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NATURE OF CONFLICT
1.1
DEFINITION OF CONFLICT
The term conflict has no single clear meaning. Much of the confusion has been created by
scholars in different disciplines who are interested in studying conflict.
Conflict is the perception of differences of interests among people - Thompson,1998
A process of social interaction involving a struggle over claims to resources, power and
status, beliefs, and other preferences and desires. The aims of the parties in conflict may
extend from simply attempting to gain acceptance of a preference, or securing a resource
advantage, to the extremes of injuring or eliminating opponents - Bisno,1988 &
Coser,1968
Conflict is defined as an interactive process manifested in incompatibility, disagreement, or
dissonance within or between social entities (i.e., individual, group, organization, etc.).
1.2
APPROACHES OF ORGANIZATIONAL CONFLICT
Robbins (1974) presented three philosophies of organizational conflict:
1) Traditional View: The philosophy of conflict of the classicists, or traditionalists, is
based on the assumption that conflict is detrimental to an organization and, as such,
must be reduced or eliminated.
2) The Human Relations view/ Behavioralist view: The classical stage was followed by
the behavior lists philosophy, who accept the presence of conflict and even
occasionally advocate the enhancement of conflict for increasing organizational
effectiveness.
3) The Interactionist view: The philosophy of conflict of the interactionists is the third
philosophy, which differs significantly from the previous two. It is characterized by the
following:
A. Recognition of the absolute necessity of conflict;
B. Explicit encouragement of opposition;
C. Defining conflict management to include stimulation as well as resolution
methods; and
D. Considering the management of conflict as a major responsibility of all
administrators
The interactionist approach is similar to the pluralist theory, which looks upon conflict as a
means of generating agreements and of creating agreed upon terms of collaboration.
1.3
FUNCTIONAL & DYSFUNCTIONAL CONFLICT
Two opposing viewpoints on the outcome of conflict were presented. The functional and
dysfunctional outcomes of conflict in organizations are as follows:
Functional Outcomes
Conflict may stimulate innovation, creativity, and growth.
Organizational decision making may be improved.
Alternative solutions to a problem may be found.
Dysfunctional Outcomes
Conflict may cause job stress, burnout, and dissatisfaction.
Communication between individuals and groups may be reduced.
A climate of distrust and suspicion can be developed.
Relationships may be damaged.
Job performance may be reduced.
Resistance to change can increase.
Organizational commitment and loyalty may be affected.
Social conflict has both positive and negative consequences. If a social system is to benefit
from conflict, the negative effects of conflict must be reduced and positive effects must be
enhanced.
1.4
CLASSIFICATION OF CONFLICT
The literature of organizational behavior and management has highlighted different types of
conflict. Conflict may be classified on the basis of at which it may originate. Such as Sources of Conflict
Organizational levels (individual, group, etc.)
Sources of Conflict
Conflict may originate from a number of sources, such as tasks, values, goals, and so on. It
has been found appropriate to classify conflict on the basis of these sources for proper
understanding of its nature and implications. Following is a brief description of this
classification.
1) Affective Conflict
2) Substantive Conflict
3) Conflict of Interest
4) Conflict of Values
5) Goal Conflict
Levels of Analysis
Organizational conflict may be classified on the basis of levels (individual, group, etc.) at
which it occurs. On this basis intra-organizational conflict, four types of conflict may be
described as follows:
1. Intrapersonal Conflict
2. Interpersonal Conflict
3. Intragroup Conflict
4. Intergroup Conflict
1.5
CONFLICT PROCESS
The conflict process can be seen as comprising five stages. These stages are described below:
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
2.1
Integrating
Obliging
Dominating
Avoiding
1.
2.
3.
4.
Situations Where
Inappropriate
Task or problem is
simple.
Immediate decisions are
required.
Other parties are
unconcerned about
outcome.
Other parties do not
have problem-solving
skills.
1. Issue is important to
you.
2. You believe that you are
right.
3. The other party is
wrong.
1. Issue is complex.
2. Issue is not important to
you.
3. Both parties are equally
powerful.
4. Decisions do not have
to be made quickly.
5. Subordinates possess
high degree of
competence.
1. Issue is important to
you.
2. It is responsible to make
decisions.
3. Parties are unwilling to
Compromisin 1.
2.
g
3.
4.
5.
LECTURE 03
INTRAPERSONAL CONFLICT
According to Lewin (1948) there are three types of intrapersonal conflict. Following is a
discussion of these three types:
I.
II.
ApproachAvoidance Conflict
This occurs when a person has to deal with a situation that possesses both positive as
well as negative aspects, that is, when a person feels similar degrees of attraction and
repulsion toward a goal or competing goals.
III.
3.2
ROLE CONFLICT
This type of conflict occurs when a role occupant is required to perform two or more roles
that present incongruent, contradictory, or even mutually exclusive activities.
Intrasender Conflict
This type of conflict occurs when a role sender requires a role receiver to perform
contradictory or inconsistent roles.
Intersender Conflict
A role receiver experiences this type of conflict if the role behavior demanded by one
role sender is incongruent with the role behavior demanded by another role sender(s).
Interrole Conflict
This type of conflict occurs when an individual occupies two or more roles whose
expectations are inconsistent.
Intrarole (Person-Role) Conflict
This type of role conflict occurs when the role requirements are incongruent with the
focal persons attitudes, values, and professional behavior.
3.3
ROLE AMBIGUITY
A concept closely related to role conflict is role ambiguity. It refers to the lack of clarity in
understanding what expectations or prescriptions exist for a given role. Role ambiguity
occurs when the information either does not exist or is not properly communicated if it does
exist.
Sources: The sources of intrapersonal conflict are mainly structural; they are
situation-ally imposed.
Misassignment and Goal Incongruence: If a person is assigned to do a task for
which he or she does not have the appropriate expertise, aptitude, and commitment,
then the person may experience qualitative role overload.
LECTURE 04
INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT
Conict Aftermath: Usually the resolution of conict leaves a legacy which will
affect the future relations of the parties and their attitudes toward each other.
Dysfunctional or negative outcomes are most common.
4.2
4.3
Fisher and Ury (1981; see also Fisher, Ury, & Patton, 1993) have forcefully argued that a
method called principled negotiation or negotiation on merits can be used that relate to
people, interests, options, and criteria. These four methods are as follows:
Separate the People from the Problem: If the parties can concentrate on substantive
conict instead of on affective conict, they may be able to engage in the problemsolving process. In other words, the conicting parties should come to work with and
not against each other to deal with their common problem effectively.
Focus on Interests, Not Positions: This proposition is designed to overcome the
problem of focusing on statedpositions of the parties because the goal of conict
management is to satisfytheir interests. A position is what a party wants, that is, a
specic solution to an interest. This is especially true in organizations where members
are very often concerned about productivity, efciency, cost, and soon.
Invent Options for Mutual Gain: Bargainers rarely see the need for formulating
options or alternative solutions so that parties may be beneted. As was mentioned
before, during period of intense conict, the parties may have difculty in formulating
creative solutions to problems that are acceptable to both parties.
Insist on Using Objective Criteria: To manage conict effectively, a negotiator
should insist that results be based on some objective criteria. Examples of objective
criteria include market value, attainment of specic goals, scientic judgment, ethical
standards, and so on.
LECTURE 05
INTRAGROUP CONFLICT
5.1
To make the discussion of conflict within a group meaningful, of a group should include the
following:
A group must consist of two or more members.
A group must possess a stable structure; that is a collection of individuals that changes
(e.g. passengers in an airplane) cannot be considered a group.
The members should be interdependent.
The members should interact with each other.
Different kinds of groups are found in organizations. Groups can be broadly classified
as formal or informal. Following is a classification and discussion of these groups.
5.3
TYPES OF GROUPS
Formal groups: The formal groups are formed by the organization for the purpose of
attaining certain goals. These groups can be classified as task or project groups.
Task groups: Groups that are formed around certain tasks or functions and remain in
existence for a long period of time are called task or functional groups.Types of task
groups:
1. Interacting group
2. Coaching group
3. Counteracting group
Project group: Groups formed for the purpose of completing specific projects are
called project group. This group remains in existence for a limited period of time.
Informal Groups: These groups are formed by the organization members without
any direction from management. These groups exist to satisfy certain needs not meet
by the formal groups. Two types of informal groups are:
1. Interest groups
2. Friendship groups
5.4
SOURCES OF INTRAGROUP CONFLICT
Groups are formed by the multitude of factors. The diagnosis of intragroup conflict should
indicate the factors these are:
Leadership style: A leader can virtually all other variables affecting conflict within a group.
Leadership style as a source of intragroup conflict has not been exclusively established
through empirical studies. It can influence other variables such as task structure, group
composition, size and so on.
10
Task structure: This represents the extent to which the task is simple (routine)or
complex(non routine). If a task is routine, it is likely to have a clearly defined goals,
methods.non routine tasks are not well defined and do not have a verifiably correct solution.
Group composition If a group is composed of individuals with too diverse inter personal
styles, attitudes, values and interests, the members will have divergent perspectives toward
group and organizational goals. In this situation, the members will experience undesirable
interpersonal conflict.
Size: The size of a group can affect group processes and conflict as a group grows potential
for conflict increases. Several earlier studies found a positive relationship between group size
and dissatisfaction and tension.
Cohesiveness and groupthink: One of the major liabilities of a group is that one or more
individuals may be forced to conform to the mode off thinking of their majority group
members. Individuals under group pressure will change their opinions about highly objective
matters.
5.5
The process and structural intervention recommended for managing intragroup conflict
follow.
Process: An organization development technique such as team buildings has been presented
as a process intervention that can be used to manage intragroup conflict. Team building can
be viewed as an extension of organization development intervention such as sensitivity
training or T-group.
Structural: Unlike process intervention such as organization development, systematic
structural interventions are not available for the management of intragroup conflict. Some
intragroup conflict management strategies are to a manager to generate or intensify conflict is
to change group membership, the level of conflict may also be altered by changing the group
size, the group leader can change the amount of conflict by altering the reward system.
LECTURE 06
INTERGROUP CONFLICT
11
Following is a detailed discussion of the process that takes place within and between two
conflicting groups in an organization. The process becomes distinct during periods of intense
win-lose conflict.
Behavioral and Perceptual Change: When intergroup conflict of win-lose
orientation occurs, competition among members within each is reduced, and the
groups become more cohesive. The group members tend to conform to the group
norm more, and they become loyal to the group.
Structure Formation: Intergroup conflict may result in the emergence of autocratic
leaders and the establishment of a new power structure. The new leader may establish
a power structure quickly.
Decision Process: Differences among in group members that can lead to better
decisions are no longer tolerate. The groups establish the means of negotiation, which
are usually bargaining, ultimatums, and nonnegotiable demands.
Conflict Aftermath If bargaining is exclusively utilized as a method of conflict
resolution, the possibility exists that both groups will perceive themselves as party
losers after the cessation of conflict.
6.2
12
Process: Process interventions, such as organization development, are designed to help the
participants to learn mainly collaborative behavior to find the sources of conflict and to arrive
at creative solutions. It should be noted that these interventions are useful when the
intergroup conflict is strategic rather than frictional or minor. Two intervention strategies for
managing intergroup conflict, problem solving and organizational mirroring, are presented.
Problem solving is designed to help the members of two groups to learn the integrating style
to handle their differences. The organizational mirroring intervention is appropriate when
more than two groups are having problems in working together.
Structural: One of the major sources of intergroup conflict is the significant
interdependencies between departments, units, or groups. Structural interventions may be
made to deal with these interdependencies effectively.
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