the
sun. In the Homeric poems, the new day was often heralded by the appearance of rhododaktylos Eos, rosy-fingered
Dawn. On one occasion, Eos fell in love with a mortal,
Tithonus, a brother of Priam, king of Troy at the time of
the Trojan War. She carried the young man away to her
home in E thiopia, and secured immortality for him. But
she neglected to obtain eternal youth for the unfortunate
Tithonus, and although he was deathless, he continued to
age. Some say that he was eventually changed into a
grasshopper, a creature that renews its youth by casting off
its old skin.
Tennyson recalls the sad story of this youth in his poem
Tithonus (1860), in which the unhappy lover asks Dawn to
release him from immortality:
211
212
LESSO N
16
4. ecchymoses --------------- --------------- --------------- --------------- ----------5. ecchymotic --------------- --------------- --------------- --------------- ----------6. eosin --------------- --------------- --------------- --------------- --------------7. erythroblastosis - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8. erythropoiesis - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- - - -- ---
14. hematin - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 15. hematophagia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 16. hematopoiesis - - -- -- - -- -- - -- - - -- -- -- -- -- - - - - - - - - - - 17. hemoglobinocholia - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 18. hemoglobinolysis - -- -- -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -19. hemoglobinuria - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 20. hemopathology - - -- -- -- - - - -- -- - - - - - - - - -- - - - - --21 . hypereosinophilic syndrome - -- - - -- - - - - - - - -- -- - - - - - - - -- - - 22. karyochromatophil --- - - -- - - -- - - -- - -- -- -- - - -- - - - -- - --
LEssoN 1 6
213
lympho~otoxin
3 7. lymphogranulomatosis - - -- - - -- - -- - - - - - - - -- - - -- - -- - -- 38. l~phoma - - - - - - - -- -- - -- -- - -- - - -- - - - - - - - - 39. l~phopoiesis - -- - - - - - -- - - - -- - - -- -- - - - - -- -- - -- 40. monoc~e - - - - - - - - -- - -- - -- - - - - - - -- - -- -- - - - - - - *From New Latin lympbatims (lymphatic, a lymph vessel).
214
LEssoN
41. monocytopenia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 42. monocytosis - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 43. myeloblast - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - 44. polykaryocyte - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 45. thrombase - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - - - - -
46. thrombin - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 47. thromboclasis - - - -- - - -- - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -48. thrombocyte - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 49. thrombopenia - -- - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - -- -- 50. thrombophilia - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
LESSON
17
M sc L
YSTEM
The musculoskeletal system has several important functions in the body (Fig. 17-1). It serves to support the body,
give it shape, and protect its vital organs. T he musculoskeletal system makes movement possible. M uscle (Latin
both a little mouse and a muscle) is a type of tissue composed of contractile cells or fibers, the outstanding characteristic of which is their elasticity, their ability to
Sternocleidomastoid
Trapezius
Pectoralis maJor
T
External oblique
Trapezius
Internal oblique
"
Infraspinatus
Rectus abdominus
Rhomboideus
major
Figure 17- 1. Muscl es of the trunk. (A) Anteri or, (B) posterior. (From Scan lon, VC, and
Sanders, T: Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, ed 4 . F. A. Davis, Philadelp hia, 2003 , p 145 ,
with permission. )
215
216
expand and contract. Muscle tissue possesses little intercellular material and, as a result, its cells or fibers lie close
together.
Three types of muscle tissue are differentiated in the
body: smooth, cardiac, and striated (also called skeletal)
(Fig. 17-2). Smooth muscle tissue forms the involuntaty
muscles, so named because they are not under conscious
control. These muscles are found mainly in the internal
organs-for example, in the digestive tract, the respiratmy
passages, the urinary and genital ducts, and the walls of
blood vessels. Spindle shaped in form, smooth muscle cells
each contain a central nucleus and are arranged in sheets,
or layers. They are sometimes found as isolated units in
connective tissue.
Cardiac tissue is the tissue of the muscle of the heart.
Cardiac muscle fibers branch and interconnect (anastomose), forming a continuous network, or syncytium. At
intervals, the fibers are crossed by bands, or intercalated
discs. Atypical muscle fibers beneath the endocardium,
known as Purkinje fibers, form the impulse-conducting
system of the heart.
Striated (or skeletal) muscle tissue composes the voluntary muscles, those that are under conscious control. It
is these muscles that we are concerned with here (Fig.
17-3). Striated muscle fibers possess alternate ligh t
and dark bands, or striations, and are found in all skeletal
muscles. These muscle fibers are grouped into bundles
Smooth muscle
Cardiac muscle
./
(Approximately 430X)
(Approximately 430X)
(Approximately 430X)
Figure 17- 2. Compari son of properties of three types of muscle. (Fro m Scanlon, VC, and
Sanders, T: Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, ed 4. F. A. Davis, Phil adelphia, 2003, p 74,
with permi ssion .)
LESSON 1 7
Musculoskeleta l System
217
8 Bundles of
muscle cells
~ Muscle
cells (fibers)
..--.- Myofibril
A Entire muscle
Sarcoplasmic
reticulum
Traverse ----'!.,......---!'
tubule
Troponin
Tropomyosin
Figure 17- 3. Skeletal muscle. (From Scanl on, VC, a nd Sa nders, T: Essentia ls of Anatomy and
Physiology, ed 4. F. A. Davis, Phi ladelphia, 2003, p 136, with permiss ion .)
218
LEssoN 1 7
Musculoskeletal System
NOUN DECLENSION
In the naming of muscles, Latin nouns and adjectives are
found in the forms of different grammatical cases, and in
both singular and plural. T he cases most commonly used
are the nominative (the form found in the vocabularies)
and the genitive, or possessive, case, in both singular and
plural.
Singular
Nominative
f.:
ear
azwicula,
digitus, m., finger, toe
labium, n., lip
mus, m. and f., muscle
manus, f., hand
Genit ive
Nominative
Genitive
awiculae
digiti
Iabiz
auriculiirmn
manus
auriculae
digiti
labia
mures
manus
genus
genua
genuum
?nUt"IS
digitorum
lablorum
murum
manuum
'T he abbreviations m., f. , and n. are for masculine, feminine, and neuter.
LATIN ADJECTIVES
~minative Singular
II
Genitive Singular
femoris
.
of the thigh" (that is, the
I
thigh muscle) I
indicis
extensor
1
I
of the index (that is, the
"the extensor (muscle)
finger"
I
index finger's
extensor
muscle)
' In Latin, adjectives follow the nouns they describe:
adductor brevis
adductor longus
1
"the short adductor
"the long adductor
(muscle)"
(muscle)"
In English, adjectives precede the nouns they describe:
I
adductor muscle
1 flexor muscle
rectus
"the straight (muscle)
SELECTED VOCABULARY
FOR NAMES OF M USCLES
Latin
abductor
accele1ator
adductor
Meaning
that which leads away, abductor
that which speeds up, accelerator
that which leads toward, adductor
T HE ORDER OF WORDS
T he word abductor is not found in Latin of the classical period, but has been
formed on the model of othe r Latin words o f similar construction. Such words
(and terms), common in the terminology of anatomy and biology, are called N ew
Latin. Several other words in this vocabulary are N ew Latin.
LEssoN
ala
angulus
anus
arrector
1 m1:icularis
, auricula
Ibiceps
ibrevis
Ibuccinator
corrugator
cubitum
depressor
digitus
dilator
extensor
femur, femoris
flexor
genu, genus
hallux, hallucis
index, indicis
levator
manus, manus
medius
mentalis
nunzmus
nans
nasus
opponens
palpebra
pes, pedis
pilus
pollex, pollicis
pupilla
rotator
1 supercilium
superior, superwris
sura
tensor
triceps
1 tympanumt
ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES
T he abductor and adductor muscles take their name from
the Latin verb dUcere, ductus (lead, draw). Related to this
verb is the noun dux, ducis (leader, commander, chief). T he
Italian honorific title Il Duce (the Chief) was accorded to
Benito M ussolini on his accession to the dictatorship of
Italy in the years between W orld Wars I and II. Adherents
of his party belonged to the political organization called
Fascista, Fascists, named for the symbol of the party, the
Fasci, from Latin fasces, a bundle of rods bound around an
17
Musculoskeletal System
219
axe and carried in procession in front of the high magistrates of Rome. A related Latin word is fascia (band, bandage), which has given the name to the anatomic term
fascia, the fibrous membrane covering, supporting, and
separating muscles.
T he Latin word cubitum (elbow) is from the verb cubare,
cubitus (lie down). The sense was that, when reclining to
dine, as the Romans did, the elbow was to lean upon. The
verb meaning to recline at a dining table was recumben
(re-, back, and -cumbere, lie down), an alternate form of
cubare, which is used with prefixes. In Roman times, the
term cubitum also meant the distance from the elbow to the
tip of the extended middle finger, a term of measurement:
a cubit. The distance is variously calculated as being from
18 to 21 inches.
There are a number of words in current use that are all
related to the verb cubare and its alternate form -cumben:
cubicle, from cubiculum, a diminutive noun meaning a
(small) place for sleeping, bedroom. Procumbent means
leaning forward and recumbent means leaning backward
T he incumbent is the one who is in office, and the expression "It is incumbent upon us" implies a burden "lying
upon" us. The terms incubus and succubus refer to
demons, or evil spirits, that visit one in the night for sexual intercourse. T he incubus "lies upon" women and the
succubus "lies under" men. Today, the term incubus is used
to refer to anything that is oppressive, something that
weighs one down. Chickens incubate their eggs. An incubator is an apparatus where eggs are artificially hatched, or
a chamber used to provide a stable and healthful atmosphere for the development of premature or sick babies.
Latin manus (hand), has several interesting derivatives
in English, among which are the words maneuver and
m anure, both with the same etymology, from manus and
opus, operis (work), and both disguised as a result of their
transition through French before entering the English language (Fig. 17-4). M aneuver is from French manoeuvre,
from M edieval Latin manuopera, meaning something done
by hand, from Latin manuoperare (work by hand). T hus, a
maneuver is literally "something done by hand." Today it
means an evasive movement, a manipulation of affairs
done for someone's advantage. (Note that the words
manipulate and manipulation are from L atin manipulus, a
handful.) M anure, barnyard refuse used as fertilizer, has
the same ultimate etymology as maneuver but has undergone a secondary change in form during the M iddle
English period, the 12th through the 15th centuries. T he
M iddle E nglish form is manouren, a verb meaning to cultivate the land (by hand), with a secondary (and modern)
meaning of using manure to enrich the soil. T he second
component of these words, opus, operis, has given us such
words as operate, opera, o peration, and inoperable.
T he modern names for the bones of the body are those
that were given by the ancient Roman anatomists and their
successors in the M iddle Ages and Renaissance. In some
instances, the bones were named after some familiar object
220
RADIUS
ULNA
'fRIQUETRUM
..-f'"-;!F--1;.>..__,~:.::.-----HAMATE
ROXIMAL
PHALANX
Mlr.>DLE
PHALANX
---
DISTAL
PHALANX
ULNA
RADIUS
-- - - - -- - - - - -
P.AOXIMAL
PHALANX
DISTAL
PHALANX
VIEW FROM BACK OF THE HAND
----------
Lr:ssoN 17
~~,;).
' ':)(
1l'
Musculoskeletal System
221
3. abductor hallucis muscle - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- -- 4. abductor pollicis brevis muscle - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5. abductor pollicis longus muscle
6. adductor brevis muscle
12. biceps brachii muscle - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - 13. femoris muscle - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - -- - - - - -- - - -- - - 14. buccinator muscle - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 15. corrugator supercilii muscle - - -- - - - - -- - - - - -- - - - - -- -- - - -- -- - 16. depressor anguli oris muscle - - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- -- -- -- - 17. depressor labii inferioris muscle - - -- - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - -18. dilator naris muscle - - - - -- - - - - - -- - - - - - -- -- - - - - - -- - -- - --
vVhen the first word of the names of muscles ends in -or (singular, or -ores, plural), this word is usually a noun that explains what the muscle does. All of the first five muscles above, for example, are abductor muscles. T he part of the body that is abducted is put in the genitive case. That is, each of these muscles is the abductor of something.
222
LEssoN 17
Musculoskeletal System
24. flexor digiti minimi brevis pedis muscle - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -- -- - 25. flexor digiti minimi brevis manus muscle - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
26. flexor digitorum brevis pedis muscle - - - - -- - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2 7. flexor hallucis brevis muscle
28. flexor pollicis brevis muscle - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 29. flexor pollicis longus muscle - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - - - - - - - -
31. levator ani muscle - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- ---32. levator labii superioris muscle - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 33. levator labii superioris alae que nasi muscle
34. levator palpebrae superioris muscle
37. opponens pollicis muscle - -- - - - - -- -- -- - - - - - -- - -- - - -- - - - - Latin alaeque means "and of the wing." -que affixed to a noun means that this noun is to be connected with the noun that precedes it with "and." T his -que (called an enclitic)
can be affixed to any form of a noun or adjective. The initials S.P.Q .R., frequently seen on Roman inscriptions, stand for Senatus Populusque Romamts (the Senate and the
Roman P eople).
Lisso-.; 17
Musculoskeletal System .
223
38. rotatores cervicis muscles - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 39. sphincter ani externus muscle - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- 40. sphincter ani internus muscle - -- - - - - - - - -- - -- -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - 41 . sphincter pupillae muscle - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 42. sphincter urethrae m u s c l e - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 43 . tensor tympani muscle - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- -- - 44. triceps brachii muscle - - - - -- - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 45. triceps surae muscle
SKELETON
THE SKELETON
The skeleton (Greek skeleton, dried up [sc. soma, body];
that is, "a dried up body") (Fig. 17-5) is the bony framework of the body consisting of 206 bones. The distribution
of these 206 bones is as follows:
SCAPULA
skull: 8 bones
face: 14 bones
hyoid bone: A single U -shaped bone lying at the base of
the tongue
ear: 6 ossicles, "little bones"
vertebrae: 26 bones
ribs: 24 bones
sternum: the single breastbone
arms and shoulders: 10 bones
wrists: 16 bones
hands: 38 bones
legs and hips: 10 bones
ankles: 14 bones
feet: 38 bones
PHALANGES
ANTERIOR VIEW
POSTERIOR VIEW
224
LEssoN 1 7
Musculoskeletal System
3. humerus ----------------------- ---------------------------------------------- ---4. lumbarvertebrae ----------------------- ----------------------- -------------------5. metacarpals ----------------------- --------------------------------------------- 6. patella - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
7. fibula -------------------- ----------------------------------------------8. phalanges (two different sets) ----------------------- ----------------------- -----------
b. ___________ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____
9. scapula ----------------------- ----------------------- ----------------------- ----10. sacrum ----------------------- ----------------------- ----------------------- ----11. radius ----------------------- ----------------------- ----------------------- -----12. femur ----------------------- ----------------------- ----------------------- -----13. tibia
LESSON
NERVI
us
18
YSTE
composed mainly of the cell bodies of neurons, whereas
white matter is nerve tissue composed of myelinated
nerve fibers. White matter in the brain and spinal cord
transmits the afferent and efferent impulses.
T he brain is enclosed within the skull for protection,
and the spinal cord is enclosed within the spinal column,
or spine, which is composed of bony vertebrae. The
meninges are the three membranes that lie under the
bony structures of the skull and the spinal column,
and that cover and protect the spinal cord and the brain
(Fig. 18-2). T he outermost of the three meninges is a hard
membrane called the dura mater. T he term epidural
refers to the space around the dura. T he innermost of the
three is a soft membrane called the pia mat er; and lying
between these two is a weblike membrane called the
arachnoid or the arachnoidea. A blow to the head, even
one that seems to be trivial, can result in bleeding in the
area under the dura mater called the subdural space. T his
bleeding, called subdural hematoma, may not be apparent for several days or even weeks after the initial injury.
Inflammation of any of the meninges is called meningitis. Inflammation of the membranes of the spine is
spinal meningitis, and inflammation of the membranes of
the brain is cerebral meningitis. Clinically, these two are
not differentiated but are simply referred to as meningitis.
Meningitis can be caused by infection from bacteria, a
virus, or a fungus , and may also be caused by noninfectious
inflammation, such as that which occurs with systemic
lupus erythematosus (referred to as SLE or lupus).
Poliomyelitis (Greek polios, gray), inflammation of the
gray matter of the spinal cord, is the disease usually called
"polio." Development of the Salk vaccine by American
microbiologist Dr. Jonas E . Salk (19 14-1995) and later the
Sabin vaccine, an oral vaccine developed by Russian-born
American virologist D r. Albert B. Sabin (1906-1993 ),
significantly reduced the incidence of polio in the U nited
States. Virtually all cases of polio that occurred in the
U nited States after the introduction of the oral vaccine
were associated with the vaccine itself, which was made
''See the Et}mologjcal Notes in this lesson for a discussion of the dun1mater ;md pia mater
225
226
LEssoN 18
Nervous System
Parasympathetic
Sympathetic
Medulla
Preganglionic
neuron
Chain of
sympathetic
ganglia
Inferior
mesenteric
ganglion
Figure 18-1. Autonomic nervous system. (From Scanlon, VC, and Sanders, T: Essentials of
Anatomy and Physio logy, ed 4 . F. A . Davis, Philadelphia, 2003, p 180, w ith permission.)
bod~
controls
ANS
or
system
nervous
autonomic
The
involuntary bodily functions. It regulates the action of
the salivary, gastric, and sweat glands, as well as the adrenal medulla, which produces epinephrine. The ANS is
divided into two parts: the sympathetic division and the
par asympathetic division, each with its own functions.
Stimulation of the nerve fibers of the sympathetic division
causes constriction of the vasomotor muscles, the muscles
that surround the blood vessels of the bod~
Vasoconstriction, a decrease in the size of a blood vessel
or vessels, causes a rise in blood pressure, erection of the
hairs of the body ("gooseflesh" or "goosebumps"), dilation
of the pupils of the eyes, depression of gastrointestinal
activity, and acceleration of the action of the heart. These
changes usually occur under the stimulation of fright.
Stimulation of the nerve fibers of the parasympathetic
LEssoN 18
Dura mater
Nervous System
227
Cerebral cortex
Arachnoid membrane
A F---:---=:7-- - - - - Subarachnoid space
l'r=!~~------
Pia mater
Figure 18- 2. Meninges. (From Scanlon, VC, and Sanders, T: Essentials of Anatomy and
Physiology, ed 4. F. A. Davis, Ph iladelphia, 2003, p 175, w ith permission.)
228
LmoN 18
Nervous System
_,
.I
.
~-".'
' -Axon
c
. r--..,,--..._
. ;<,
~..
) , )
" c...--
Axon terminal ~A
Figure 18-3. Neuron structure. (From Scanlon, VC, and Sanders, T: Essentials of Anatomy and
Physiology, ed 4. F. A. Davis, Philadelphia, 2003 , p 157, with permission.)
LEssoN
c}
8~
Cervical plexus
C4
cl
g~
Brachial plexus
CB
T1
T2
T3
T4
TS
T6
T7
T10
T11
T12
L1
L2
Lumbar p lexus
Cauda
L3
L4
~}
Sacral plexus
S2
S5S4
Figure 18-4. Spinal nerves (left side). (From Scan lon, VC, and
Sanders, T: Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, ed 4. F. A.
Davis, Philadelphia, 2003, p 163, w ith permission.)
18
Nervous System
229
EPILEPSY
T he actual brain, the cerebrum, is divided into two
halves called the cerebral hemispheres. Each hemisphere is
subdivided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and
temporal. W ithin these two hemispheres are four masses
of gray matter called the basal ganglia. T hese ganglia
control muscular movement, such as walking or lifting,
and other voluntary movements. If these ganglia become
damaged, the individual loses some control over these simple muscular movements, resulting in the disorders called
cerebral palsy, Saint Vitus' dance (Sydenham's chorea),
Bell's palsy, Parkinson's disease, and other abnormalities of
voluntary muscular movement.
T he cerebral cortex is the name given to the covering
of the outer surface of each cerebral hemisphere (Fig.
18- 6). T he word cmtex is from Latin and meant bark (of a
230
FOREBRAIN
HYPOPHYSIS
BODY
)-MIDBRAIN
PONS
)
OLIVE
NERVE (X) AND
CRANIAL ACCESSORY
NERVE (XI)
MEDULLA
lr
SPINAL CORD
Figure 18-5. Brainstem. (From Gilman, S, and Newman, S: Manter and Gantz's Essentials of
Clinical Neuroanatomy and Neurophysiology, ed 10. F. A. Davis, 2002, Philadelphia, p. 78,
with permission .)
neuronal activity of the brain, can lead to seizures. A person is considered to have epilepsy once he or she has experienced two or more seizures unrelated to an underlying
illness, such as meningitis.
Seizures are classified into two categories: partial and
generalized. The two most common forms of generalized
seizures are absence seizur es (petit mal), which usually
last between 2 and 10 seconds and are characterized by loss
of consciousness without convulsions, and tonic-clonic
seizures (grand mal), which are characterized by falling
and loss of consciousness along with stiffening and twitching or jerking of the extremities. In most cases, seizure
disorder can be prevented and/or controlled with antiepileptic medications. In some cases, surgical therapy can
be used to manage seizures that cannot be well controlled
with other therapies.
CRANIAL NERVES
NERVE PLEXUSES
In certain areas of the body, nerves from the spine and the
brain, of both the voluntary and the autonomic systems,
join each other (anastomose) to form an interlacing network of nerves called a plexus (plural plexus or plexuses).
231
PARALLEL f iBER
STELLATE CELL
MOLECULAR
LAYER
BAS KET
CELL
PURI<INJE
} CELL LAYER
GRANULAR
LAYER
WHITE MATTER
BRANCHES OF
AXON THAT
COMMUNICATE
WITH OTHER
NERVES
CLIMBING FIBER
WHITE
MATIER
OF BRAIN
- . ;:..
. .. .
CLIMBING FIBER
.-. .
Function
Distribution
1st
O lfactory
Smell
2nd
O p tic
Sight
Retin a
3rd
O culomotor
M otor
4th
T rochlear
M otor
5th
Trigeminal
6th
Abducens
M otor
7th
Facial
M otor
8th
Vesti bulocochlea r
9th
G lossoph aryngeal
232
l ESSO N
18
Nervous System
Number
Name
Function
Distribution
lOth
Vagus
11th
Accessory
Motor
12th
Hypoglossal
Motor
Olfactory (D
Oculomotor
Trochlear@
Abducens@
Optic@
'\./
Vagus@
Accessory@
Figure 18- 8. Cranial nerves and their distributions. (From Scan lon, VC, and Sanders, T:
Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, ed 4. F. A . Davis, Phi ladelphia, 2003 , p 178, with permission.)
233
VOCABULARY
Note: Latin forms are given in bold italics.
Greek or Latin
Combining Form
Meaning
Example
amdme
ARACHN-
arachn-oidea
axon
AX-,AXON-
aXIs, axon
ax-olemma
cercbrmn
CEREBRCHOL(E)-
brain
cerebr-oid
bile, gall
chol-inergic
CORTIC-, CORTEX
DENDR-
cerebral cortex
dendr-ic
dendrites
DENDRIT-
dendrit-es
fasciculus
fascicul-ation
[knot] ganglion
gangli-oma
neuro-glia
medull-ary
mening-es
71/)'CfO.\'
MYEL-
myel-in
77C/11"011
NEUR-
neur-obiology
plexux
PLEXPONT-, PONS
SYNAP-, SYNAPSTHALAM-
[braid] plexus
plex-opathy
[bridge] pons
synap-tic
cboTe
cortex, corticis
dmdron
ganglion
glia
medulla
menmx,
menmgos
(plural meninges)
pam, pontis
'J'71 apsj_,.i"
tbalmnos
thalam-ic
t Prom
ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES
T he spinal cord and the brain are covered with three layers of protective membrane called the meninges (singular,
meninx). Before the 1st century AD , the Greek word meninx was applied to any membrane of the body; H ippocrates
used it to refer to the membrane of the eye, and Aristotle
used it to refer to tl1e eardrum. Mter the 1st century, the
term came to be used exclusively to refer to the meninges
in their modern anatomic sense. T he three meninges are
named the pia mater, tl1e delicate inner covering; the
dura mater, the tough outer coat; and the arachnoid, the
membrane bet\veen these two. T he arachnoid (resembling
a web) takes its name from Greek amchne (spider, web),
because of its delicate structure. However, the names pia
mater, meaning "devout mother" in Latin, and dura mater,
"hard mother," make little sense until it is realized that tl1ey
are translations from the Arabic.
By the 4tll century AD, tl1e Roman E mpire was split into
two halves, with Rome the capital of the West and
Byzantium (later named Constantinople by the emperor
Constantine, and today called Istanbul) the capital of the
E ast. T he two halves were separated linguistically as well as
geographically, with Latin used as the language of the West
and G reek used in th e East. T he writings that survived in
the West in the period after this were preserved, for the
most part, by the Roman church an d were principally the
works of L atin authors. Greek ceased to be taught in the
schools, and the kn owledge of this language gradually was
lost, along with the works of Hippocrates, Aristotle, and
oth ers. N evertheless, tl1ese works were very much alive in
the East, not only in Byzantium/ Constantinople, but also
in other lands of the Eastern E mpire.
W ith the rise and spread of Islam during and after the
7th century, Arabic became the common language of
almost the entire East. W orks of the ancient G reek writers
were translated into Arabic and read in the great centers of
learning all over the Islamic empire, including Spain .
T hese Arabic translations, and Arabic literature in general, escaped th e notice of most of western Europe for the
simple reason that th ere were few who could read Arabic.
T hus, by the early Middle Ages, practically all knowledge
of ancient G reek literature, including the medical works,
was lost in the W est.
In the 11th and 12th centuries, monks of the Roman
church began translating some of the Arabic versions of
the Greek writers into L atin. In Syria, a churchman
known as Stephen of Antioch produced a L atin translation of G alen from the Ara bic version. At this time, only
t\Vo of the three meninges were known : the dura and the
234
LtSSON 18
Nervous System
Exercise 1
Answer each of the following questions.
1. To what part of the nervous system does each of the following refer?
3. What is the name given to a bundle of nerve fibers? - -- -- - -- - -- - - -- - -- - -4. What is the difference between an afferent and an efferent impulse?
5. Name the three mem branes that cover and protect the spinal cord and the brain and lie under the bony
structure of the skull and the spinal column.
a. - -- -- -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - --
c. - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - - -- - -- - - -- - - - - - -- - -- - -
6. What is a common cause of subdural hematoma? - -- - -- - - -- - -- - - - - - -- - 7. Immunity against the disease polio was achieved with which two vaccines? - - - - - - - - -- - --
L[SSON 1 8
Nervous System
235
8. What is the difference between a nerve fiber that is adrenergic and one that is cholinergic? _ _ _ _ __
9. A/An ------------ ----------- is the process that conducts impulses away from the cell
body.
AlAn ------------- ------------ is the process that conducts impulses to the cell body.
10. G lia cells, often called neuroglia cells, have what function ? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___
11. What are gliomas and neurogliomas? - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12. T he brainstem, the continuation of the spinal cord up into the skull, contains several
important structures. What are they, and where are they found? _ __ __ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ ___
13 . Beneath the thalami is a structure called the - - - -- -- -- - -- -- -- -- -- -- - 14. T he four lobes that subdivide each cerebral h emisphere are the:
a.
b.
c.
d.
15. D isorders such as Sydenham's chorea, Parkinson's disease, and Bell's palsy are caused by
damage to the - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -- - - - - -
16. A person who has motor aphasia as a result of dam age to Broca's area, has difficulty doing
what?
17. What does the term "idiopathic" mean when it is used in reference to seizures?
236
a. ------------ ----------------
c. ------------ ----------------
d.
e. ------------ ---------------20. What is another name for a tonic-clonic seizure? ------------ ------------ ------------ --------
LESSON
DOC
NE
HYPOPHYSIS (PITUITARY)
PARATHYROIDS
(ON POSTERIOR SURFACES)
ADRENAL GLANDS
(LOCATED ON TOP OF KIDNEY)
YSTE
secreted by the ovaries and stimulate the development and
maintenance of female sexual characteristics. Alternately,
they may have a general effect on the entire body, as in the
case of thyroid hormone, which regulates the rate of
metabolism of the whole body. T he principal endocrine
glands and their functions follow.
238
Position
Function
Endocrine Disorders
Adrenal
cortex
Adrenal
medulla
Pancreas
(endocrine
portion)
Parathyroid
Pituitary,
anterior
Hypofunction: Dwarfism in
child; decrease in all other
endocrine gland functions
except parathyroid's
Hyperfunction: Acromegaly in
adult; giantism in child
Pituitary,
posterior
U nknown
Testes and
ovaries
T hyroid
Sourc e:
Trtber~,
Hypofunction: Diabetes
insipidus
C)'dopedic Medical Dictional)', ed 19. F. A. D avis, Philadelphia, 200 I, p 840, with permission.
Lt:SSON 1 9
Endocrine System
239
Posterior pituitary
..
...
Figure 19- 2. Pitu itary gland. (Reproduced from Scanlon, VC, and Sanders, T: Essentials of
Anatomy and Physiology, ed 4. F. A. Davis, Phi ladelphia, 2003 , p 2 18, with perm ission.)
yellow structure that develops within a ruptured ovarian follicle when the ovum is released each month.
6. P rolactin or lactogenic hormone, in conjunction with
progesterone and estrogens, stimulates breast development and induces the secretion of milk during pregnancy.
T he posterior lobe of the pituitary gland secretes a
hormone called oxytocin (Greek oxys, rapid, and toko.r,
childbirth), which increases uterine contractions during
labor. Another hormone secreted within the posterior lobe
is antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also called vasopressin,
which contracts the muscles of blood vessels and elevates
blood pressure. ADH also acts as an antidiuretic, preventing excessive loss of fluids through the kidneys.
240
LFssoN 1
Endocrine System
ANTERIOR VIEW
SUPERIOR THYROID
VEIN
~--- COMMO N
CAROTID
ARTERY
l J -- - INTEANAL JUGULAR
VEIN
LEFT LOBE,
TRUNK
RIGHT LOBE,
EXTERNAL --~-.,.W,r/ii
JUGULAR VEIN
"'"""""-"',..
ISTHMUS
RECURRENT
LARYNGEAL NEAVES
ARCH OF AOATA
ADRENAL GLANDS
ADRENAL
GLAND
LEssoN 19
Endocrine System
241
ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES
The Greek verb krinein (separate), which supplies the element -crine in the words endocrine and exocrine, has also
provided other, nontechnical, words. In ancient times, the
verb had the additional meanings of to pick out or choose,
and then to judge. T here was a noun, krisis, related to this
verb that meant a separating, picking out, or choosing.
Extended meanings of this noun included trial, judgment,
and decision. From these varied but related meanings
comes the word crisis. Also related to the verb krinein was
the noun krites Qudge or arbiter); the adjectival form of this
242
LEssoN 19
Endocrine System
Greek legend tells us of a young girl named Ia, daughter of the river lnachus, who had the misfortune to be
desired by Zeus (Fig. 19-5). Just as he was about to consummate his desires, his wife, Hera, came upon the scene;
in the instant before her appearance, Zeus changed Ia into
a heifer, a young cow. H era, rightfully suspicious, asked
that the creature be given to her. Zeus had no choice but
to comply. Hera then stationed a hundred-eyed watchman,
Argus, to stand guard over the luckless lo. Zeus, unable to
tolerate this state of affairs, sent his messenger, Hermes,
with orders: "Kill Argus!" Hermes did as ordered, and Ia
was free, but still in bovine form. Hera took the hundred
eyes of Argus and placed them in the tail of her favorite
bird, the peacock. She then sent a stinging insect, the gad-
Exercise 1
Answer each of the following questions.
1. What name is given to glands that transmit their secretions through ducts? - - - -- - -- - -- -
2. What is the difference between the endocrine and the exocrine glands? - - - - - - - - - - - - What glands are commonly called eccrine?
3. What is the more common term for the gland called the hypophysis cerebri? - - -- - -- - - - -
LEsso N 19
Endocrine System
243
4. "Which endocrine gland is often called the master gland of the body?
5. "What are the functions of each of the following hormones, secreted in the anterior lobe of the pituitary
gland?
(c) lactogenic hormone - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - -- -- - - - - - - - - - - 6. Deficient secretion of the hormone STH can cause acromicria. "What is the meaning of this
term?
7. "What is the main function of the hormone oxytocin, secreted in the posterior lobe of the pituitary
~and ? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __
9. If there is excessive secretion of the hormone thyroxine by the thyroid gland, the result may
be thyrotoxicosis. "What is the meaning of each of the following two salient features of
thyrotoxicosis? - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
(a) exophthalmos
(b) goiter - -- - - -- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
11. Myxedema is a condition characterized by the accumulation of mucus in the tissues of the
face and hands. What is the cause of myxedema, as far as glandular function is concerned?
244
LEssoN 19
Endocrine System
12. Hypoparathyroidism can result in the condition known as hypercalcemia. What does this term
mean?
13. H ypercalcemia can result in nephrolithiasis. What does this term mean?
14. What name is given to the outside covering of the adrenal gland? - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
15. What name is given to the inside portion of the adrenal gland? - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 16. Epinephrine, secreted in the adrenal glands, can be produced synthetically. When it is produced in this
way, what is it called?
18. What is the meaning of each of the following five principal symptoms of diabetes mellitus?
(a) hyperglycemia
(b) glycosuria
(c) polyuria
19. T he hormone testosterone is an androgen. What does this term mean? - -- - - - - - - - - - 20. What hormones provide sudden energy to the body in emergency situations? _ __ __ __ _ _ __
- - -- - - - - UNIT
245
LESSON
OL
AL
vVith the advance of human knowledge concerning the living organisms that inhabit the world around us- plants,
birds, insects, fish, and all other living things from the
smallest, the virus, a minute organism not visible under
ordinary light microscopy, to the largest, the whale-it
became desirable to classify these living organisms into
convenient groupings. Following this classification, the
next and immediate step was to name the members of each
group. T he term used for this classification is taxonomy
(G reek taxis, arrangement, nomos, law), and the term used
for the naming of these groups is nomenclature (L atin
nomenc/iitli1'a, a calling by name: nomen, name, c[a]!iitus,
called, and -ura, a noun-forming suffix). T he Latin noun
nomencfiitura was first used by Pliny, the Roman scientist,
in his encyclopedic N atura/is Historia (Natural H istory),
completed in 77 AD. T he groups that are distinguishable
from each other, and thus classified, are called taxa (singular, taxon), and the allocation of n ames to these taxa is
called nom enclature.
N omenclature follows classification and is independent
of it. H owever, the objectives of both are the same: first, to
provide a system whereby each and every living thing can
be gr ouped according to shared characteristics and, second, to give names to these groups so that they may be
referred to and discussed intelligently by all members of
the scien tific community in all countries, regardless of the
different languages of these members. Traditionally, the
language of biological and scienti fic nomenclature has
been Latin. Included in the term "Latin " are words borrowed from other languages, mainly ancient G reek, and
given the form of Latin words, so that they look like L atin.
T he reasons for the use of Latin as the language o f scientific nomenclature are compelling. Latin ceased to be a
spoken language centuries ago and thus is not subject to
the changes that constantly influence living, spoken languages. Latin remains forever static. Perhaps the most
cogent reason for selecting Latin as a means of communication among scientists of all nations is the fact that, in the
vVestern world, Latin was the language of learned communities, whether the object of this learning was medicine,
law, religion, philosophy, or science. T he monumental
work of British physician vVilliam H arvey on the circulation of the blood, published in 1628, was written in Latin:
Ex enitatio Anatomica de M otu Cm~dis et Sanguinis (An
Anatomical Treatise concerning the M ovement of the
H eart and Blood). T he Polish astronomer Copernicus
wrote his great work, a treatise entitled De Revolutionibus
Orbium Coelestium (Concerning the Revolutions of the
H eavenly Bodies) in Latin in 1543, and the works of the
D utch theologian Erasmus (1466-1536) were written in
L atin.
T he Swedish botanist Carl von Linne, better known as
Linnaeus (1707-1778), first formulated the principles that
are still used for botanical taxonomy and nomenclature.
H is Genera Plantarum and Classes Plantarum (G enera of
P lants and C lasses of Plants), published in 173 7 and 1738,
are considered the beginning of systematic classification
and terminology for modern botany. Following other
important publications, his Philosophia Botanica (17 51)
explained fully his system for botanical nomenclature, and
the 1Oth edition of his Systema N aturae (17 58) established
the rules for zoological nomenclature. All of these works
were written in Latin and, for the first time, laid down the
rules for the formulation of all subsequent biological terminology.
T he system, based on L innaeus' rules for botanical and
zoological nomenclature, applies a binomial (M edieval
Latin binomius, having two names: Latin bi-, two, and
nomen, name) nomenclature to all living organisms. Every
living organism is given two Latin names: the first identifies the genus (Latin genus, generis, race, stock, kind) to
which it belongs, and the second is a name peculiar to each
247
248
FAMILIES
The family is the name for a group of closely related genera. The name for the cat family is Felidae and includes all
its genera. The name for the bear family is Ursidae, and
that for the dog family is Canidae. Names for families consist of one name only and therefore are uninomial (Latin
unus, one). Family names are capitalized. Under the codes
of nomenclature now in existence, the names of
families of animals and protista are formed by adding
-idae to the stem of the generic name, and names of families of plants, fungi, and prokaryotae (monera) are formed
by adding -aceae to the stem of the generic name, with
some exceptions: Compositae, Palmae, Gramineae,
Leguminosae, Guttiferae, U mbelliferae, Labiatae, and
Cruciferae.
These codes are drawn up in meetings of the appropriate international organizations. T he naming of animals is
governed by the International Code of Zoological
Nomenclature (ICZN); of plants, by the Intenzational Code of
Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) and the International Code of
Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP); of bacteria, by
the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB),
and of viruses and subviral agents, by the International Code
of Virus Classification and Nomenclature (ICVCN). In 1995,
the International Committee on Bionomenclature (ICB)
was established to expedite work toward a unified system
of bionomenclature among the five codes.
TAXONOMIC HIERARCHY
Figure 20- 1. Genus Felis (cat). (Photograph by Laine M cCarthy,
2000.)
RANKt
Kingdom
P hylum
C lass
Order
Suborder
Infra order
Superfamily
Family
Subfamily
G enus
Subgenus
Species
Subspecies
and splitting the P rokaryotae (M onera) into two kingdoms: Eubacteria and Archaea.*
T he phylum (singular of phyla, from G reek ph)'ion, clan,
tribe) of invertebrate animals called Arthropoda is the
largest animal phylum, containing over 900,000 species. It
includes the crustaceans, insects, myriapods (centipedes
and millipedes), arachnids (spiders and scorpions), and
other, similar forms. T his phylum was well named because
the term Arthropoda means "jointed feet," fro m G reek
artbron (joint) and pous, podos (foot). All members of this
group h ave jointed exoskeletons, segmented bodies, and
jointed appendages (Fig. 20-3).
249
bot~mi ca l nomencbturc,
"division" is used
in~tc~td
of "phylum. "
lllictobio/bactfl.dda;-sif!pbylogelt.btm)
A Yeast (x750)
Rhizopus (x40)
Aspergillis (><40)
'S::;~./ ~ ~/
(<:L ;;:;;
D Ringworm (x750)
!E Cryptococcus (><500)
Figure 20-2. Fungi. (From Sca nlon, VC, and Sa nders, T: Essentials of A natomy and
Physio logy, eel 4. F. A. Davis, Philadelp hia, 2003, p 490, w ith perm iss ion .)
250
LEssoN 20
Biological Nomenclature
Flea (x15)
VOCABULARY
Note: Latin combining forms are in bold italics.
Greek or Latin
Combining Form
M eaning
Example
akari
amoibe
anopheles*
askus
aspergeret
aureus
ACAR-
mite
[change] amoeba
useless, harmful
sac, bag
Acar-ina
Ent-amoeba
AMOEBA
ANOPHELES
ASC-
ASPERG-
AURE-
sprinkle
golden yellow
A n opheles
Asc-omycetes
A sperg-illus
Staphylococcus aute-us
LESSO
20
Biological Nomenclature
Greek or Latin
Combining Form
Meaning
Example
blatta
cockroach
sausage
Blatta orienta/is
botulus
BLATTA
BOTUL-
bos, bovis
BOV-
OX,
chaite
CHAET-
hair
bull, COW
Clostridium botul-inum
Actinomyces bov-is
Spiro-chaet-a pallida
ctmex
CIMEX
bug
Cimex lectularius
kloster
C LOSTRCULEX
spindle
Clostr-idium
Culex pipiens
culex
gnat
251
duodena/is
ftlineus'
DUODENAL-
of the duodenum
FELINEUS
of or belonging to a cat
Ancylostoma duodenal-e
Opisthorchis felineus
jftivus
FLAVUS
golden yellow
Aspe1-gillus jlavus
flu ere
Gennanicus
FLU-
flow
in-flu-enza
GERMANIC-
glaukos
GLAUCUS
of Germany, German
bluish gray
Blatta germanic-a
Aspergillus glaucus
Helvetius
hex
HELVET-
Helvetian, Swiss
Lactobacillus helvet-icus
HEX-
SIX
lectulus
LECTUL-
couch, bed
Hex-apoda
Cimex lectul-mius
lepis, lepidos
nema, nematos
LEPID-
NEMA, NEMAT-
thread
opisthen
orchis
orienta/is
OPISTHORCHIS
ORIENTAL-
pallidus
phtheir
pzpzre
PALLID-
platys
protos
PHTHIRPIPPLATYPROT-
flat
first
Platy-helminthes
Prot-ozoa
pteron
PTER-
wing
H emi-pter-a
pubes, pubis
speira
PUBSPIR-
pubic region
coil, spiral
Phthirus pub-is
Spir-ochaeta
staphyle
STAPHYL-
bunch of grapes
Staphyl-ococcus
streptos
tabanus
STREPTTABAN-
twisted
horsefly
Strept-ococcus
Taban-idae
trepein
TREP-
turn, twist
Trep-onema
testicle
of the east, oriental
Lepid-optera
Trepo-nema
Opisth-orchis
Opisth-orchis
Blatta oriental-is
pallid-urn
Phthir-us (Fig. 20-4)
Culex pip-iens
ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES
T he language that was used by Linnaeus and other scientists and scholars of the Renaissance and the period following (after 1500 AD) is called New Latin. T he Latin
found in the writings of Cicero, Julius Caesar, and other
literary figures of their time is called Classical Latin.
Although the language of the Classical Period (1st century
BC to 2nd century AD) was kept alive by scholars, churchmen, and literary figures in the centuries preceding the
Renaissance, the spoken tongue had changed so dramatically that it resembled Classical Latin in only the vaguest
outlines. This phenomenon precipitated the development
of the Romance languages-Italian, Spanish, Frenchfrom the Latin spoken in the various parts of the great
Roman E mpire. At any age and in any place, the spoken
language differs from the literary language, just as today
our everyday, informal speech tends to be more idiomatic
than the language that we use in writing. The spoken language of the ancient Romans is called Vulgar Latin, from
252
LEsso N 20
BODY LOUSE
(PEDICULUS
HUMANUS)
Exercise 1
Using the vocabulary of this lesson, determine the etymological meaning of each of the following uninomial
and binomial terms. Find the modern biological meaning of each of these terms in a medical dictionary.
1. Acarina
2. Actinomyces bovis - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
3. A ncylostoma duodenale
4. Anopheles - - - - - - -- - - - -- - -- - - - - -- - - -- - - - -- - - --
5. Arthropoda - -- -- - - - -- - - - - - -- - - - -- - - - -- - - - - - - -
6. Ascomycetes - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -- - - - - -- - -- - - - -- - - - - - -
7. Aspergillus flavus - - - - - -- - -- -- - - - - - -- - -- - - -- - - - - - -- -
LEssoN 20
Biological Nomenclature
253
8. Aspergillus glaucus - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
9. Blatta germanica
12 . Cimex lectularius - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
17. D iptera
20. H emiptera
2 3. Lepidoptera
1Here
254
LEssoN 20
Biological Nomenclature
1 TO 15
255
APPENDIX
INDEX
MBINING
FRM
This index includes all of the combining forms found in
this text, along with their basic meanings and the G reek or
Latin term from which each is formed (in italics). T he
combining forms are in capital letters and bold type; L atin
combining forms are in bold italic type. The number of
the lesson in which each is found is included in parentheses.
--------
- ----------- --
--
257
258
APPENDIX A
----
---
- - - - - ------- -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - ----
-------
- - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - ---
---
-----
------------------
---------
---- - ---
- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -
- - -- ----------------------------- -
-------------------
- -- - -- --
-- - - -- - - - --- -- - - -
------------
- - -
APPEND IX A
----
------------------
------
-----------
--------------
259
--
---- ---
- - -----
--
-----
------
---
--------- ------
-------
------- - - - - - - - ----
------ -
---
--
- -------
---------
-----------
------
----------------
-- - - - - - - - - - --------- -
260
APPEND ix
------------ - - - - - - - - - -
----
- - - - -- -- -- -
- - - - - - --- - - - - - - -
- -- ----------
FISTUL- ,fistula, (tube, pipe) fistula, an abnormal tubelike passage in the body (8)
---- -
- -------------------- -- - -
- - --- - -- ------------------------- --
- - - --------- -----
--~-
------
------- ---
--
-----
- --
- - - - - - - - -----
-----------~
---- --
- - - --
--- ----------------
----
-----------
--
-----------------------
---------
------
------------
----
- --
---- -- ------------------
----
------------
--------------------------------- -
------
-- -------
API' ENDIX A
---
----
--
--
--
- -
--
-- -
---
----
--
----
(10)
---------
--
---
J
JEJUN- ,f ijiinus, [empty] jejunum (12)
------
--
---
~ -
---
-- - - -
261
262
APPENDIX A
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - -
- --
- - -- ------ --------------- - - - - - - - - - - - -
------~------------------------------------
- - - - - - - ------- - - - - --- - - -
- - -
--
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
METR-, metra, uterus (14)
- - --
----
- - - - - - --- - - - --- - - -- --
--------------
- -- - - - -------
N
NARC-, narke, stupor, numbness (3)
---
---
----
------------------- ----
----------
------------------- -
APPENDIX A
263
ONYCH-,
01~yx,
------
----
--------
-------
--
------
------
--------
--------
--
---
----
------
264
A I'PENil iX A
---
- - - - -- -- - -- -- -
--
--- - - - -
--
----- ------
--
- - --- - - --
--
----
- ---
----
- - --
--- -----------
-------
-- -
- -----------
---- -----
---
--
---
-- -- - - - - - -
----
----------
- - -- - - - - - - - - - -
Al'l't:--Dix A
265
s
SALPING-, salpinx, salpingos, [war trumpet] fallopian
tube (14)
-SALPINX, salpinx, salpingos, [war trumpet] fallopian
tube (14)
SANGUI-, sanguis, sanguinis, blood (8)
SANGUIN-, sanguis, sanguinis, blood (8)
266
A Pr ENDIX A
---- - - - -- - - -
---- -
----------
- - -- - - - - - -- - - - ---
-- - - --- -- - - - - -- - - - -
- -
- --- ----
---------
- - - - - - - - - ---- - - - - -
- - -
---- - - - ---- -- -
------- -------- --
- - - --- --- - - - - - - -
- -- - - - -
----- -
--
- - - - - - - -- -
--------
- - - - - - - - - - - - - --
- - -- - - -
- - ---
APPEN DI X A
X
XANT H -, xanthos, yellow (3)
XER-, xeros, dry (13)
---
--------
-- - - - - - - - -
z
ZO-, zoon, animal, organism (15)
ZYM-,
(12)
267
APPEN DIX
DEX
F PREFIXE
ambi- : both
in- (il- before l; im- before b, m, and p; i1- before r): in,
into
269
270
A PPENDIX
B Index of Prefixes
- - - - - - - ----------
in- (il- before I; im- before b, m, and p; ir- before r): not
in- (il- before I; im- before b, m, and p; ir- before r): very,
thoroughly
-------- -------- -- --
----- - - - - - -
pro-: before
- - - -
inter-: between
------- -------
- - - --- - - - -
semi-: half
non-: not
ob- (oc- before c; op- before p): against, toward; very, thoroughly
----------- - - - - -
- - -- - - - -
- - - - - --- - - -
APPEN DIX
INDEX OF
Suffixes form either nouns or adjectives (or, in some
instances, verbs or adverbs). Most of the nouns in medical
terminology are abstract, indicating a state, quality, condition, procedure, or process. Noun-forming suffixes that
have special meanings, such as -itis, inflammation, will be
so indicated. Adjectival suffixes usually have the general
meaning of pertaining to, referring to, having to do with,
in a condition or state of, caused by, causing, or located in.
Only those meanings most commonly found are indicated
here. Entries for Latin suffixes are in italics.
UFF XES
-ce: forms nouns: the act of (being), the state of (being)
--- -----------
-------------------- -
271
272
A PPENDIX C
Index of Suffixes
like
---- -----
of
- - - ----- - - ------
- - -- - - - - -
-itic: forms adjectives: pertaining to; pertaining to inflammation; many words ending in -itic have come to be
used an nouns: drug, agent
- - - - - - - -- -- - - -
- - - - - - - --- -
formed fetus)
-ma: forms nouns: (often) abnormal or diseased condition; sometimes forms names of substances
APPENDIX
INDEX
Su
RMS*
FIX
ND
P UND
UFF X F O RMS
-ectasia, -ectasis: dilation, enlargement
-pathy: disease
-scopy: examination
*-logy, -logist, - malacia, -sclerosis, -stenosis, -toxic, and - toxin are suffix forms; the remaining terms are compound suffix forms.
273
APPENDIX
GL ss RY OF
ENGL S
TO-GREEK
T his glossary contains the English meaning of the G reek
and Latin combining forms, prefixes, suffixes, suffix forms,
and compound suffix forms found in L essons 1 to 15 of
this text. It is included as an aid for your completion of
Exercise 2 in each of these lessons. Verbs are given in the
present infinitive form and nouns, and adjectives are given
in dictionary form.
TIN
anus: proct-
aorta: aort-
absent: de-
action: erg-
atrium: atri-
acute: ox(y)-
attack: lep-
away: dis-
bacillus: bacill-
alike: is-
276
A PPENDIX E
Glossary of English-to-Greek/Latin
burning: pyr-
backward: retro-
------------------ --- - -
bursa: burs-
bacterium: bacter(i)-
- - - - - - -- - -
-------------
c
calcium: calc-
------------------
- - - - - - - - -- -
- - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - -
beneath: infra-
between: inter-
cartilage: chondr-
------------------ - - - - - -
- - - - - - - ----- - - -- - - - -- - - - - - -
------------------
----------------------
change: meta-
- - - - ----- - - - - -- - - - - -- - -- --- - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - -- - -
bone: oss-
child: ped-
childbirth: toe-
choroid: choroid-
brain: cerebr-
circle: cycl-
breastbone: stern-
-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
----------- - - - - -- - - - - -- --------------
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
- - - - - - - - - - - ------
bronchus: bronch(i)-
--
- - - - - - -- -
- - - - -------- - - - -
A PPENDIX
Glossary of English-to-Greek/Latin
communicate: pha-
discharge: -rrhea
completion: tel-
comprehension: no-
disintegration: -lysis
------
compress: arct(at)-
disordered: cata-
down: de-
277
-------------
- - - - -- -
downward: cata-
cornea: kerat-
----------------------- --------
-------
corpse: necr-
drop: pt-
cough: tuss-
cow: vacc-
dry: xer-
crown: coron-
duodenum: duoden-
- - - --- - - -
D
dark: melan-
dead: necr-
death: than(at)-
eat: phag-
decrease: pen-
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
defective: dys-
entire: pan(t)-
develop: plas(t)-
device: -ter
equal: is-
erect: orth-
diaphragm: phren-
esophagus: esophag-
every: pan(t)-
difficult: dys-
examination: -scopy
----------------- -------
examine: scop-
dilate: eury(n)-
--------------------- ------
------------ --
278
A PPENDIX
E Glossary of English-to-Greek/latin
following: post-
food: sit-
--
- -- - - - - - -
extremities: acr-
foot: pod-
force: dynam-
eyelid: blephar-
----------- - -
----
--------
formation: -genesis
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - -
faint: ambly-
-------
- - - - ------------
fall: pt-
falling: -ptosis
gall: chol(e)-
female: gyn(ec)-
gout: -agra
ferment: zym-
~-
- ------
--
- - - - -
gray matter (of the brain and spinal cor d): poli-
fermentation: zym-
green : chlor-
--------
groin: inguin-
feverish: pyrex-
few: olig-
growth: phyt-
first: prot-
hair : trich-
hard: bary-
fixing: -pex-
head: capit-
----- ---
--- -
---- ------------------
heal: therap(eu)-
A PPEN D IX
Glossary of English-to-Greek/Latin
healer: iatr-
ir on: sider-
healthy: eu-
island: insul-
279
jaundice: icter-
---------------
heavy: bary-
jejunum: JeJun-
---------------------
join: junct-
hernia: -eel-
joined: syn-
---------------------
hidden: crypt-
hymen: hymen-
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - --- - -
know: gno(s)-
illness: nos-
latent: crypt-
increased: hyper- -- - - -
----- - - - - - - - - - - - ---
infected : sep-
leading: agog-
- - - ---------------------- -- - -
limb: mel-
intestine: enter-
into: en-
inward: eso-
louse: pedicul-
iris: ir(id)-
love: phil-
---- ------------
280
A PPEN D IX
E Glossary of English-to-Greek/Latin
neck: trachel-
--------------------------
neither: neutr-
lymph: lymph-
- - - - - - - - - - - - - --- -- -
- - --- - - - ------------ -- - - -
new : ne-
----
night: nyct-
male: andr-
nipple: thel(e)-
man: andr-
------
---~
- - - - - -- - - - - -
marrow: medull-
nourishment: troph-
- -----
numbness: narc-
-- - -- -
-----
medicine: pharmac(eu)-
------------
menstruation: men-
mesentery: mes---- - - - -
milk: gal-, galact-, lact-
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - - - - -
- -- -----------
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- -
- - - - - - -----------
----- - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -
--------------------
one: mono-
motion: kines(i)-
----
--------------------
--~
move: kine-
movement: kines(i)-
- - - - - - - - - - --
opposite: contra-
organism: zo-
----------
outside: exo-
narrow: dolich-
----------------
oxygen: ox(y)-
--- -- ------------------
- - - - - - --
- - - -
- - - - -- -----
- - ---------------- - - -
A r r FNDIX
pain: odyn-
disease): phylac-
puberty: puber(t)-
painful: dys-
----
palate: staphyl.
------------para1ysts: paresis
-----
-- - - - - - - - -
partition: sept-
- - --- - - - - -
pulse: sphygm-
---- -
pelvis: pelv-
- ----
put: the-
people: dem-
---
putrid: sapr-
----------
pubis: pub-
---
pylorus: pylor-
----------
pierce: cente-
radiation: actin-
record: graph-
--
rectum: rect-
pointed: ox(y)-
reduction: -lysis
relieving: anti-
remember: mne-
population: dem-
pore: por-
pour: fus-
power: dynam-
rib: cost-
preventing: anti-
rod: rhabd-
281
----------
----------
- - - - - - - ---
----
---
----------
rotten: sapr-
282
APPENDIX
E Glossary of English-to-Greek/Latin
safe: immun-
sag: pt-
smooth: lei-
------------------
----------
-- - --
scrotum: scrot-
specialist: -logist
- - - -- -- - ---------------------- - - - - - --specialty: -logy
speech: phem-
secretion: crin-
sperm: sperm(at)-
seizure: lep-
spider: arachn-
- - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
----------------------
spasm: spasm-
-------~-----------------------------------------
self: aut-
--------------- --------- --
spine: r(h)achi-
spit: pty-
-----------------------
sensation: esthe(s)-
sense: esthe(s)-
sensitivity: esthe(s)-
stand: sta(t)-
staphylococci: staphyl-
-- - - ---- - - --
----- - - - --------------
----------------------------
stomach: gastr-
short: brachy-
stone: calc-
shut : my-
stop: sta(t)-
side: later-
-- --------
----- --------------------
steal: klept-
straight: orth-
strength: sthen-
similar: is-
streptococci: strept-
stretch: tens(i)-
----------------
stretching: ta-
---------------------------------------------------
study: -logy
stupor: narc-
slender: dolich-
- ----------------------
--
APPENDI X
toenail: onych-
sugar: glyc-
tone: ton-
surrounding: peri-
suture: -rrhaph-
swallow: phag-
transformation: meta-
swollen: tum(e)-
treattnent: iatr-
uker: (h)elc-
umbilicus: omphal-
th eft: !dept-
under: sub-
thick: pachythirst: dipsthorax: thorax, thoracthoroughly: con-, in-, ob-, perthread (worm): nematthrough: dia-, per-, trans(a) t hrowing: hoithyroid gland: thyrtime: chrontirning: chron-
u p : anaupon: eplu reter : ureterurethra: urethruric acid: ururinary t ract: ururine: uruterus: hyster-, metr-, -metra, uteruvula: staphyl-
tissue: hist(i)-
to: ad-
283
284
A PPENDIX
E Glossary of English-to-Greek/latin
- - - ------------
water: hydr-
web: arachn-
widen: eury(n)-
with: con-
vertebra: spondyl-
woman: gyn(ec)-
viscus: splanchn-
womb: uter-
work: erg-
voice: phon-
vomit: erne-
write: graph-
w
wall: sept-
y
yellow: xanth-
APPENDIX
MEDIC L
TERM
I
YUSE
OL
ESS
The following is a complete list of terms used in the exercises in Lessons 1 to 15, the main body of this text. Terms
from the supplemental lessons (Lessons 16 to 19) and the
biological nomenclature lesson (Lesson 20) are not included. This list is provided as a reference source and spelling
guide.
acanthoma
actinotherapy
aerotropism
acanthopelvis
adduct
afebrile
acanthosis
adenectopia
afferent
acapma
adenoidectomy
ageusia
acardia
adenoids
aglycemia
achlorhydria
adenotome
agnathia
achromatopsia
adipectomy
agnosia
achromatosis
adipocyte
akinesia
acroanesthesia
adipose
algolagnia
ablation
acrocyanosis
adiposuria
algophobia
aborad
acrohyperhidrosis
adoral
allochiria
aboral
acromegaly
adrenal cortex
allodynia
abrachia
acromicna
adrenalin
allolalia
acanthocyte
actinodermatitis
aerobe
allophasis
acanthocytosis
actinogenic
aerothermotherapy
alloplasia
acanthoid
actinoneuri tis
aerotitis
allostery
A
abdominalgia
abdominocystic
abdominoplasty
abdominoscrotal
abduct
abenteric
abiosis
285
286
A I'PENDIX
alveolar
anginoid
anth elmintic
arteriolith
alveoli tis
anginophobia
anthracosis
arteriomyomatosis
amblyacousia
angiocarditis
anthrax
arteriosclerosis
amblychromasia
angwgram
antianemic
arteriostenosis
amblychromatic
angiolith
antiarthritic
arteriostosis
amblyopia
angiorrhaphy
antibiotic
arteritis
amenorrhea
angiorrhexis
anti cytotoxin
arthritides
a1nnes1a
angiosclerosis
antifungal
arthritis
amniocentesis
angiosclerotic myasthenia
anti galactic
arthrocentesis
amniography
angws1s
antigen
arthroclasia
amniorrhexis
angiostenosis
antihemorrhagic
arthrodynia
amphibious
anhydrous
antihypnotic
arthroneuralgia
amphocyte
aniridia
anti -icteric
arthropyosis
amygdalolith
anisochromatic
antilithic
arthrosclerosis
amygdalopa thy
anisocytosis
antinarcotic
arthrosteitis
amylase
anisomastia
an tista phylococcic
ascus
amylogenesis
anisomelia
antisudorific
aspiration
amylolysis
anisometropia
antitoxin
asthenia
amylophagia
amsop1a
antitussive
astigmatism
amyosthenia
ankyloblepharon
anuresis
astigmometer
amyotrophia
ankylochilia
aortarctia
asynergy
amyx1a
ankylodactylia
aortoclasia
asystolia
analgesic
ankyloproctia
aphagia
ataxophobia
analgia
ankylosis
aphemia
atelocardia
anamniotic
anodyne
aphrodisiac
atelocheiria
anaphrodisiac
anonychia
aplasia
ateloglossia
anaphylaxis
anorchidism
apnea
atelognathia
anastomosis
anoreXIa
apoplexy
atelopodia
androgynoid
anoXIa
aptyalia
atheroma
androgynous
antaphrodisiac
apyreXIa
atheromatosis
android
antasthenic
apyrogemc
atheronecrosis
anem1c
antatrophic
arachnodactyly
atoxic
anerg1a
antebrachium
arachnolysin
atrichia
an erythroplasia
antenatal
archenteron
atriotome
anerythropsia
antepartum
archigaster
atrophy
anesthesia
antepyretic
arctation
auricula
anesthesiology
anterolateral
areflexia
auris externa
angiitis
anteroposterior
arrhythmia
auris interna
APPENDIX f
autism
brachial
cardia
choledochorraphy
autoantitoxin
brachialgia
cardiac
cholelithiasis
autoerotism
brachycephalous
cardioangiology
cholemesis
autohemolysis
brachycheilia
cardiomalacia
cholestasia
autosepticemia
brachydactylia
cardioptosis
chondralgia
auxin
brachygnathia
cardiopyloric
chondrectomy
avirulent
bradyarrhythmia
cardiospasm
chondritis
azoospermia
bradycardia
cardiotomy
chondroangioma
azym1a
bradykinesia
cecopexy
chondrocostal
bradylexia
cecoptosis
chondrocyte
bradypnea
cecostomy
chondrodystrophy
bradytachycardia
celiac
chondroplasty
bronchiolectasis
celiocentesis
choroid
bronchomycosis
celiohysterectomy
choroidoretinitis
bronchorrhagia
celioma
chromatogenous
bursae
centesis
chromatophore
bursolith
cephalalgia
chromidrosis
bursopathy
cephalodynia
chromophobia
cerebellar ataxia
chromophore
cerebellar cortex
chromotherapy
B
bacillar
bacillophobia
bacteriolysin
bacteriophage
bacteriostatic
bacteroid
barylalia
baryophobia
baryphonia
biceps
calcemia
cerebellum
chronobiology
biliary
calciferous
cerebropathy
chronognosis
biligenesis
calcification
cervicitis
chronograph
bilious
calcipenia
cervicovaginitis
circum renal
binaural
calcium
cervicovesical
cirsectomy
binocular
calculogenesis
cheilophagia
cirsomphalos
binotic
calorie
cheiloschisis
cirsotome
biotoxin
calorifacient
cheilotomy
cirsotomy
bisection
calorific
cheirognostic
clysis
blennadenitis
calorimeter
cheirology
coccobacilli
blennemesis
capillarectasia
cheirospasm
coccoid
blennoid
capillaropathy
chloroleukemia
colicolitis
blennorrhagia
capillaroscopy
chloropia
colicystitis
blepharism
capitulum
chlorosis
coliform
blepharodiastasis
capnography
cholangioma
colinephritis
blepharorrhea
capnophilic
cholecystenterostomy
colitis
blepharostat
captate
cholecystic
coloenteritis
choledochal
colonalgia
brachia
carcmogemc
287
288
APP[NDIX
colonitis
crymodynia
dacryocyst
diaphragmitis
colorectostomy
crymophilic
dacryohemorrhea
diencephalon
colostomy
cryobiology
dacryopyorrhea
digestion
colpocystocele
cryotherapy
dactyledema
digitate
colpomicroscope
cryptanamnesia
dearterialization
digiti
concrescence
cryptesthesia
decalcification
digitiform
decalcify
digitus
decimeter
diplegia
defecation
diplobacillus
demography
diploccoccemia
denticle
diplocephaly
dentigerous
diplocoria
dentilabial
dipsophobia
dentin
dipsosis
dentoalveolitis
dolichocephalic
den to facial
dolichocolon
dentoid
dolichofacial
coniofibrosis
coniology
cryptocephalus
cryptogenic
cryptolith
COlllOSIS
conjunctivitis
conjunctivoplasty
contralateral
copremesis
coprolalia
coprolith
cryptorchidism
cusp
cyanhidrosis
cyanoderma
cyanomycosts
cyanopta
cyanOSIS
coprozoa
cyanotic
cordate
cyclectomy
cordiform
cyclokeratitis
deossification
dolichomorphic
corectopia
cycloplegia
dermalgia
dolichosigmoid
coremorphosis
cyesis
dermatoconiosis
dorsad
coreometry
cystigerous
dermatocyst
dorsiduction
corestenoma
cystocele
dermatomycosis
dorsiflect
corona dentis
cystoid
dermatomyoma
dorsocephalad
coronaVIrus
cystolith
dermatophyte
dorsodynia
coroner
cystoma
dermatosclerosis
dromomania
coronoid
cystopexy
dermatotherapy
dromotropic
cortical
cystorrhexis
dermonosology
ductile
corticoadrenal
cystoscopy
desmocyte
ductule
costalgia
cytobiology
desmoneoplasm
duodenoenterostomy
costoch ondral
cytocidal
desmopathy
duodenohepatic
costotome
cytoclastic
desmorrhexis
duodenojejunostomy
craniology
cytometer
detoxify
dynamic
craniomalacia
cytotoxin
dextrad
dynamogenic
dextral
dysacousia
craniosclerosis
dextrocardia
dysarthrosis
creatorrhea
dacryadenalgia
dextrogastria
dyscephaly
cnnogemc
dacryagogue
diaphoresis
dysentery
cryalgesia
dacryelcosis
diaphoretic
dysgraphia
craniorhachischisis
A PPENDIX F
dyshidrosis
endaortitis
erotogenic
dyskinesia
endarteritis
erotophobia
dyslalia
endemic
erythrism
dysmnesia
endocranium
erythrocytorrhexis
dysmorphic
endocrinology
erythrocytosis
dysosmia
endocrinotherapy
erythroleukemia
dysostosis
endocystitis
erythromelalgia
dyspeptic
dysphagia
dysphoria
dyspnea
dysrhythmia
dysstasia
dysthanasia
dysthyroidism
dystrophy
dysuria
E
echocardiogram
echogram
echopathy
ectocardia
ectogenous
ectophyte
endodontitis
endogastri tis
endometriosis
endometrium
edema
edematogenic
efferent
emetic
erythrophage
erythropoiesis
erythroprosopalgia
erythrotoxin
endoneurium
endoparasite
endoscope
endosteum
esophagismus
esophagocele
esthesioscopy
eubiotics
endostoma
eucholia
endotoscope
euglycemia
endotoxin
eupepsta
enophthalmos
euphonia
enterocholecystostomy
euphoria
enterocystocele
eurycephalic
enterodynia
euthanasia
enteromegaly
excise
en teromycosis
eXCISIOn
enterosepsis
excrescence
ectopia cordis
ectopia renis
erythropenia
enterostenosis
entopic
epicardium
ep1cranmm
epidermitis
exencephalia
exocardia
F
facial
facial hemiplegia
facio brachial
febrifacient
fecaloid
fecaluria
fibromyalgia
fibromyoma
fibroplasia
fibrosis
fistula
fistula tome
flexile
flexor
formation
frigolabile
frigorific
frigostabile
frigotherapy
fungi
fungicide
fungistasis
fungistatic
fungitoxic
fungoid
exodontia
exogenous
galactopoiesis
exomphalos
galactostasis
exotoxin
gastric atony
expectoration
gastrocele
expiration
gastroenteralgia
exsanguination
gastrolithiasis
encephalalgia
epigastrium
encephalic
epiotic
encephalolith
epistaxis
encephalomalacia
eptzoon
externalize
gastrology
encephalomyelopathy
ergometer
extrahepatic
gastropexy
endangiitis
ergophobia
extrauterine
gastrophrenic
endangium
erogenous
extravasation
gastroplegia
289
290
APPENDIX F
gastrorrhagia
hemangioma
herpetic
hypercapnia
gastroschisis
hemangiomatosis
herpetiform
hyperchlorhydria
gastroscope
hemarthrosis
heterochromia iridis
hyperemesis
genetics
hematoma
heterodromus
hyperemesis gravidarum
genitalia
hematomphalocele
heterogeusia
hyperemia
genitoplasty
hematomyelia
heterokeratoplasty
hypergeni talism
geriatric
hematophyte
heteroprosopus
hypergeusesthesia
geriatrician
hematopoiesis
heterotoxin
hyperhidrosis
geriatrics
hematosalpinx
hidradenitis
hyperimmune
gestosis
hemialgia
hidrosis
hyperinsulinism
gingivalgia
hemianalgesia
histiocyte
hyperlactation
gingivoglossitis
hemianosmia
histiocytosis
hypermetropia
glossolabial
hemiataxia
histocyte
hyperphrenia
glossopyrosis
hemic calculus
histokinesis
hypertension
glycogeusia
hemicephalic
histolysis
hyperthermalgesia
glycopolyuria
hemidiaphoresis
histoma
hyperthyroidism
gnathalgia
hemidysesthesia
histopathology
hypertonus
gnathoschisis
hemifacial
borneo-osteoplasty
hypertrichosis
gonadal dysgenesis
hemilaryngectomy
homoerotic
hypertrophy
gonadopathy
hemiparesis
homogeneous
hyperuricemia
gonadotropin
hemocytology
homogenize
hypnogenic
gravida macromastia
hemocytozoon
homolateral
hypnoidal
gynandrism
hemodynamics
homophobia
hypnotic
gynandroid
hemophiliac
hydrocolpos
hypnotize
gynecoid
hemosiderosis
hydrometra
hypoalgia
gynecopathy
hemostasis
hydronephrosis
hypocalcemia
gynecophonus
hemotrophic
hydropenia
hypocapnia
gynoplasty
heparin
hydrophilism
hypodermoclysis
hepatogenous
hydrophthalmos
hypoglossal
hepatolytic
hydropneumothorax
hypoliposis
helcoid
hepatomalacia
hydrorrhachis
hypologia
helcoma
hepatomegaly
hydrotherapy
hypometropia
helcosis
hepatomelanosis
hymenitis
hypomnesia
helminthemesis
hepatorrhexis
hymenorrhaphy
hypomyxia
helminthiasis
hepatosplenitis
hypacousia
hyponychium
helminthicide
hermaphrodite
hypalgesia
hypophrenia
helminthology
herpes facialis
hyperalgesia
hypoplasia
hemangiectasis
herpes labialis
hyperalgia
hypoptyalism
APPrNDIX
hyposynergia
ingestion
isodactylism
laparoileotomy
hypotensive
inguinal
isomorphism
laparomyitis
hypotrichosis
inguinal reflex
isotonia
laparorrhaphy
hypoxemia
inguinolabial
hysterogastrorraphy
inguinoscrotal
hysterolith
inosemia
hysterosalpingography
inositis
inosuria
iatrology
icterohepatitis
icteroid
idiogram
idiopathic
idiotropic
ileocolic
ileocolostomy
ileocystoplasty
ileoproctostomy
inspiration
immunotoxin
inception
incipient
incise
incisor
jejunojejunostomy
laryngocentesis
jejunostomy
lateroabdominal
lateroflexion
interatrial
keratorrhexis
interauricular
kinesiatrics
internal
kinesioneurosis
internalize
kleptomania
intra -atrial
kleptomaniac
intracranial
kleptophobia
intraduodenal
koniometer
intumesce
intumescent
ipsilateral
iralgia
iridadenosis
iridocyclectomy
iridotasis
ischemia
indentation
ischesis
indigestible
ischidrosis
infra costal
isochromatic
inframammary
isocoria
infusion
isocytosis
ingestant
isocytotoxm
leiotrichous
leptocephalia
leptochromatic
leptomeninges
leptophonia
leukocidin
leukocoria
leukocyte
leukocytoid
intrapulmonary
intubation
leiomyofibroma
leiomyoma
keratocele
introflexion
immunotherapy
laryngismus
insulinemia
immunifacient
immunology
jaundice
keratectomy
intrauterine
immunogemc
laparotyphlotomy
insulin
iliocecal sphincter
immunobiology
insemination
insomnia
iatrogenes1s
laparotomy
leukopenia
leukopoiesis
labile
labioglossopharyngeal
labiomycosis
lacrimation
lacrimotome
lacrimotomy
lactation
lactogen
lalopathology
lalopathy
lalorrhea
Iaparocholecystotomy
Iapa roenterostomy
laparohepatotomy
laparohystero-oophorectomy
leukopoietic
leukorrhagia
leukorrhea
leukotoxin
lienomalacia
lienopancreatic
lingula
lipemia
lipocele
lipochondroma
lipocyte
lithiasis
lithometer
lithonephritis
logagnosia
291
292
A PPEN D IX
meningomyelocele
monorchid
meningorrhagia
monorchidism
meningorrhea
multigravida
meningovascular
myasthenia
menostaxis
myatonia
mesenteriopexy
mycethemia
mesentery
mycetogenetic
mesocardia
mycobacterium
mesocephalic
mycosis
mesoderm
myectomy
mesodiastolic
myelatelia
mesodont
myelauxe
mesogastrium
myelodysplasia
mesojejunum
myelofibrosis
metabiosis
myeloid
metachromasia
myeloma
metakinesis
myelopoiesis
metamyelocyte
myeloradiculodysplasia
metrectasia
myodynamometer
metrectopia
myodynia
metreurynter
myoendocarditis
microbe
myofibril
microbicide
myoischemia
microcephalia
myolipoma
melalgia
microdontism
myonephropexy
melaniferous
microgenitalism
myoneural
nephrocystanastomosis
melanin
micrognathia
myopathy
nephrocystitis
melanoglossia
microlithiasis
myope
nephrohypertrophy
melanoleukoderma
micromazia
myopia
nephrolithiasis
melanoma
microphakia
myosclerosis
nephrolithotomy
melanomatosis
micropsia
myotasis
nephropyosis
melanonychia
microstomia
myotatic
nephrosclerosis
melanophore
monobrachius
myotenontoplasty
nephrotoxin
melanuria
monochromatic
myxadenitis labialis
nephrotropic
menarche
monocular
myxangitis
neuralgia
meningitis
monocyte
myxochondroma
neurasthenia
meningoarteritis
monophagia
myxoid
neuritis
meningococcemia
monophasia
myxoma
neurocrme
M
macrocardius
macrocheilia
macrocheiria
macrodactylia
macrolabia
macropsia
macrostoma
macrotia
malacosteon
mammogram
mammography
maniacal
mastadenitis
mastatrophia
mastochondroma
mastomenia
mazoplasia
meatometer
meatoplasty
meatoscopy
megalocystis
megalonychosis
megalophthalmus
narcohypnia
narcolepsy
narcosis
narcotize
nasal
nasogastric
nasolacrimal
nasology
naso-oral
nasopharyngography
nasoseptitis
necrocytotoxin
necrogenous
necrophagous
necrosis
nematoid
nematology
neonate
neonatology
neostomy
nephralgia
nephrectomy
nephremphraxis
A PPENDI X F
293
neurohistology
oligospermia
ossific
neuromyelitis
oliguria
ossification
neurosclerosis
omphaloncus
ossify
neurotoxin
omphalorrhagia
ostalgia
neurotropic virus
omphalorrhexis
ostempyesis
nomogram
oncology
osteoarthropathy
nomography
oncolysis
osteochondrodystrophy
no nose
onychatrophia
osteochondroma
nonseptate
onychauxis
osteoclast
nontoxic
onychomycosis
osteogen
nosology
onychophagy
osteologist
nosomycosis
onychorrhexis
osteomalacia
nosophobia
oophorocystosis
osteometry
nosophyte
ophthalmatrophy
osteophlebitis
nyctalgia
ophthalmia neonatorum
osteophyte
panasthenia
nyctamblyopia
ophthalmomycosis
osteoporosis
pancarditis
nyctophilia
ophthalmoplegia
osteosclerosis
pancreatic
nycturia
optometrist
osteosynovi tis
pancreatolith
optometry
osteosynthesis
pancreatoncus
orad
osteothrombosis
pancytopenia
occipital
orcheoplasty
otitis
pandemic
occiput
orchidoncus
otolaryngologist
panhysterocolpectomy
occlude
orchidoptosis
otomycosis
panophobia
oculomycosis
oreXImama
otoncus
panoptosis
oculonasal
orexogen
otorhinolaryngology
paracanthoma
odontatrophy
orifice
otorhinology
paracentesis
odontoclasis
orolingual
ototoxic
paracolitis
odontodynia
oropharynx
ovanocyesis
parahepatic
odontogenic
orthobiosis
ovariotomy
paranma
odontonecrosis
orthodiagraph
ovicide
paranoid
odontorrhagia
orthopsychiatry
oviduct
paraparesis
odynacusis
orthoptic
oxyacusis
paraphemia
odynometer
orthosis
oxycephaly
paraphreni tis
oligodactylia
osmesis
oxyesthesia
paraplegia
oligodontia
osmesthesia
oxygeusia
parasite
oligohydramnios
osmidrosis
oxyopia
parasynovitis
oligomenorrhea
osmodysphoria
oxypathia
para typhlitis
oligopnea
osmonosology
oxytocin
paravesical
p
pachycephalic
pachycheilia
pachyderma
pachyglossia
pachyonychia
pachyostosis
pachypleuritis
pachyrhinic
palilalia
palindromia
palingraphia
palinopsia
294
A I' PENDIX
parenteral
periesophagitis
phoniatrics
polyneuritis
paresis
perinephrium
phonopathy
polyneuropathy
paronychomycosis
periodontal
photodysphoria
polyonychia
parorexia
periomphalic
photogenic
polyorchidism
parosmia
perionychium
photolysis
polyotia
parosphresia
perioral
photophilic
polyp
parotic
periosteitis
photopia
polyphagia
pathogenic
periosteoma
photosynthesis
polyphrasia
pathology
periosteum
phototropism
polyradiculitis
pectoral
periphrenitis
phrenicotomy
polysinusitis
pectoralgia
peri pleuritis
phrenohepatic
polythelia
pectorophony
peripylephlebitis
physical
polyuria
pedatrophy
perisalpingoovaritis
physiognosis
porencephali tis
pediatrician
perispondylic
phytogenous
posteroexternal
pediculicide
peristaltic
phytotoxin
posterointernal
pediculophobia
perivaginitis
plegaphonia
pediculosis
perivisceritis
pleurocele
posterosuperior
pediculosis capitis
pertussis
pleuroclysis
postfebrile
pediculus
pertussoid
pneumatosis
posticteric
pedomorphism
phacoanaphylaxis
pneumocentesis
postnasal
pedorthist
phacohymeni tis
pneumocephalus
postpartum
pelvicephalography
phacolysis
pneumogalactocele
postpuberty
pelvicephalometry
phacosclerosis
pneumohypoderma
prediastolic
pelvitherm
phacoscope
pneumolith
prenarcosis
penile
phage
pneumonolysis
prenatal
penischisis
phagocytolysis
pneumonorrhaphy
prepubescent
peni tis
phagocytosis
podagra
presbyacusia
pepsm
phalliform
podalgia
presbyatrics
peptogenic
phalloncus
podencephalus
presbyopia
periangiitis
pharmacophobia
podocyte
presphygmic
periangiocholitis
pharmacotherapy
polioencephalitis
proctoclysis
periarteritis
pharyngismus
poliomyelitis
proctopexia
periarthritis
pharyngocele
poliovirus
proctopexy
peri bronchiolitis
phlebectopia
polyadenomatosis
proencephalus
pericardiorrhaphy
phlebolith
polyarthritis
prognathous
pericarditis
phlebolithiasis
polyblennia
prolapse
pericardium
phlebomyomatosis
polycoria
prolapsus
pericholecystitis
phonasthenia
polymyositis
prophylactic
A PPE ND IX
prosopodiplegia
purulent
regurgitant
saprogenic
prosoponeuralgia
purulent conjunctivitis
relapse
saprophyte
prosopoplegia
purulent synovitis
renogastric
sarcoadenoma
prosopospasm
pyelectasia
renogram
sarcocarcinoma
prosopotocia
pyelocystostomosis
resectable
sarcocele
prostatodynia
pyelogram
resectoscope
sarcolysis
prostatomegaly
pyemia
respiration
scatology
prostatorrhea
pyemic
retinochoroid
scatoscopy
protanopia
pylethrombosis
retinodialysis
schistocytosis
proto biology
pyloroduodenitis
retinopathy
schistoprosopia
protoduodenum
pylorostenosis
retroauricular
schistothorax
protogaster
pyocephalus
retrocecal
schizo blepharia
protoleukocyte
pyohemothorax
retrocervical
schizonychia
protopathic
pyoid
retroesophageal
schizophrenia
protospasm
pyonephrosis
retrolingual
scleradeni tis
protozoa
pyosalpinx
retromorphosis
sclerencephalia
protozoology
pyosemia
retrouterine
scleriasis
pseudoanemia
pyretolysis
retroviruses
scleronychia
pseudocyesis
pyreXIa
rhabdomyolysis
sclera-oophoritis
pseudocyst
pyrogen
rhabdovirus
sclerotic
pseudoedema
pyrogemc
rhachialgia
sclerotrichia
rhinolithiasis
scrota
rhinomycosis
scrotitis
rhinopharyngeal
scrotocele
rhinoplasty
scrotoplasty
rhinorrhagia
sectile
rhinorrhea
section
rhinoscope
seminal
pseudo hematuria
pseudoicterus
pseudopsia
pseudosmia
psychochromesthesia
quadriceps
quadriplegia
psychometry
psychopharmacology
psychosis
rachitis
psychosomatic
rachitome
sepsis
ptosis
radiculomeningomyelitis
salpingocyesis
septotome
ptyaloli thiasis
radix
sal pingosalpingostomy
septulum
pubalgia
rectocele
sanguiferous
sialadenocus
pubarche
rectocystotomy
sangume
sialagogue
puberty
rectorrhaphy
sangumeous
sialoschesis
pubescence
rectostenosis
sanguinopurulent
sialosyrinx
pulmometry
reflex
sanguirenal
siderofibrosis
pulmonologist
reflexogenic
sa probes
siderogenous
seminiferous
295
296
APPEN D IX
sideropenia
splenemphraxis
stigmatism
sigmoiditis
splenicterus
stomatitis
sigmoidopexy
splenocele
stomatomalacia
sincipital
splenomegaly
streptococci
sinistral
spondylarthritis
streptococcolysin
sinistraural
spondylolysis
streptodermatitis
sinistrocerebral
spondylopyosis
subaural
sinistrocular
stabile
subfebrile
sinogram
staphylococcemia
sublingual
sinusoid
staphylococcus
sitophobia
staphylolysin
sitotoxin
staphyloncus
sitotoxism
stasis
somatic
stearodermia
somatocrinin
steatolysis
somatology
steatoma
somnifacient
steatopathy
somniferous
steatorrhea
somnolent
stenocephaly
somnolentia
stenosis
sane
stenostomia
some
stereognosis
sonogram
stereology
sonometer
stereometry
spasm
subpulmonary
sudor
sudoresis
sudorific
superficial
supervirulent
suppurative choroiditis
supradiaphragmatic
symbiosis
symbiotic
symphysodactyly
sympodia
synalgic
T
tachyarrhythmia
tachycardia
tachylalia
tachyphasia
tachyphrasia
tachypnea
telangiitis
telangioma
telangiosis
tenalgia
tenodesis
tenodynia
tenontography
tenontomyotomy
tenorrhaphy
tenostosis
tensiometer
tension
thanatobiological
thanatology
synarthrosis
thanatophobia
synchili a
thelarche
syndactylism
theleplasty
stereo-ophthalmoscope
syndactylous
theloncus
spasmolytic
stereo-orthopter
syndesmopexy
therapeutics
spermatopoietic
stereopsis
synergy
therapy
spermatoschesis
stereotropism
synorchidism
thermanesthesia
spermatozoicide
sternocostal
synovectomy
thermometry
sphincterismus
sternopericardial
synovia
thermostabile
sphygmogram
sternoschisis
synoviOma
thoracic
sphygmometer
sternothyroid
synthetic
thoracoceloschisis
spirogram
sternotracheal
syringocarcinoma
thoracomyodynia
spirometry
stethomyitis
syringoencephalomyelia
thoracopathy
splanchemphraxis
stethoparalysis
syrmgoma
thrombectomy
splanchnoptosis
stethoscope
systole
thromboclasis
splenectasia
stethospasm
systolic
thromboendocarditis
APPENDI X F
thrombogenic
trichophagia
vaginovesical
thyroaplasia
tricuspid
vagi tis
thyroplasty
trigastric
vagotropism
thyrotome
trophedema
vagus
thyrotoxicosis
trophic
vances
thyrotropin
trophocyte
variciform
thyrotropism
tubectomy
varicoblepharon
tocophobia
tuboplasty
varicophlebitis
topagnosis
tuborrhea
varicula
toponarcosis
tumefacient
vascular
toponeurosis
tumefaction
vascularize
topophobic
tumescence
vasculitis
toxemia
tussive
vasectomy
toxic
typhloempyema
vasitis
toxicoderma
toxico logy
ultramicrobe
toxicosis
ultrasonogram
toxin
urelcosis
toxolysin
xanthemia
xanthocyanopia
xanthocyte
xanthoderma
xanthoma
xanthophose
xanthopsia
vasopares1s
toxicodermatitis
vasorrhaphy
vasovagal
xanthosis
xerocheilia
xeroderma
xeroma
xerostomia
xerotocia
venectasia
zoophilism
venosclerosis
zoophyte
ureterolithiasis
venostasis
zoopsia
toxonosis
ureteroureterostomy
ventricle
zymogen
toxophylaxin
urethrismus
ventricular
zymolysis
trachelismus
urethrostenosis
ventroscopy
trachelocele
urethrotome
ventrose
trachelodynia
uricocholia
ventrotomy
trachelopexy
uroureter
vesicocele
tracheloschisis
uroxanthin
vesicoclysis
tracheocele
uterine
vesicula seminalis
tracheomalacia
uterorectal
viremia
tracheotome
uterotubal
virucidal
virucide
trachyphonia
transection
virusemia
transthoracic
vaccine
visceromegaly
transtracheal
vaccinotherapeutics
viscerosomatic
trichobacteria
vagmismus
viscerotonia
trichogen
vaginodynia
viscerotropic
trichomycosis
vaginogenic
VISCUS
297
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EDIT ION
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Greek Words: Liddell, H . G ., and Scott, R.: A GreekEnglish Lexicon. London (UK): Oxford U niversity Press,
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Medical Terms: Venes, D . (ed.): Trtber's Cyclopedic Medical
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Carmichael, A. G ., and Razan, R. M . (eds.): Medicine: A
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Couch, .M: Greelr and Roman Mythology. New York:
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III
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EDI TIO N
Bauer, ]: Dijfetential Diagnosis of Internal Disease. Grune &
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Benson, RC: Handbook of Obstetrics and Gynecology. Lange
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Boggs, DR and W inkelstein, A: White Cell Manual. FA
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Geschickter, CF: T he Lung in Health and Disease. JB
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Harker, LA: H emostasis Manual. FA Davis, Philadelphia,
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H arvey, AM and Cluff, LE et al: The Principles and Practice
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H illman, RS and Finch, CA: Red Cell Manual. FA Davis,
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H olvey, DN (ed): The Merck Manual of D iagnosis and
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Vaughan, D, Asbury, T, and Cook, R: General
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301