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First-Order Systems
A one-degree-of-freedom first-order system is governed by the first-order ordinary
differential equation
dy
a1
+ a0 y = F(t ) ,
dt
(1)
where y(t) is the response of the system (the output) to some forcing function F(t) (the
input). Eq. (1) may be rewritten as
dy
+ y = kF (t ) ,
(2)
dt
where =a1/a0 has the dimension of time and is the time constant for the system and k =
1/a0 is the gain.
y(t) = kA 1 e t .
(4)
The response approaches the final value y= kA exponentially. By using the boundary
conditions equation (4) then may be rewritten as
y (t ) y
y (t ) kA
= e t =
.
y0 y
kA
(5)
The rate at which the response approaches the final value is determined by the time
constant. When t = , y has reached 63.2% of its final value as illustrated in Figure 1.
When t =5, y has reached 99.3% of its final value.
Measurement Lab
y = kA
y(t)
0.632 y
0
2
4
6
t/
12
14
y0 = 0 t=
where = time constant
10
kA
y0 y
The slope s of the natural log term plotted against t gives the time constant through the
relation s = -1/.
Measurement Lab
(neglecting conduction and radiation), as it is for a TC in a fluid, then this energy balance
is
dT
hA(T T ) = mc
,
(7)
dt
h is the convection coefficient, A is the surface area of the sensor, T is the temperature, m
is the TC mass, and c is the heat capacity. Writing Eq. (7) in the form of Eq. (2)
dT
+ T = T ,
dt
(8)
mc
.
hA
(9)
References
J.P. Holman, Experimental Methods for Engineers, 7th Ed., McGraw-hill, New York,
2001: First-order systems, p. 19-23; Thermocouples p. 368-377; Linear regression p. 9194; Signal conditioning (RC Circuits) p. 183-190.
R.S. Figliola and D.E. Beasley, Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurements, Wiley,
New York, 1991, p. 63, 73.
Omega Technologies Handbook, Thermocouple Reference Tables, Omega Engineering
Inc., 1993, p. B172.