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(Right) 3500 hp 1780 rpm, 4160 volt squirrel-cage induction motor for driving water
pump. Ventilating air is recirculated in the
motor through air cooler on top. Bearings
use flood lubrication from gear driven oil
pump in bearing pedestals. Main drive
shaft extension is on opposite side.
Underground Mine Pump with Drip-Proof Motor 350 HP, 1800 RPM
Three 500 HP, 3560 RPM Oil Pipeline Pumps, Ventilated Through Base
600 HP, 3560 RPM Sil-Clad Weather Protected Motors on Pipe Line
Kiln Fans at Cement Plant Driven by 250 HP, 1800 RPM Motors
Induction Motors
THE
OF LARGE
ABC
INDUCTION MOTORS
Mr. G. L. Oscarson, the author of this special issue of the E-M Synchronizer is the
recipient of two Electrical Engineering degrees from the Institute of Technology,
University of Minnesota. Specializing in electrical power apparatus, Mr Oscarson
was for seventeen years directly associated in the field with the industrial application
of motors, generators and controls. He has been Chief Application Engineer of the
Electric Machinery Mfg. Company, since 1940, responsible for the coordination of
application requirements of large power apparatus. This paper is one of many Mr.
Oscarson has prepared both for publication for presentation to engineering groups.
Mr. Oscarson is a Fellow and Life Member of A.I.E.E., a member of the Cement
Industry Committee of A.I.E.E., a member of the Electrical Engineering Committee of
TAPPI, a registered Professional Engineer.
TABLE OF CONTENTS:
PART ONE
Frequency (f) is the number of such alterations per second. Perfect alternating current is a sine wave with no ripples or distortions.
PhaseIf the electrical power is supplied over two circuits, in one of which the voltage reaches zero and other
corresponding values 90 degrees later than in the other circuit, the service is Two Phase (Fig. 2). If the power is provided in what amounts to three circuits which reach corresponding values at 120 deg. intervals, the service is Three
Phase (Fig. 3).
pressure. Effective Voltage, also called RMS voltage (rootmean-square voltage), is .707 of the maximum value of the
voltage wave as shown in Fig. 1. Effective voltage is the
voltage measured by the usual a-c voltmeter.
If the current and voltage are not in phase, that is, do not
reach corresponding values at the same instant, the resultant
product of current and voltage is apparent power instead of
actual power. Apparent power is measured in volts-amperes
(Va) or kilovolt amperes (Kva = VA/1000).
Thus if the full-load power factor of a motor at normal voltage is 0.896, a 10% increase in voltage will lower the power
factor to 0.866.
Mathematically:
also
rotor of the induction motor can never run at quite synchronous speed. The difference between synchronous speed and
operating speed is known as slip. This is usually expressed
in percent of synchronous speed.
At current values below 3/4 of rated amperes it will be necessary to cut and try. First assume efficiency and power factor values, based on an estimate of the load, correcting for
voltage if necessary, and substituting in the following formula:
Assume that the 250 hp, 1800 rpm motor previously mentioned was checked by wattmeter and had an input of 90 kw.
For a first approximation assume an efficiency of 90%.
Then:
Total temperature is important in that it directly influences life of the insulation of the motor. It is generally
accepted that each 10 degrees C rise in temperature will
approximately halve the effective life of Class A or Class B
insulation. Actual failure of the insulation is generally
mechanical, resulting from reduced strength of the insulation
due to continual or repeated exposure to high temperature.
9
105C (Class A) Insulation is based on a total allowable temperature on a material and processing system
approved in AIEE #1 as being suitable for reasonable insulation life. This is based on:
Such units will require special tropical insulation.
Protective Constructions
Class A insulation usually consists of cotton, silk paper or
other organic material impregnated with insulating varnish;
molded or laminated phenolics; films or sheets of synthetic
resins and enamels as applied to conductors.
Open type Motor(NEMA-MG 50-40) is a self-ventilated motor having no restriction to ventilation other than
that necessitated by mechanical construction.
FIG. 12 SPLASH-PROOF
MOTOR has protective enclosures and baffles preventing
water entering at not more than
100 degrees from vertical
10
Special ProtectionsTotally enclosed, fan cooled, separately ventilated and explosion proof motors are good
examples of special protective constructions. Totally
enclosed, fan cooled and fan cooled explosion resisting
motors are quite expensive. In sizes under discussion here
TEFC motors cost 180-230% as much as standard open type
motors, and fan cooled explosion resisting motors from 200250% as much.
In recent years silicone insulated and weather protected
motors have been used successfully in place of TEFC
Motors, and at much lower cost. Using silicone insulation,
this type of motor resists moisture penetration. For corrosive areas additional protection is usually applied to metal
parts.
Large motors can be supplied in the totally-enclosed construction using recirculated ventilating air with a water-tube
air cooler. The advantages of water cooling are (1) keeps
inside of the motor cleaner, (2) provides cooling independent of ambient air temperature, (3) quieter operation, (4)
removes heat from the motor room. Water-cooled motors
with top-mounted and side-mounted coolers shown below.
Mechanical Constructions
Coupled Type (Bracket Bearing)Most induction
motors are of the coupled bracket type as illustrated on
these pages. These motors may be open, drip-proof, splashproof, or of various other protective constructions. The
bearings are supported by end brackets and rigid or flexible
couplings are used to connect the motor to the load. The
motor feet are usually mounted on a sub-base extending
under the driven machine.
Coupled Type (Pedestal Bearing)Large or slowspeed induction motors generally use pedestal-type bearings. The motor is complete with base and pedestals.
Flexible couplings are generally used to connect the motor
shaft extension to the load. The motor base may either be
mounted on extension of sub-base under the driven
machine, or may be set in concrete.
Belted Type Motors are also of the same general construction as coupled type units. Belt tightening rails are
usually provided to maintain proper belt tension. In
extreme cases, where belt tension is high, an outboard bearing is required.
FIG. 13 WEATHER PROTECTED NEMA II motor for outdoor service. Motor can be supplied with replaceable filters
for intake air as shown above.
Flange-Mounted
(Overhung) Type is used for
direct connection to air compressors. The stator of the motors is
bolted to a flange on the compressor frame, hence the name.
The rotor is mounted on an extension of the compressor shaft.
FIG. 15 FLANGEMOUNTED MOTOR
Totally enclosed inert gas filled motors can be used in hazardous areas. The TEIGF motor contains an inert gas, usually
nitrogen, under slight pressure, so that no hazardous gas can
reach the working parts. Almost any degree of protection can
be provided by means of special relays, gauges, alarms.
PART TWO
Magnetic Lines of Force (commonly called flux) surround any conductor carrying current. This results in a
magnetic field of definite strength depending on the amount
of current flowing in the conductor and the nature of the
magnetic circuit, that is the iron path available for flux adjacent to the conductor. The magnetic field has a definite
polarity depending on the direction of current. Thus the
magnetic field surrounding a conductor carrying alternating
current varies both in strength and direction. It pulsates, at
line frequency, from maximum in one direction to maximum
in the opposite direction. For explanatory purpose consider
a two-pole motor with 6 stator slots as shown on the opposite page.
If twelve conductors, properly connected, are placed in the
six equally spaced slots on the inner periphery of a laminated steel ring (called a stator) and are connected to a 3-phase
supply, they will produce, in effect, a rotating magnetic
field. The magnetic field will be substantially uniform in
total strength, but will rotate in space as described later.
If the torque developed causes the rotor to turn, it will accelerate to some definite speed at which the turning effort is
equal to the retarding effort or load.
If very little load is imposed, say only friction and windage
of the rotor, only a slight amount of current need flow in the
squirrel-cage bars to develop that torque. Only a very slight
amount of relative motion (slip) between the rotating magnetic field and the rotor is required to induce this amount of
current. The rotor will therefore turn at nearly synchronous
speed at no load.
However, even to overcome only friction and windage some
definite torque is required. To develop this there must be
some current inducted in the rotor bars, however slight.
This necessitates some slip even at no load and therefore
synchronous speed cannot quite ever be reached.
By reversing any two of the leads of a 3-phase motor, the
phase rotation will be reversed. Instead of A, B, C, as in
Fig. 3, page 5 it would become A, C, B. This would cause
the magnetic field to build up to reverse order and rotate
counter-clockwise.
As long as the rotor remains stationary the motor is, for all
practical purposes, a transformer with a short-circuited secondary winding. The rotor bars constitute the secondary.
Currents of considerable magnitude, alternating at line frequency, flow in these bars. The are induced by the magnetic
lines of force cutting across the bars. As is well known, a
conductor in a magnetic field and carrying current will have
exerted on it a force tending to move it at right angles to the
magnetic field. A tangential force, or torque, is thus exerted
on the rotor periphery.
The direction of this torque causes the rotor to attempt to
turn in the same direction as the magnetic field in the stator
is rotating; in this case clockwise. The amount of torque
developed depends on the power consumed as resistance
losses in the cage bars of the rotor, that is it depends on the
I2R losses.
TorqueA typical induction motor torque curve is represented in Fig. 18. Torque, in percent of full-load torque, is
plotted against speed.
In this case, the locked-rotor torque is 125% of full-load
torque. It rises to 225% at approximately 85% speed, and
drops to 100% at 98% speed (2% slip). At synchronous
A suitable compromise is a motor with a cage of normal design having characteristics as in Curve 3, Fig. 19.
This has adequate locked rotor torque for most applications,
low starting kva and still has low slip and high efficiency.
Double-Cage and Deep-Bar RotorsWhere good
locked-rotor torque, low slip characteristics and low lockedrotor current are desired, a double-cage rotor, Figs. 20 and
23, is frequently used. The current in the low resistance
lower cage bars is effectively limited by high inductive reactance at standstill. The inductive reactance is high on
account of the large amount of iron in the magnetic circuit
adjacent to these bars. The low-resistance lower cage winding is therefore quite ineffective. Upper cage, however, has
low reactance and high resistance. This results in high
locked-rotor torque and moderate starting current.
At operating speed the inductive reactance of the low-resistance winding is low due to the low slip frequency. Most of
the induced current then flows in the low-resistance winding
resulting in low slip and high efficiency.
Frequently, deep rectangular bars, Figs. 21, 22 and 24, are
used. This approximates the performance of a double-cage
rotor. It has the distinct advantage that the full area of the bar
is effective for heat dissipation during starting and acceleration.
The shallow, upper-cage, high-resistance bars of a double-cage
winding are susceptible to damage on loads having a long
accelerating time. This is due to concentration of the current in
only the shallow upper cage windings at relatively low speeds.
15
Extra Protection and Durability Are Built Into Heavy Duty Induction Motors
Fig. 25 The construction shown above is for drip-proof, sleeve
bearing motors with four or more magnetic poles. Heavy-Duty
Induction Motors are designed to meet the needs of drive service
where continuous dependable trouble-free operation is a top
requirement.
The frame of the motor provides a high degree of physical protection to the working parts, and the smooth contours make cleaning easy. The electrical and magnetic components adequately and
efficiently supply the required starting and running characteristics.
Large volume of air at low velocity ventilates all parts of the
motor. This air is guided at the intake by curves baffles. The volute
shape of the opening back of the stator core insures proper area for
air discharge. Thorough ventilation means full utilization of the
motor capacity and long life of the insulation.
Bearings are of modern one-to-one ratio length to diameter,
insuring full seating over the length of the bearing journal. Antifriction bearings are also standard or optional on these motors.
16
Pressure Lubrication. FIG. 27 500 hp, 3600 rpm squirrelcage motor for oil pipe-line pumping. Lubrication is furnished
by pump worm-geared to motor shaft. High-pressure side is
by-passed to reservoir with pre-set orifice to control proper flow
of oil. Oil rings provide oil when motor is starting up.
17
PART THREE
Squirrel-Cage Motors
The great majority of squirrel-cage induction motors are
used for a relatively few applications. To obtain some uniformity in application, the National Electrical Manufacturers
Association (NEMA) has designated specific designs or
classes of motors, having specified locked-rotor torque,
breakdown torque, slip, starting current, or other values.
The more common ones are NEMA Design B, NEMA
Design C and NEMA Design D. These are described below.
18
FIG. 29Comparison of typical torque and kva characteristics of NEMA Design B and E-M Design X extra-low kva
induction motors
E-M Design X (Low Starting TorqueExtraLow Starting Current)To supplement a line of low
starting current, low starting torque synchronous motors,
E-M has brought out a special line of squirrel-cage motors
known as Design X (Across-the-line starting).
Comparative torque and starting current characteristics are
shown in Fig. 29.
The following ratings at 60 cycle speeds are now available
in the flange-mounted (overhung) type and coupled type:
19
Reduced-Kva Starting
It must be borne in mind that any reduction in starting kva
will be accompanied by at least an equal reduction in
locked rotor torque and accelerating torque. There is no
advantage in specifying a high-torque motor to meet a difficult starting situation and then limiting the starting kva to a
value such that reduced voltage starting must be used.
Each design of motor will have a quite definite ratio of
torque to kva on starting, and for any given motor design a
reduction in kva must be accompanied by a reduction in
torque. Thus a Design C motor provides more starting
torque per kva than a Design B motor.
Most power companies have quite definite restrictions on
permissible starting kva. Common permissible starting
methods are the following:
1. Full voltage starting regardless of rating or type.
2. Full voltage starting up to a specified horsepower limit
reduced voltage starting above that value.
3. Starting current limited to fixed percentage of full load
current. The method of starting may be full voltage,
reduced voltage or other method as long as this stipulation is met.
4. Increment starting. This consists of permitting certain
increases in starting current at fixed intervals of time
using closed transition between steps; that is there may
be no interruption in current during transfer from one
step to the next. This method is commonly used on 120208 volt network systems and either resistance or reactor
starters, part winding starters, or wound-rotor motors are
used.
1. Full-Voltage Starting.
2. Part-Winding StartingStator is wound with two, or
more, parallel circuits, which are successively connected to
the line. Provides closed transition and has good ration of
torque to kva. Not suitable for small or high speed motors.
21
FIG. 33Series-delta (low-speed) coil connection for twospeed induction motor. T1, T2 and T3 are connected to the power supply.
FIG. 31Parallel-star (high-speed) coil connection for twospeed induction motor. Ends T1, T2, T3 are connected together; T4, T5 and T6 are connected to
power supply.
FIG. 32Parallel-star connection of Fig. 31 provides 3600srpm speed for a 3600srpm/1800srpm two-speed
motor.
This would result in one North pole an done South pole per
phase group. The magnetic lines of force would be as
shown by the dash line. On 60-cycle service this motor
would have a synchronous speed of 3600 rpm.
22
By building a motor with two separate windings, each suitable for two-to-one connection, a squirrel-cage motor can be
built for four speeds.
23
However, if, for some reason, the torque should drop to 50% of fullload torque, the speed would immediately increase to approximately
75% of synchronous speed (following the R2 torque curve, see Figure
38, until it crosses the 50% torque line).
The wound rotor motor, therefore, is not an exact means of speed
control under varying load conditions. That is a given point on the
controller will not necessarily assure a given speed. Torque characteristics of the load will be a factor since the intersection of load and
motor torque curves will determine the speed. For a given resistor
value the speed can vary widely if load torque, voltage or other conditions vary.
For applications where the wound-rotor motor is used for starting
purposes, the collector rings are short-circuited, by the contactors of
the secondary control, during normal motor operation. The motor
then operates like a squirrel-cage motor with resulting maximum
operating efficiency.
However on some loads having high intermittent peaks of short duration the motor will be operated with a step or two of resistance cut in.
Then at light load the motor operates at nearly synchronous speed.
When peak loads two encountered they will cause an appreciable
drop in speed. The flywheel effect in the motor and the load will
deliver energy during the decelerating period, serving as a cushion
between the load and the power supply. Large chipper motors are
often operated in this way when their rating is an appreciable part of
the power system capacity.
The four curves above show how the torque of the wound-rotor induction motor can be controlled to match the starting and accelerating requirements of the load. This torque control is
obtained by successively short-circuiting sections of the external resistor in the rotor circuit so
that the minimum motor torque necessary to accelerate the load will be maintained. Starting
torque control as above keeps starting current at a minimum.
25
PART FOUR
Short-Circuit Protection In many locations the energy available from the power system in case of a ground or
short-circuit is more than can be interrupted by the motor
starter. Provision must then be made for interrupting the circuit, in case of a fault, without danger to personnel or excessive damage to apparatus. This requirement is met for lowvoltage motors with fused-type (Fig. 46) and circuit breaker
type (Fig. 47) controls; and for high voltage motors, with the
Sa-Fuse (high-interrupting-capacity, current-limiting fuse
control), shown in Fig. 48, or high-interrupting-capacity oil
or air circuit breaker control.
In the Sa-Fuse Control, Fig. 48, current-limiting power fuses
are used between the motor switch and the power circuit.
These fuses limit short-circuit current to a value that can successfully be interrupted by the fuses. The fault current is interrupted in 1/2 cycle or less, thus disconnecting the motor and
control so quickly as to minimize damage to the motor, and
minimize the stresses on the control and the power system.
Reversing, Across-the-Line Starting for squirrelcage motors is accomplished by two magnetic contactors or
switches, one for forward rotation, the other for reverse rotation. A mechanical interlock is provided to prevent both
switches from closing at the same time.
26
FIG. 47
CIRCUIT
BREAKER low
voltage control.
FIG. 48
SA-FUSE highvoltage control.
Group
Controls
FIG. 50
GROUPED
CONTROL with
three Hi-Fuse
induction motor
controls and one
incoming line
control.
27
28
29
Insuring Performance
On the Job
31
As with all E-M motors, the two-winding, twospeed induction motors are insulated using the EM Duraguard system. This Class F system has
been thoroughly proven in industrial and utility
applications, The Duraguard system is unique in
that the procedure of insulating the motor is not
complete until the resin in the impregnating tank
reacts with the catalyst in the individual stator
coils. This insures a void-free fill without having
to resort to multiple dips and the resultant excessive resin buildup. The Duraguard system provides the following advantages:
E-M induction motors utilize copper cage construction with solidly brazed end rings. Copper
has superior thermal and mechanical characteristics for this application. Since the amount of cage
material is limited by the space available, suitability of the material employed should be judged in
terms of volume. When combining specific heat
and density characteristics, copper has a 30%
greater thermal capacity than aluminum.
Printed in U.S.A.