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doi:10.1088/0004-6256/135/4/1450
ABSTRACT
Spectroscopic observations of Betelgeuse, taken at the Elginfield Observatory, show velocity and temperature
variations delineating the systematic, but generally chaotic, rise and fall of photospheric material. The characteristic
timescale of the variations is 400 days, while velocities cover a range of 9 km s1 . Macroturbulence is constant
to about 13% and does not result from motions on the largest scales, but from motions within the large structures.
The line bisectors have predominantly a reversed-C shape. Variations in the shapes of bisectors occur on the
1 km s1 level and are not obviously connected to their shifts in wavelength. A likely explanation of the observations
is granulation and giant convection cells accompanied by short-lived oscillations they trigger. Random convection
events may account for radial-velocity jitter seen in many highly evolved stars.
Key words: convection stars: individual (Betelgeuse) stars: oscillations stars: variables: other supergiants
techniques: spectroscopic
Online-only material: color figures
1. BACKGROUND
Betelgeuse is a red supergiant star ( Ori, HR 2061, HD
39801, M2 Iab, B V = 1.86). The star varies in brightness,
surface features, radial velocity, and line depths, but shows
only small variation in the shapes of the spectral lines. A
detailed description of the stars characteristics and photospheric
line-strength variations was given in an earlier publication
(Gray 2000; G1 hereafter). It was shown there that the stars
brightness is often in phase with the changes in line depths:
deeper lines, brighter star. Bright spots that frequently appear
in interferometric imaging of the star are sometimes taken
as evidence of large granulation cells (e.g., Wilson et al.
1997; Young et al. 2000; Freytag et al. 2002; but see G1
for an alternative interpretation). Naturally one presumes long
timescales and large convection cells based on dimensional
arguments applied to a star like Betelgeuse, with its radius
800 solar radii and the low surface gravity of a supergiant
star (Schwarzschild 1975; Boesgaard 1979). I will use the terms
granulation, supergranulation, and giant convection cell
in analogy with the solar usage. Solar granules have dimensions
1 Mm, supergranules 10 Mm, and giant convection cells
span the dimension of the convection zone or 200 Mm. The
dimensions of each of these will be scaled up in supergiants
such as Betelgeuse, but the hierarchy remains the same. In the
1975 paper, Schwarzschild considered mainly the scaling of
solar granulation and supergranulation to giant and supergiant
stars. Some hydrodynamical models of Betelgeuse showed 3
5 cells on the visible disk (Freytag et al. 2002). However,
previous spectroscopic evidence indicated 600 cells on the
visible surface of Betelgeuse (Gray 2001; G2 hereafter). This
was deduced from the 4% variation seen in the widths of
the spectral lines (but see updated material below). Hundreds
of granules are also predicted by the scaling relation given
by Freytag et al. (2002). While such cells would certainly
be large, 40 Mm across or about 40 times the dimensions
of solar granules, they fall short of being the predicted large
granulation cells by an order of magnitude. Past investigations
were therefore inconclusive on the existence or the behavior of
large granulation cells.
1450
No. 4, 2008
1451
1.0
F/F c
0.5
V I 6251.83
Fe I 6219.29
Fe I 6252.57
Ti I 6261.11
Ori HR 2061 M2 I ab
0.0
6220
6230
6240
6250
6260
6270
Wavelength
Figure 1. This typical exposure of Betelgeuse illustrates the shallow broad lines and identifies the specific lines used in the analysis. F/Fc denotes flux normalized to
nominal continuum flux.
(A color version of this figure is available in the online journal)
50 m s1 or better, which is more precise than one can measure the positions of broad spectral lines such as those of
Betelgeuse.
3. TEMPERATURE AND BRIGHTNESS VARIATIONS
The ratio of the line depths of V i 6251.83 to Fe i 6252.57
(Figure 1) is a measure of the temperature, with larger ratios
indicating cooler temperatures (Gray & Brown 2001). Although
no calibration exists in this range to convert the line-depth ratios
to temperature, one can make an order-of-magnitude estimate. If
the lines were weak, the ratio of their strengths would vary with
the ratio of their Boltzmann excitation factors. For these lines,
= 0.29 and 2.40 eV respectively, and for the observed range
in line-depth ratios, a temperature change 100 K would be
implied. Since the lines are not weak and the light is integrated
over the stellar disk, this is a lower limit to the real temperature
variations.
Figure 2 shows the line-depth ratio as a function of time.
Measurement errors are 0.005, smaller than the symbol size,
as estimated from repeated exposures taken minutes apart. As
can be seen in the figure, variations occur on many timescales.
In some time intervals, there is a hint of oscillation, but there is
no one period that stands out. A period of 388 days (30) was
deduced by Kiss et al. (2006) from photometric observations
obtained from the American Association of Variable Star Observers (AAVSO). Some of the AAVSO observations (Henden
2007, private communication) are compared to the line depths
in Figure 2. The magnitudes were binned in 10 day intervals
and these averages, aside from the occasional erratic point, typically have errors of 0.1 mag or less. Also shown are the
more precise measurement of Krisciunas & Luedeke (1996),
where the typical error is a few thousandths of a magnitude. The
agreement between these two independent photometric studies
is very good, with differences in overall trends, rates of change,
and amplitudes of variation rarely exceeding 0.1 mag. Earlier
measurements by Krisciunas (1990, 1992, 1994) also agree with
AAVSO data to this level.
In a rough sense, the photometric variation is seen to mimic
the line-depth ratio variation. There are times when the photometry tracks the line-depth ratio rather well, as in the 1100011300
and 1265012750 intervals in Figure 2. But more often there are
significant differences, for example near 10500, 10750, 10850,
11600, 12000, and 12550. Similar conclusions have been drawn
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Vol. 135
1.0
0.5
Magnitude
Line-Depth Ratio
(a)
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.0
10000
10500
11000
11500
1.0
0.5
Magnitude
Line-Depth Ratio
(b)
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.0
1.4
11500
12000
12500
13000
1.0
0.5
Magnitude
Line-Depth Ratio
(c)
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.0
1.4
13000
13500
14000
14500
JD - 2440000
Figure 2. The line-depth ratio of V i 6251.83 to Fe i 6252.57, a temperature index, is shown as a function of time (). Superimposed are the AAVSO visual magnitudes,
binned in 10 day intervals (+). The photometric observations of Krisciunas & Luedeke (1996) are also shown ().
(A color version of this figure is available in the online journal)
No. 4, 2008
1453
(a)
LDR ( JD = 4059)
Power
1.0
0.5
0.0
(b)
AAVSO JD for LDR
Power
1.0
0.5
0.0
(c)
AAVSO JD ~ JD of LDR
Power
1.0
Gaussian
0.5
0.0
0.000
0.005
0.010
Frequency, cycles/day
0.015
0.020
Figure 3. (a) Periodogram of the line-depth ratio (LDR) shows several peaks at these low frequencies. The observations cover a time window of 4059 days.
(b) Periodogram of AAVSO magnitudes over the same time interval used in (a). (c) Periodograms of AAVSO magnitudes for eight time windows having a similar
length to the one used in (a). The peaks lie under a Gaussian envelope.
(A color version of this figure is available in the online journal)
(a)
(b)
1.0
0.9
F/F c
0.8
0.7
0.6
6251
1.0
6252
6253
6251
(c)
6252
6253
(d)
0.9
0.8
F/F c
0.7
0.6
0.5
6260
6261
6262
Wavelength
6260
6261
6262
Wavelength
Figure 4. The left-hand panels, (a) and (c), show spectral lines on an absolute wavelength scale with only continuum normalization. The right-hand panels, (b) and
(d), show the same profiles shifted in wavelength and scaled to the same central depth. In panel (b), the V i 6251.83 line was used for the depth normalization; the
Fe i 6252.57 line differs in depth owing to temperature differences. Any of the recorded spectral lines could have been used for this illustration.
(A color version of this figure is available in the online journal)
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GRAY
(a)
(b)
(c)
100 d
(d)
Vol. 135
Betelgeuse 6261
30
25
10000
11000
12000
13000
14000
JD - 2440000
(e)
(f)
Figure 5. The full half width of Ti i 6261.11 is shown as a function of time. The outlying panels have expanded time dimensions so more detail can be seen. The
vertical scale of the outlying panels is the same as for the main panel (d) but are offset in some cases to center the data in the panel.
(A color version of this figure is available in the online journal)
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
-5
-10
12500
13000
13500
14000
JD - 2440000
Figure 6. Mean core velocity of V i 6251.83, Fe i 6252.57, and Ti i 6261.11 (plus an unknown constant) is shown as a function of time.
(A color version of this figure is available in the online journal)
the plots. The variations are, therefore, many times larger than
the1 measurement errors. The half width varies from about 27 to
30 2 km s1 , or some 13% over the course of these observations.
Apparently the large macroturbulence of this star is constant to
that level. A similar stable and isotropic macroturbulence was
found in the chromospheric study by Lobel & Dupree (2001),
but see Carpenter & Robinson (1997) who found evidence for
non-isotropic velocity fields. Freytag et al. (2002) also found
large velocities in their hydrodynamical models, . . . often
exceeding 20 km s1 . . . . As can be seen in the various panels of
Figure 5, changes occur on many timescales. A periodogram
shows no outstanding peaks, but for frequencies below about
0.005 cycles day1 , or periods longer than about 200 days,
there is a signal.
The wavelength positions of the line cores of the three lines,
6251.83, 6252.57, and 6261.11, were estimated by eye.
Within the uncertainty of measurement and variable blending,
No. 4, 2008
2002-03
(a)
2003-04
(b)
0.9
13 12
0.8
F/F c
1455
13
0.7
14
14
12 11
10
9
11 10
15
16
2
5 3
8
6 4 1
7
4
3
5
1
7
0.6
0.5
1.0
2004-05
(c)
0.9
10 9
13
14 12 8
0.8
F/F c
11
9
10 75
8
6
7
6
0.7
0.5
-5
2006-07
(e)
12
13
11
3
0.6
1.0
2005-06
(d)
0.9
0.8
F/F c
11
10
9
8
7
0.7
3
4
0.6
0.5
-5
Figure 7. Bisectors of the Ti i 6261.11 line are shown for individual observing seasons. Both the shape and the shifts have meaning, but the position of zero velocity
is unknown. The numbers indicate the time order of the exposures, so the time progression of positions and shape changes can be seen.
(A color version of this figure is available in the online journal)
2 & 3 and 10 & 11 in the 20022003 season are two cases taken
one day apart. Both pairs show the same basic shapes and differ
by 0.1 km s1 in position, and any variation of the star is
included in these differences.
Inspection of the figure shows that (1) bisectors taken on
successive nights are almost identical, (2) shape variations occur
on the 1 km s1 level, including change in curvature, reversal of
curvature, and slope, (3) there is no consistent relation between
the shape and shift, (4) shifts are much larger than shape
variations, being on the 5 km s1 scale, and (5) the predominant
shape is like a reversed C, mimicking what is seen for stars
hotter than the granulation boundary (Gray & Toner 1986; Gray
& Nagel 1989; Gray 2005; near G0 for the more luminous
stars). Given these variations in the bisector shape, classical
radial-velocity measurements, where one number is assigned
to the stars line shifts, clearly loses meaning on scales below
1 km s1 .
As seen in Figure 7, a C shape, or at least a positive slope,
occasionally occurs, but both the C and reversed-C shapes can
and do occur at similar velocity displacements. The shape
changes are much larger than those would be induced by
classical radial pulsation of a few km s1 , i.e., the observed
shifts. For example, the asymmetry for a radial pulsation that
shifts the profile 3 km s1 amounts to less than 0.1 km s1 ,
whereas the observed shape changes are ten times this. Normal
variable-star pulsation is therefore inadequate as an explanation
of the bisector variations, whereas large convection cells or
similar mass motions are compatible with the size of the shifts,
their chaotic nature, and the bisector contortions.
The occurrence of reversed-C bisectors on the cool side of
the granulation boundary is surprising and of some significance.
One might be tempted to dismiss the reversed-C shape as arising
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Vol. 135
(a)
(b)
2002-03
2003-04
LDR
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.0
(c)
(d)
LDR
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.0
2004-05
2005-06
(e)
(f)
2006-07
Generic
hotter
LDR
1.1
1.2
1.3
rising
-5
0
Velocity + constant, km/s
-5
0
Velocity + constant, km/s
Figure 8. Line-depth ratio is shown as a function of the mean core velocity of V i 6251.83, Fe i 6252.57, and Ti i 6261.11 for an individual observing season. Arrows
indicate the direction of increasing time. Panel (f) illustrates the full inferred generic behavior, including the directions of the rising temperature and rising velocity.
The symbol size indicates the full half width of Ti i 6261.11.
(A color version of this figure is available in the online journal)
from blends in the line. There are at least two reasons to think that
the reversed-C shape is not spurious. First, there is no connection
between shape and the temperature variations discussed above.
In other words, any blending line would have to have the same
temperature dependence as the main 6261 line; not impossible,
but unlikely. Although the Fe i 6219.29 line is badly blended,
the lower portion shows the reversed-C shape, mimicking 6261
and supporting the reality of the 6261 shape. Second, a recent
study of metal-poor red-giant branch stars (Gray et al. 2008,
in preparation) reveals that most of them cooler than 4100 K
show reversed-C bisectors (Betelgeuse is 3600 K). For these
red-giant branch stars, because of their low metallicity, there
is little blending and essentially all the available lines show
the same result. Betelgeuse is apparently consistent with other
stars in its region of the HR diagram. Further, since Betelgeuse
is a Population I star, the existence of the reversed-C shape
apparently does not require the low metallicity of the stars
studied in D. F. Gray et al. (2008, in preparation).
6. EXCURSIONS OF THE PHOTOSPHERE
The timescales of the larger variations are typically many
months so one can follow only a portion of the full variation
during any one observing season. Figure 8 gives a summary of
the temperature index (line-depth ratio) plotted as a function of
core velocity (as per Figure 6). The general pattern is an increase
in temperature followed by a rise of the material followed by
a cooling and finally a descending phase. Each season has
captured only a portion of this behavior, but from five seasons,
the general pattern seems clear, as constructed in panel (f).
No. 4, 2008
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Vol. 135