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2.
The particle theory of matter states that matter is made up of a large number of tiny and
discrete particles.
Types of Particles
1.
2.
3.
4.
a.
2.
3.
4.
factors that affect the rate of diffusion and the related experiments.
What is Diffusion?
1.
2.
It occurs when the particles of the substance move through the space between the particles
of another substance.
3.
Figure below shows how the bromine particles diffuse into the air.
4.
5.
6.
MUST KNOW!
Diffusion in Solid
Diffusion in Solid
Observation
The blue colour of copper(II) sulphate fills up the entire test tube after a few days
Copper(II) sulphate crystals are made of copper(II) ions and sulphate ions which are tiny and discrete.
The particles in the copper(II) sulphate crystal will separate to become ions and diffuse randomly
upwards until the whole agar turns blue.
Diffusion in Liquid
(Diffusion in Liquid)
Observation
The purple colour of potassium manganate(VII) fills up the entire test tube after a few hours
The rate of diffusion of the particles in water is faster than the diffusion rate of particles in
solid.
The occurrence of diffusion proves that potassium permanganate(VII) consist of tiny and
discrete particles.
Diffusion in Gas
(Diffusion in Gas)
Observation
The brown colour bromine vapour spreads evenly throughout the gas jar in a few minutes
Bromine vapour is made of tiny and discrete molecules that move randomly to fill up space.
Bromine vapour moves randomly and diffuses in all directions in air from areas of higher
concentration to areas of lower concentration.
Conclusion
The rate of diffusion is highest in gas and lowest in solid.
Brownian Motion
1.
Brownian motion is the physical phenomenon that tiny particles immersed in a fluid move
about randomly.
2.
3.
4.
b.
Elements
1.
2.
Element can be either atoms or molecules.
Example:
(Both the iron and oxygen are element because they consist of only one type of atoms)
Compounds
1.
2.
Example:
(Both the sodium chloride and carbon dioxide are compound because they consist of more than one
type of atoms)
A symbol of element is the chemical symbol written in short form to represent a particular
element. Some elements are represented by the first letter of its name.
Examples:
Element
Symbol
Element
Symbol
Fluorine
Phosphorus
Hydrogen
Sulphur
Iodine
Carbon
Nitrogen
Vanadium
Oxygen
If there are two or more elements that have mane start with the same alphabet letter, a second letter
is added to differentiate between these elements. The second letter used is always lowercase.
Examples:
Elements
Symbol
Elements
Symbol
Bromine
Br
Nickel
Ni
Calcium
Ca
Silicon
Si
Chlorine
Cl
Helium
He
Chromium
Cr
Argon
Ar
Magnesium
Mg
Aluminium
Al
Manganese
Mn
Zinc
Zn
Neon
Ne
Platinum
Pt
Latin Name
Symbol
Copper
Cuprum
Cu
Iron
Ferrum
Fe
Lead
Plumbum
Pb
Mercury
Hydrargyrum
Hg
Potassium
Kalium
Silver
Argentum
Ag
Sodium
Natrium
Na
Tin
Stannum
Sn
(Notes: You MUST Memorise the symbol for all these 31 elements)
Matter exists in 3 states of matter, namely, solid state, liquid state and gaseous state.
Solid
Liquid
Gas
Arrangement
of Particles
another.
Movement of
Particles
positions.
very strong
Attraction
very weak
solid state.
between
particles
Ability to be
compressed
packed closely.
Volume
Fixed
Fixed
Heat Energy
Highest
content
Shape
energy content
Fixed
The change in temperature will influences the kinetic energy or the speed of the motion of the
particles.
2.
When a substance is heated, the kinetic energy of the particles in the substance increases.
This causes the particles to move or vibrate faster.
3.
Likewise, when a substance is cooled, the kinetic energy of the particles in the substance
decreases. This causes the particles to move or vibrate slower.
4.
The kinetic energy of the particles in a substance is directly proportional to the temperature of
the substance.
Melting
Definition
Melting is the process where a solid changes to its liquid state at a certain temperature
(called the melting point) and pressure when it is heated.
Notes
When a solid is heated, the particles obtain energy and vibrate at a faster rate.
As the temperature increases, the vibration of the particles increases until they reach
the melting point where the particles obtain enough energy to overcome the forces that
hold them in their fixed positions.The solid then changes into a liquid.
During melting, the temperature remains constant. This is because the heat energy is
taken in by the particles to overcome forces between them instead of being used to
raise the temperature.
Freezing
The freezing and melting points of a pure substance are the same.
Definition
Freezing is the process where a liquid changes to its solid state at a certain temperature
(called freezing point) and pressure when it is cooled.
Notes
When a liquid is cooled, the temperature drops as heat energy is released to the
surroundings.
As heat energy is released, the kinetic energy of the particles in the liquid decreases,
particles.
As the temperature keep on dropping until it reach the freezing point, the liquid start
released when the particles slow down to take up fixed and orderly positions in the solid.
Vaporization
Definition
(Evaporation)
Vaporization, also called evaporation is the process whereby atoms or molecules in a liquid
state gain sufficient energy to enter the gaseous state.
Boiling is the rapid vaporization of a liquid at a certain temperature (the boiling point) and
pressure when heat is applied to it.
Notes
Evaporation
The particles escape from the surface of the liquid to form gas.
Evaporation differs from boiling in that it only takes place at the surface of the liquid
and it is very slow.
On the other hand, boiling takes place throughout the liquid and is very fast.
Inter-molecular forces. The stronger the forces keeping the molecules together in
the liquid or solid state the more energy that must be input in order to evaporate them.
If conditions allow the formation of vapour bubbles within a liquid, the vaporization
When a liquid is heated, the particles gain energy and move faster.
As heat energy is keep on supplying to the liquid, the particles will eventually obtain
enough energy to completely break the forces in between molecule.
The liquid then changes into a gas and particles are now able to move freely and are
far apart.
The temperature remains constant during boiling because heat energy that is
absorbed by the particles is used to break the forces holding them together.
condensation
Definition
Condensation is the process by which a gas or vapor changes to liquid state at certain
temperature and pressure when it is cooled.
Notes
As a result they move slower and this will cause the forces between them grow
stronger.
sublimation
Definition
Sublimation is a process of conversion of a substance from the solid to the vapour state
without its becoming liquid.
Notes
When heated, the particles of the solid gain enough energy to break the forces
between them and move freely as a gas.
Examples of substances which sublime are solid carbon dioxide (dry ice), ammonium
chloride and iodine.
The forces between the particles are very strong. The particles can only vibrate at a fixed
position.
A-B
Kinetic energy increases and the molecules vibrate faster about their fixed positions and
the temperature increases.
Naphthalene molecules have received enough energy to overcome the forces of attraction
between them.
B-C
Some of the particles that gain enough energy begin to move freely.
The temperature remains constant because the heat that supplied to naphthalene is used
to overcome the forces of attraction that hold the particles together.
The heat energy that absorbed to overcome the intermolecular forces is named as
the latent heat of fusion.
C-D
As the liquid naphthalene is heated, the molecules gain more heat energy and the
The particles move faster and faster because their kinetic energy is increasing.
Naphthalene molecules have received enough energy to overcome the forces of attraction
between the particles in the liquid.
Some of the naphthalene molecules start to move freely and liquid naphthalene begin to
change into gas.
D-E
The is because the heat energy absorbed is used to overcome the intermolecular forces
between the particles of the liquid rather than increase the temperature of the liquid.
E-F
The gas particles continue to absorb more energy and move faster.
P-Q
The particles have very high energy and are moving randomly.
The intermolecular forces between the particles are very weak and can be ignored.
The particles lose kinetic energy during cooling, the particles getting closer to each other
and the temperature drops.
As the molecules are close enough, stronger forces of attraction result in forming of
intermolecular bonds.
Q-R
This is because the energy produced during the formation of bonds is equal to the heat
energy released to the surroundings during cooling.
The heat energy that releases during this condensation process is called the latent heat of
vaporization.
The substance exists only in liquid state as all the gas particles have condensed into liquid.
R-S
As the temperature falls, the naphthalene molecules lose heat energy. Their movement
The particles have very little energy and begin to move closer towards one another as it
starts to freeze into solid.
S-T
The temperature remains constant until all the liquid changes to solid.
This is because the energy released is the same as the energy lost to the surroundings
during cooling.
The heat energy that releases during this freezing process is called the latent heat of
fusion.
All the liquid freezes into solid. The particles are now closely packed in an orderly manner.
T-U
Once all the liquid has become solid, the temperature falls once again until it reaches room
temperature. The substance is in the solid state here.
The substance reaches room temperature and remain at this temperature as long as the
room temperature remain the same.
1.
The physical state of a substance at a certain temperature and pressure depends on the
values of its melting and boiling points.
2.
3.
A substance is in liquid state if it exists at a temperature above its melting point but below its
boiling point.
4.
Table below shows the scientists that contribute to the development of the Model of Atom.
John Dalton
or rearranged.
Weakness
J.J. Thomson
Ernest Rutherford
Neils Bohr
James Chadwick
The central nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. It containing almost all the mass of the
atom.
2.
the nucleus of an atom is very small compared to the size of the atom
3.
the electrons are orbiting outside the nucleus in the electron shells
4.
the electrons are moving in electron shells at a very high speed and we cannot determine the
position of the electrons at a particular time
1.
2.
proton,
b.
neutron and
c.
electron,
2. The proton and neutron form the nucleus at the centre of an atom. They are also called the
nucleon of an atom.
3. The electron moves around the nucleus at a very high speed.
4. The nucleus is positively charged because of the presence of protons, which are positively
charged. The neutrons are neutral.
5. The symbols, charge and relative masses of proton, neutron and electron are as below.
Particle
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Symbol
p
n
e
1.
2.
The positive and negative charges of the protons and electrons respectively neutralise each
other, for example, (+4) + (-4) = 0
3.
If the number of protons is greater than the number of electron, the particle is positively
charge.
4.
If the number of protons is greater than the number of electron, the particle is positively
charge.
Example:
Number of proton
3
5
9
11
16
17
20
Number of electron
3
2
10
10
18
18
18
Charge
0
+3
-1
+3
-2
-1
+3
1.
2.
Proton Number
1.
The proton number (Z) represent the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom.
2.
3.
4.
In an atom of neutral charge, the number of electrons also equals the atomic number.
5.
Hence, the proton number of an atom can also represent the number of electrons.
Nucleon Number
1.
The nucleon number (A), also called atomic mass number or mass number, is the number of
protons plus the number of neutrons in an atomic nucleus. (Nucleon number = Number of
protons + Number of neutrons)
2.
The nucleon number of an atom is about the same as the mass of the atom because the
mass of an electron is very small and can be ignored.
Atom
Helium
Oxygen
Sodium
Chlorine
Proton
Number
2
8
11
17
Nucleon
Number
4
16
23
35
Amount of
Proton
2
8
11
17
Amount of
electron
2
8
11
17
Amount of
Neutron
2
8
12
18
[Notes: In ion, the amount of protons IS NOT equal to the amount of electrons]
Isotopes are atoms of certain elements which have the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons in the nucleus of the atoms.
It can also be defined as atoms of certain elements with the same proton numbers but with different
nucleon numbers.
Properties of Isotope
Number of proton
equal
Number of neutron
difference
Chemical properties
same
Physical properties
difference
Example:
Element
Name
Hydrogen
Hydrogen
Deuterium
Tritium
Oxygen-16
Oxygen-17
Oxygen-18
Oxygen
Symbol
H
H
3
H
16
O
17
O
18
O
1
Proton
Number
1
1
1
8
8
8
Nucleon
Number
1
12
23
16
17
18
Number of Number of
proton
neutron
1
0
1
1
1
2
8
8
8
9
8
10
Carbon
Chlorine
Sodium
1.
Carbon-12
Carbon-13
Carbon-14
Chlorine-35
Chlorine-37
Sodium-23
Sodium-24
C
C
14
C
35
Cl
37
Cl
23
Na
24
Na
12
13
17
17
11
11
6
6
6
17
17
11
11
12
13
14
35
37
23
24
6
6
6
17
17
11
11
We have learnt that electrons occupy orbits with definite energy level of an atom, as
suggested by Neils Bohr.
2.
These orbits with definite energy level are known as the shell.
3.
4.
The first shell can hold up to two electrons. This is called a duplet.
5.
The second shell can hold up to eight electrons. This is called an octet.
6.
6
7
8
18
20
12
13
7.
However, with the third shell, when eight electrons are present, extra stability is gained. The
additional electrons go into the fourth shell before the third shell is completely filled.
8.
The way in which the electrons are distributed in the shells of an atom is called the electron
arrangement of the atom
9.
Notes
1.
Electrons Arrangement
2.
1.
2.1
and 17 electrons.
2.
2.8.7
shell.
1.
2.
2.8.8.2
shell.
Table below shows the arrangement of electrons of the first 20 elements in the periodic table. We
Proton
Number of
Number
Electron
Number of electron in
1st shell
2nd shell
3rd shell
Electron
4th shell
Arrangement
Hydrogen
Helium
Lithium
2.1
Beryllium
2.2
Boron
2.3
Carbon
2.4
Nitrogen
2.5
Oxygen
2.6
Fluorine
2.7
Neon
10
10
2.8
Sodium
11
11
2.8.1
Magnesium
12
12
2.8.2
Aluminium
13
13
2.8.3
Silicon
14
14
2.8.4
Phosphorus
15
15
2.8.5
Sulphur
16
16
2.8.6
Chlorine
17
17
2.8.7
Argon
18
18
2.8.8
Potassium
19
19
2.8.8.1
Calcium
20
20
2.8.8.2
The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are called valence electrons.
2.
The valence electrons have great significance in determining the chemical properties of an
atom.
3.
Elements with the same number of valence electron have the same chemical properties.
Example:
Given that a sodium atom has 11 protons 12 neutrons. Find the number of valence electron in a
sodium atom.
Answer:
For an atom,