RE V I E W

The nutritional and health benefits of

mushrooms
nbu_1859

292..299

P. C. K. Cheung
Food and Nutritional Sciences Programme, School of Life Sciences, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, University Science Centre, Shatin, New Territories,
Hong Kong, China

Summary

Both wild and cultivated mushrooms have been consumed by humans for their
nutritional and medicinal benefits. Nutritionally, mushrooms are low in energy and
fat but high in protein, carbohydrate, and dietary fibre. Mushrooms contain a
variety of minerals and trace elements such as potassium, and copper and vitamins
such as riboflavin, niacin, and folates. They have been used as food for centuries
because of their unique taste. Apart from being recognised as a nutritious food,
certain mushrooms are also an important source of biologically active compounds
with potential additional medicinal value in Chinese medicine. Bioactive secondary
metabolites found in mushrooms include phenolic compounds, sterols and triterpenes. In vitro and in vivo studies with mushrooms and isolated bioactive constituents have purported many pharmacological effects such as anti-tumour,
antioxidant, antiviral, hypocholesterolemic and hypoglycaemic effects. Consumption of mushrooms or mushroom products in our daily diet may provide health
benefits.
Keywords: bioactive constituents, medicinal effects, mushrooms, nutritional values

Introduction
Mushrooms are fungi with distinctive fruiting bodies,
which are large enough to be seen with the naked eye
and to be picked by hand (Chang & Miles 1992).
Mushrooms can be broadly grouped into three categories: (1) edible; (2) medicinal; and (3) poisonous.
Edible mushrooms (mainly the fruiting body) can be
consumed either as flesh (e.g. Agaricus bisporus or
button mushroom) or dried (e.g. Lentinus edodes
or shiitake) or preserved in other ways. Medicinal
mushrooms are fungi not for culinary purposes but

Correpondence: Professor Peter C. K. Cheung, Food and

Nutritional Sciences Programme, School of Life Sciences, the
Chinese University of Hong Kong, University Science Centre,
Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China.
E-mail: petercheung@cuhk.edu.hk

292

contain bioactive components (polysaccharides and or

bioactive constituents) that have medicinal application
(e.g. Ganoderma lucidum or lingzhi) (Wasser 2010).
Poisonous mushrooms have been proved to be or suspected of being poisonous (e.g. Amanita phalloides or
death cap). As far as human health is concerned,
according to de Romn et al. (2006), both edible and
medicinal mushrooms may have beneficial effects for
humans. In some cases, high levels of heavy metals
occur in wild edible mushrooms, and some poisonous
species are being mistaken for edible ones. Certain
mushroom species contain chemical groups (mycotoxins) such as the cyclopeptide, phenylhydrazine and
isooxazole that can be highly toxic to humans (Berger
& Guss 2005). This overview focuses on the health
benefits of the nutrients and non-nutrient compounds
in edible mushrooms, as well as the bioactive chemical
components in medicinal mushrooms.

2010 The Author

Journal compilation 2010 British Nutrition Foundation Nutrition Bulletin, 35, 292299

Nutritional and health benefits of mushrooms

293

Table 1 Proximate composition of some common mushroom species that can be used as food and medicine*
Species

Common names

Crude protein

Crude fat

Carbohydrate

Crude fibre

Agaricus bisporus
Agaricus blazei
Auricularia auricula-judae
Boletus edulis
Cantharellus cibarius
Cordyceps sinensis
Ganoderma tsugae
Grifola frondosa
Hericium erinaceus
Lentinus edodes
Pleurotus ostreatus
Tremella fuciformis

Button mushroom
Murrills Agaricus
Black fungus or jelly ear
Cep
Chanterelle
Caterpillar fungus
Ling chih or Reishi
Maitake
Monkeyhead or bearded tooth
Shiitake
Oyster mushroom
White jelly fungus or silver ear
mushroom
Matsutake
Black truffle
Straw mushroom

23.934.8
26.7
8.1
29.7
21.5
21.9
8.8
21.1
22.3
13.417.5
10.530.4
4.6

1.78.0
2.6
1.5
3.1
5.0
8.2
5.7
3.1
3.5
4.98.0
1.62.2
0.2

51.362.5
45.5
81.0
51.7
64.9
24.2
10.4
58.8
57.0
67.578.0
57.681.8
94.8

8.010.4
18.3
6.9
8.0
11.2
n.d.||
73.4
10.1
7.8
7.38.0
7.58.7
1.4

16.1
23.3
30.1

4.3
2.2
6.4

70.1
66.2
50.9

4.5
27.9
11.9

Tricholoma giganteum
Tuber melanosporum
Vovariella volvacea

Ash
7.712.0
6.8
9.4
5.3
8.6
2.9
1.7
7.0
9.4
3.77.0
6.19.8
0.4
5.0
8.3
12.6

Reference
Crisan and Sands (1978)
Tsai et al. (2008)
Crisan and Sands (1978)
Crisan and Sands (1978)
Crisan and Sands (1978)
Hsu et al. (2002)
Tseng et al. (2005)
Mau et al. (2001)
Mau et al. (2001)
Crisan and Sands (1978)
Crisan and Sands (1978)
Crisan and Sands (1978)
Mau et al. (2001)
Crisan and Sands (1978)
Crisan and Sands (1978)

*All data presented as percentage of dry weight (DW).

The nitrogen factor used for crude protein calculation was 4.38.

The carbohydrate content was calculated by subtracting difference.

The crude fibre contains mainly the water-insoluble fibre fraction.

||
n.d. not determined.

Wild and cultivated mushrooms

Wild mushrooms have been part of the human diet for
centuries because of their nutritional and organoleptic
characteristics and purported medicinal properties (de
Romn et al. 2006). The traditional and contemporary
uses of wild edible fungi/mushrooms as food and/or in
medicine have been reviewed recently (Hobbs 1986; Boa
2004). Some of the wild mushrooms (of which several
also are cultivated) that are used as food and/or for their
potential medicinal properties are listed in Table 1.
Among these species, A. bisporus and Pleurotus ostreatus are the two most cultivated edible mushrooms
worldwide (Sanchez 2010). Other edible mushrooms
with high economic value include black truffle (Tuber
melanosporum), cep (Boletus edulis), and chanterelle
(Cantharellus cibarius) from Europe and the matsutake
(Tricholoma matsutake) and shiitake (L. edodes) varieties from China and Japan. Previously, only a small
number of edible mushroom species were cultivated successfully under controlled conditions in mushroom
houses and accepted as a food of economic importance
(Smith 1972). Recently, the number of cultivated mushrooms has risen to almost 30 and world production of
mushrooms has increased dramatically from 6.1 million
tons in 1997 to 12.2 million tons in 2002 (Chang 2006).
The trend to increase mushroom production is expected
to continue into the future.

2010 The Author

Journal compilation 2010 British Nutrition Foundation Nutrition Bulletin, 35, 292299

Nutrient composition of edible mushrooms

and their health effects
Introduction
The nutritional composition of some wild and edible
mushrooms can be found in previous publications
(Crisan & Sands 1978; Chang & Miles 2004; de Romn
et al. 2006; Kalac 2009). Several regional studies have
been carried out on the nutritional quality of edible
mushrooms, including those produced in tropical areas
(Aletor 1995; Sanmee et al. 2003), India (Longvah &
Deosthale 1998), North America (Leichter & Bandoni
1980) and Europe (Senatore 1992; Dez & Alvarez 2001;
Manzi et al. 2001; Caglarirmak et al. 2002). In general,
mushrooms are low in energy and fat but contain considerable amounts of protein, dietary fibre, vitamins, and
minerals (Crisan & Sands 1978). Table 1 shows the
nutrient composition of some selected mushrooms.

Proteins
In general, the crude protein content of edible mushrooms varies greatly and ranges from 15% to 35% of
dry weight (DW), depending on the species, varieties,
and stage of development of the fruiting body (Crisan &
Sands 1978; Longvah & Deosthale 1998; Manzi et al.
1999; Dez & Alvarez 2001; Mdachi et al. 2003). The

294

P. C. K. Cheung

difference in the crude protein content between wild and

cultivated mushrooms is not significant (Oyetayo et al.
2007). With reference to the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) standard, the protein quality of
mushrooms is better than most plant proteins (FAO
1991). The in vivo true protein digestibility values for P.
ostreatus and L. edodes are 73.4% and 76.3%, respectively (Adewusi et al. 1993; Dabbour & Takruri 2002).
These values are comparable with those of legumes,
which are around 7080% (Wong & Cheung 1998), but
are lower than those of animal protein, which are more
than 90% (McDonough et al. 1990).With a few exceptions, the amount of essential amino acids in mushroom
proteins ranges from 30 to 50 g/100 g protein DW
(Manzi et al. 1999). Mushroom proteins are relatively
rich in the amino acids threonine (4195 mg/g protein
DW), valine (3689 mg/g protein DW), glutamic acid
(130240 mg/g protein DW), aspartic acid (91
120 mg/g protein DW %), and arginine (37140 mg/g
protein DW) but are poor in methionine (1.222 mg/g
protein DW) and cysteine (1619 mg/g protein). It has
also been reported that lysine, leucine, isoleucine and
tryptophan are the limiting amino acids in some edible
mushrooms (Cheung 1997; Manzi et al. 1999; Dez &
Alvarez 2001). Levels of free amino acids in mushrooms
are rather low, ranging from 7.0 to 12 mg/g DW, with
glutamic acid (220240 mg/g protein DW) and alanine
(app.180 mg/g protein DW) as the major ones (Manzi
et al. 1999). Together with 5-nucleotides such as
5-adenosine monophosphate, 5-cytosine monophosphate, and 5-guanosine monophosphate, free amino
acids such as aspartic acid and glutamic acid are similar
to monosodium glutamate (MSG) in that they contribute to the unique taste of mushrooms (Mau et al. 2001).

Lipids
Edible mushrooms are generally low in lipids (usually
less than 5% DW). Their fatty acid profile favours
unsaturated fatty acids, especially linoleic acids (688
840 mg/g lipid DW) (Cheung 1997; Longvah & Deosthale 1998; Dez & Alvarez 2001; Yang et al. 2002).
Although the level of linolenic acid is generally low in
mushrooms (Yilmaz et al. 2006), it contributes greatly
to the flavour of mushrooms because of its role as the
precursor to 1-octen-3-ol, which is the principal aromatic compound known as fungal alcohol in most
mushrooms (Maga 1981).

Carbohydrates
The total carbohydrate content of mushrooms, including digestible and non-digestible carbohydrate, varies

with species and ranges from 35% to 70% DW

(Longvah & Deosthale 1998; Dez & Alvarez 2001;
Mau et al. 2001). Digestible carbohydrates found in
mushrooms include mannitol and glucose, usually
present in very small amounts (less than 1% DW) and
glycogen (510% DW). Mushroom carbohydrates,
therefore, are not a major source of energy for humans.
Non-digestible carbohydrates include oligosaccharides
such as trehalose and non-starch polysaccharides (NSPs)
such as chitin, b-glucans and mannans, which are the
major portion of mushroom carbohydrates. Mushroom
NSPs can be regarded as dietary fibre, which may have
physiological benefits for humans. These are discussed
further in the section on cell wall polysaccharides. There
is large variation in the dietary fibre content of mushrooms, depending on their morphological form and
species. The fruiting bodies of some mushroom species
have low levels of dietary fibre (e.g. 4.5% DW in Tricoloma giganteum), whereas others are high in fibre
(e.g. 49.7% DW in Auricularia auricular-judea)
(Cheung 1997; Dez & Alvarez 2001). In general, mushrooms provide dietary fibre, with 100 g of fresh mushrooms providing between 5% and 25% of the
recommended dietary intake (18 g of NSP fibre/day in
the UK) (Manzi et al. 2001). Mushroom dietary fibre
predominantly comprises water-insoluble fibre, mainly
chitin and b-glucans with low levels of water-soluble
dietary fibre (less than 10%).

Ash and minerals

The ash content of wild edible mushrooms ranges from
6% to 11% DW and contains a wide variety of minerals
(Zakhary et al. 1983). The ash content (% DW) of some
common edible mushrooms is as follows: P. ostreatus
(6.9), Leccinum edodes (5.9) and Hericium erinaceus
(9.4) (Manzi et al. 1999; Mau et al. 2001).
Edible mushrooms contain the spectrum of minerals
and trace elements. Common edible mushrooms such as
P. ostreatus, L. edodes and A. bisporus have been
reported to contain various levels of potassium (2700
4700 mg/100 g DW), phosphorus (5001400 mg/100 g
DW), magnesium (20200 mg/100 g DW), zinc (4.7
9.2 mg/100 g DW), and copper (0.503.5 mg/100 g
DW) (Zakhary et al. 1983; Verma et al. 1987; Vetter
1990). The Boletus genus, in particular, contains the
highest level of selenium (3090 mg/100 g fresh weight)
among other mushrooms (Cocchi et al. 2006; Falandysz
2008). Several recent reports have been published on the
metal content of wild edible mushrooms with an emphasis on metals such as lead, cadmium and mercury that
may have toxicological effects on humans (Ouzouni

2010 The Author

Journal compilation 2010 British Nutrition Foundation Nutrition Bulletin, 35, 292299

Nutritional and health benefits of mushrooms

et al. 2007; Kalac 2010). Mushrooms are known to

accumulate heavy metals, the levels of which are determined by species, substrate composition and environmental factors (Svoboda et al. 2006; Garcia et al. 2009).
However, detailed evaluation on the toxicological risk
and nutritional assessment of such substances in mushrooms is limited.

Vitamins
While little information on the vitamin contents of wild
mushrooms is available, data on cultivated mushrooms
show that they contain several vitamins including riboflavin (vitamin B2), niacin, and folates in concentrations
that are species dependent and vary within the range of
1.85.1, 3165, and 0.300.64 mg/100 g DW, respectively (Mattila et al. 2001). The riboflavin content in
mushrooms is higher than that generally found in vegetables, and some varieties of A. bisporus have been
reported to have concentrations as high as those found
in eggs and cheese (Mattila et al. 2001). Cultivated
mushrooms contain niacin, but again, the content varies
from 34109 mg/100 g DW for P. ostreatus, 1299 mg/
100 g DW for L. edodes and 3657 mg/100 g DW for
A. bisporus (Crisan & Sands 1978; Bano & Rajarathnam 1986). Mushrooms contain moderately high
amounts of folates at concentrations that are generally
similar to those found in vegetables (Beelman &
Edwards 1989). Vitamin D is almost entirely absent in
cultivated mushrooms, but levels of ergosterol, the provitamin of ergocalciferol, are relatively high (400
600 mg/100 g DW). Ergocalciferol (provitamin D) can
be converted into vitamin D in the presence of sunlight
(Mattila et al. 2002). With the exception of folate,
studies on the bioavailability of vitamins from mushrooms are rare (Clifford et al. 1991).

Bioactive components of medicinal

mushrooms and their potential
health effects
Introduction
The medicinal use of mushrooms has a long history
in Asian countries (especially in China, Korea and
Japan), whereas their use as medicine in the West is more
recent (Wasser 2010). Medicinal mushrooms are characterised by having more fungal cell wall materials and
secondary metabolites that have a wider range of pharmacological activities compared with edible mushrooms
(Lindequist et al. 2005). The fungal cell wall contains
mainly b-glucan-chitin complexes and mannoproteins

2010 The Author

Journal compilation 2010 British Nutrition Foundation Nutrition Bulletin, 35, 292299

295

(Bartnicki-Garcia 1970), which are not digested enzymes

in the human gastrointestinal tract, and for this reason
they are therefore classified as dietary fibre (Cheung
1996). Large variations in the structure and content of
these mushroom cell wall polymers exist, which are
dependant on the developmental stage of the mushrooms (Zhang et al. 2007). Other than cell wall polysaccharides and proteins, medicinal mushrooms contain
high molecular weight substances such as lignins and
low molecular weight substances such as triterpenes and
phenolics (Lindequist et al. 2005).

Cell wall polysaccharides

Bioactive properties have been reported for mushroom
cell wall polysaccharides, namely immunostimulating,
anti-tumour, hypoglycaemic, and antioxidant effects,
mainly through various in vivo and in vitro studies, the
mechanisms of which are not, however, fully understood
(Reshetnikov et al. 2001; Wasser 2002; Zhang et al.
2007; Cheung 2008; Ooi 2008). Polysaccharides
(mainly b-glucans) and polysaccharide-protein complexes isolated from a number of mushrooms such as
lentinan from L. edodes, b-glucan fraction D from
Grifola
frondosa,
and
Krestin
(PSK)
and
polysaccharide-peptide from Trametes versicolor can
stimulate the non-specific immune system and exert
anti-tumour activity through the stimulation of the
hosts defence system in animal studies (Reshetnikov
et al. 2001). These compounds are considered to be
immunomodulators and have been used clinically in
adjuvant tumour therapy with differing degrees of
success in prolonging the survival time of cancer
patients (Taguchi et al. 1982; Mitomi et al. 1992;
Kodama et al. 2002). It has also recently been shown
that a low molecular weight polysaccharide (48 kilodaltons) isolated from Agaricus blazei can suppress angiogenesis in vivo, thus shedding new insight into the
mechanisms behind the purported anti-tumour effects of
mushroom polysaccharides (Niu et al. 2009). Ganopoly,
a polysaccharide isolated from G. lucidum, which is the
most well-known medicinal mushroom, has been
studied for its clinical efficacy in alleviating cancerrelated symptoms and is widely sold as an over-thecounter product in Asian countries (Gao et al. 2003).
Ganopoly has also been shown to lower post-prandial
glucose levels in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus
during a Phase I/II clinical trial (Gao et al. 2004).
Other than the b-glucan-type polysaccharides, further
mushroom heteropolysaccharides such as glucuronoxylomannan (Tremellastin) obtained from Tremella fuciformis and Tremella mesenterica have been shown to

296

P. C. K. Cheung

demonstrate multiple pharmacological activities including immunomodulatory and hypoglycaemic effects in

experimental studies (Wasser et al. 2002; Lo et al.
2006). It has also been demonstrated that mushroom
cell wall polysaccharides have in vitro free radical scavenging activity (hydroxyl and superoxide) and may have
the potential to be developed as antioxidants (Liu et al.
1997).

Low molecular weight compounds

Triterpenes represent one of the most diverse and yet
important group of bioactive compounds found in
medicinal mushrooms. G. lucidum is a classic example,
having more than 120 different triterpenes (Kim & Kim
1999). A number of triterpenes from G. lucidum have
been shown to be active antiviral agents against HIV
type 1 as well as herpes simplex virus type 1 (ElMekkawy et al. 1998; Mothana et al. 2003). Some triterpenes from G. lucidum can inhibit the biosynthesis of
cholesterol (Komoda et al. 1989) as well as have the
ability to inhibit angiotension converting enzymes
(Morigiwa et al. 1986) or platelet aggregation (Su et al.
1999), thus having the potential to lower the risk of
atherosclerosis.
Investigations into mushrooms as a source of
natural antioxidants, particularly the correlation
between mushroom phenolic compounds and their in
vitro antioxidant properties, have increased (Cheung
et al. 2003; Cheung & Cheung 2005; Elmastas et al.
2007; Ferreira et al. 2009; Vidovic et al. 2010). Studies
on some edible mushrooms, including Dictyophora
indusiata, Flammulina velutipes, G. frondosa, H. erinaceus, L. edodes, Tricholoma giganteum and
P. ostreatus, have shown that their extracts (methanolic and aqueous) are rich in phenolic compounds that
have strong in vitro antioxidant properties including
inhibition of lipid peroxidation, scavenging of free
radicals, as well as ferric reducing power (Mau et al.
2002; Cheung et al. 2003; Elmastas et al. 2007). Flavoglaucin was the first mushroom phenolic antioxidant
isolated from the mycelium of Eurotium chevalieri
(Ishikawa et al. 1984). Subsequently, two novel prenylated phenolic substances known as asiaticusin A and
asiaticusin B have been isolated from the fruiting body
of Boletus asiaticus (Wada et al. 1996). Recently, phenolic acids, including trans-cinnamic acid, hydroxybenzoic acid, protocatechuic acid and caffeic acid,
have also been isolated from A. bisporus and L.
edodes (Mattila et al. 2001). Studies on certain phenolic compounds in Inonotus hispidus and ergosterol
peroxide present in several mushrooms also show in

vitro antiviral activity against influenza viruses type A

and B (Awadh et al. 2003).

High molecular weight compounds

Proteins from G. lucidum and sugar-binding proteins
(lectins) from mushrooms have been reported to modulate the human immune system by stimulating the functional maturation of human immune cells in vitro
(Wang et al. 1996; Lin et al. 2009). Other fungal macromolecules such as protein-degrading enzymes from
Handkea utriformis, ribosome-inactivating proteins
from Hypsizygus marmoreus and lectins (sugar-bound
proteins) from P. ostreatus have demonstrated in vitro
anti-tumour activities (Wang et al. 2000; Lam et al.
2001; Lam & Ng 2001). Lectins isolated from Agaricus
campestris and A. bisporus have also been shown to
enhance insulin release in isolated Langerhans rat islets
(Ahmad et al. 1984). Finally, water-soluble lignin isolated from Fuscoporia oblique and L. edodes has been
reported to have in vitro antiviral activities by inhibiting
HIV proteases (Tochikura et al. 1988; Ichimura et al.
1998).

Conclusion
Mushrooms are valuable resources for food, medicine
and nutraceuticals (Lakhanpal & Rana 2005). They
contain a large array of nutrients and other natural
phytochemicals that have a wide range of nutritional
and health benefits. These benefits will have potential
implications such as boosting the immune system, providing an anti-cancer function as well as controlling
blood lipids and glucose levels in humans. Given the
many mushroom species that have not yet been studied,
it is anticipated that new discoveries of the health benefits in mushrooms will continue and promising mushroom treatments and products for human diseases may
be found in the future (Wasser 2010).

Conflict of interest
The author has no conflict of interest to disclose.

References
Adewusi SRA, Alofe FV, Odeyemi O et al. (1993) Studies on some
edible wild mushrooms from Nigeria:1. Nutritional, teratogenic
and toxic considerations. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 43:
11521.
Ahmad N, Bansal AK & Kidwai JR (1984) Effect of PHA-B fraction of Agaricus bisporus lectin on insulin release and 45Ca2+
uptake by islet of Langerhans in vitro. Acta Diabetologica 21:
6370.

2010 The Author

Journal compilation 2010 British Nutrition Foundation Nutrition Bulletin, 35, 292299

Nutritional and health benefits of mushrooms

Aletor VA (1995) Compositional studies on edible tropical species
of mushrooms. Food Chemistry 54: 2658.
Awadh ANN, Mothana RAA, Lesnau A et al. (2003) Antiviral
activity of extracts and compounds from Inonotus hispidus. Fitoterapia 74: 4835.
Bano Z & Rajarathnam S (1986) Vitamin values in Pleurotus
mushrooms. Quality of Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 36:
1115.
Bartnicki-Garcia S (1970) Cell wall composition and other
biochemical markers in fungal phylogeny. In: Phytochemical
Phylogeny, (JB Harborne ed.), pp. 81103. Academic Press:
London.
Beelman RB & Edwards CG (1989) Variability in the composition
and nutritional value of the cultivated mushrooms Agaricus
bisporus. Mushroom News 37: 1726.
Berger KJ & Guss DA (2005) Mycotoxins revisited: part I. The
Journal of Emergency Medicine 28: 5362.
Boa E (2004) Wild Edible Fungi. A Global Overview of Their Use
and Importance to People. Non-Wood Forest Products. Series no.
17. FAO: Rome.
Caglarirmak N, Unal K & Otles S (2002) Nutritional value of
edible wild mushrooms collected from the Black Sea region of
Turkey. Micologia Aplicada International 14: 15.
Chang ST (2006) The world mushroom industry: trends and technological development. International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 8: 297314.
Chang ST & Miles PG (1992) Mushroom biology a new discipline. The Mycologist 6: 645.
Chang ST & Miles PG (2004) The nutritional attributes of edible
mushrooms. In: Mushrooms: Cultivation, Nutritional Value,
Medicinal Effect, and Environmental Impact, pp. 2738. CRC
Press: Boca Raton, FL.
Cheung PCK (1996) Dietary fiber content and composition of
some cultivated edible mushroom fruiting bodies and
mycelia. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 44:
46871.
Cheung PCK (1997) Chemical evaluation of some lesser-known
edible mushroom mycelia produced in submerged culture from
soymilk waste. Food Chemistry 60: 615.
Cheung PCK (2008) Nutritional value and health benefits of mushrooms. In: Mushrooms as Functional Foods, (PCK Cheung ed.),
pp. 71110. Wiley: Hoboken, NJ.
Cheung LM & Cheung PCK (2005) Mushroom extracts with antioxidant activity against lipid peroxidation. Food Chemistry 89:
4039.
Cheung LM, Cheung PCK & Ooi VEC (2003) Antioxidant activity
and total phenolics of edible mushroom extracts. Food Chemistry
81: 24955.
Clifford A, Heid MK, Peerson JM et al. (1991) Bioavailability of
food folates and evaluation of food matrix effects with a rat bioassay. Journal of Nutrition 121: 44553.
Cocchi L, Vescovi L, Petrini LE et al. (2006) Heavy metals in edible
mushrooms in Italy. Food Chemistry 98: 27784.
Crisan EV & Sands A (1978) Nutritional values. In: The Biology
and Cultivation of Edible Mushrooms, (ST Chang, WA Hayes
eds), pp. 13768. Academic Press: New York.
Dabbour I & Takruri HR (2002) Protein quality of four types of
edible mushrooms found in Jordan. Plant Foods for Human
Nutrition 57: 111.

2010 The Author

Journal compilation 2010 British Nutrition Foundation Nutrition Bulletin, 35, 292299

297

Dez VA & Alvarez A (2001) Compositional and nutritional studies

on two wild edible mushrooms from northwest Spain. Food
Chemistry 75: 41722.
Elmastas M, Isidak O, Turkekul I et al. (2007) Determination of
antioxidant activity and antioxidant compounds in wild edible
mushrooms. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 20: 337
45.
El-Mekkawy S, Meselhy MR, Nakamura N et al. (1998) AntiHIV-1 and HIV-1-protease substances from Ganoderma lucidum.
Phytochemistry 49: 16517.
Falandysz J (2008) Selenium in edible mushrooms. Journal of Environmental Science and Health C 26: 25699.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) (1991) Protein Quality
Evaluation. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United
Nations: Rome.
Ferreira ICFR, Barros L & Abreu RMV (2009) Antioxidants in
wild mushrooms. Current Medicinal Chemistry 16: 154360.
Gao Y, Dai X, Chen G et al. (2003) A randomized, placebocontrolled, multicenter study of Ganoderma lucidum
polysaccharides (Ganopoly R) in patients with advanced
lung cancer. International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 5:
36981.
Gao Y, Lan J, Dai X et al. (2004) A phase I/II study of lingzhi
mushroom Ganoderma lucidum extract in patients with type II
diabetes mellitus. International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms
6: 339.
Garcia MA, Alonso J & Melgar MJ (2009) Lead in edible mushrooms. Levels and bioaccumulation factors. Journal of Hazardous
Materials 167: 77783.
Hobbs C (1986) Medicinal Mushrooms: An Exploration of
Tradition, Healing and Culture. Botanica Press: Santa Cruz, CA.
Hsu TH, Shiao LH, Hsieh C et al. (2002) A comparison of the
chemical composition and bioactive ingredients of the Chinese
medicinal mushroom DongChongXiaCao, its counterfeit and
mimic, and fermented mycelium of Cordyceps sinensis. Food
Chemistry 78: 4639.
Ichimura T, Watanabe O & Maruyama S (1998) Inhibition of
HIV-1 protease by water-soluble lignin-like substance from an
edible mushroom, Fuscoporia oblique. Bioscience, Biotechnology
and Biochemistry 62: 5757.
Ishikawa Y, Marimoto K & Hamasaki T (1984) Flavoglaucin, a
metabolite of Eurotium chavalieri, its oxidation and synergism
with tocopherol. Journal of American Oil Chemists Society 61:
18648.
Kalac P (2009) Chemical composition and nutritional value of
European species of wild growing mushrooms: a review. Food
Chemistry 113: 916.
Kalac P (2010) Trace element contents in European species of wild
growing edible mushrooms: a review for the period 20002009.
Food Chemistry 122: 215.
Kim HW & Kim BK (1999) Biomedicinal triterpenoids of Ganoderma lucidum. International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 1:
12138.
Komoda Y, Shimizu M, Somoda Y et al. (1989) Ganoderic acid and
its derivatives as cholesterol synthesis inhibitors. Chemical and
Pharmaceutical Bulletin 37: 5313.
Kodama N, Komuta K & Nanba H (2002) Can maitake
MD-fraction aid cancer patients? Alternative Medicine Review 7:
2369.

298

P. C. K. Cheung

Lakhanpal TN & Rana M (2005) Medicinal and nutraceutical

genetic resources of mushrooms. Plant Genetic Research 3: 288
303.
Lam SK & Ng TB (2001) Hypsin, a novel thermostable ribosome
inactivating protein with antifungal and antiproliferative activities
from fruiting bodies of the edible mushroom Hypsizygus marmoreus. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communication
285: 10715.
Lam YW, Ng TB & Wang HX (2001) Antiproliferative and antimitogenic activities in a peptide from puffball mushroom Calvatia
caelata. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communication
289: 7449.
Leichter J & Bandoni RJ (1980) Nutrient content of mushroom
grown in British Columbia. Canadian Institute of Food Science
and Technology Journal 13: 1224.
Lin YL, Laing YC, Tseng YS et al. (2009) An immunomodulatory
protein, Ling Zhi-8, induced activation and maturation of human
monocyte-derived dendritic cells by the NF-kB and MAPK pathways. Journal of Leukocyte Biology 86: 87789.
Lindequist U, Niedermeyer THJ & Julich W-D (2005) The pharmacological potential of mushrooms. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2: 28599.
Liu F, Ooi VEC & Chang ST (1997) Free radical scavenging activities of mushroom polysaccharides extracts. Life Sciences 60: 763
71.
Lo H-C, Tsui F-A, Wasser SP et al. (2006) Effects of ingested
fruiting bodies, submerged culture biomass, and acidic polysaccharide glucuronoxylomannan of Tremella mesenterica on glycemic responses in normal and diabetic rats. Life Sciences 78:
195766.
Longvah T & Deosthale YG (1998) Composition and nutritional
studies on edible wild mushroom from northeast India. Food
Chemistry 63: 3314.
Maga JA (1981) Mushroom flavor. Journal of Agricultural and
Food Chemistry 29: 14.
Manzi P, Aguzzi A & Pizzoferrato L (2001) Nutritional value of
mushrooms widely consumed in Italy. Food Chemistry 73: 3215.
Manzi P, Gambelli L, Marconi S et al. (1999) Nutrients in edible
mushrooms: an inter-species comparative study. Food Chemistry
65: 47782.
Mattila P, Knk K, Euvola M et al. (2001) Contents of vitamins,
mineral elements and some phenolic compound in cultivated
mushrooms. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 42:
244953.
Mattila P, Lampi A-M, Ronkinen R et al. (2002) Sterol and vitamin
D2 contents in some wild and cultivated mushrooms. Food Chemistry 76: 2938.
Mau JL, Lin HC, Ma JT et al. (2001) Non-volatile taste components of several specialty mushrooms. Food Chemistry 73:
4616.
Mau JL, Lin HC & Song SF (2002) Antioxidant properties of
several specialty mushrooms. Food Research International 35:
51926.
McDonough FE, Steinke FH, Sarwar G et al. (1990) In vivo rat
assay for true protein digestibility: collaborative study. Journal of
the Association of Official Analytical Chemists 73: 8015.
Mdachi SJM, Nkunya MHH, Nyigo VA et al. (2003) Amino acid
composition of some Tanzanian wild mushrooms. Food Chemistry 86: 17982.

Mitomi T, Tsuchiya S, Iijima N et al. (1992) Randomized, controlled study on adjuvant immunochemotherapy with PSK in
curatively resected colorectal cancer. Diseases of the Colon &
Rectum 35: 12330.
Morigiwa A, Kitabatake K, Fujimoto Y et al. (1986) Angiotensin
converting enzyme inhibitory triterpenes from Ganoderma
lucidum. Chemical and Pharmacuetical Bulletin 34: 30258.
Mothana RAA, Awadh NAA, Jansen R et al. (2003) Antiviral
Ianostanoid triterpenes from fungus Ganoderma pfeifferi. Fitoterapia 74: 17780.
Niu YC, Liu JC, Zhao XM et al. (2009) A low molecular weight
polysaccharide isolated from Agaricus blazei suppresses tumor
growth and angiogenesis in vivo. Oncology Reports 21: 14552.
Ooi VEC (2008) Antitumor and immunomodulatory activities of
mushroom polysaccharides. In: Mushrooms as Functional Foods,
(PCK Cheung ed.), pp. 14798. Wiley: Hoboken, NJ.
Ouzouni PK, Veltsistas PG, Paleologos EK et al. (2007) Determination of metal content in wild edible mushroom species from
regions of Greece. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 20:
4806.
Oyetayo FL, Akindahunsi AA & Oyetayo VO (2007) Chemical
profile and amino acids composition of edible mushrooms Pleurotus sajor-caju. Nutrition and Health 18: 3839.
Reshetnikov SV, Wasser SP & Tan KK (2001) Higher basidiomycetes as a source of antitumor and immunostimulating
polysaccharides (review). International Journal of Medicinal
Mushrooms 3: 36194.
de Romn M, de Boa E & Woodward S (2006) Wild-gathered fungi
for health and rural livelihoods. Proceedings for the Nutrition
Society 65: 1907.
Sanchez C (2010) Cultivation of Pleurotus ostreatus and other
edible mushrooms. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 85:
132137.
Sanmee R, Dell B, Lumyong P et al. (2003) Nutritive value of
popular wild edible mushrooms from Northern Thailand. Food
Chemistry 82: 52732.
Senatore F (1992) Chemical constituents of some mushrooms.
Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 58: 499503.
Smith J (1972) Commercial mushrooms production. Process Biochemistry 7: 246.
Su CY, Shiao MS & Wang CT (1999) Predominant inhibition of
ganoderic acid S on the thromboxane A2-dependent pathway in
human platelets response to collagen. Biochimica Biophysics Acta
1437: 22334.
Svoboda L, Havlickova B & Kalac P (2006) Contents of cadmium,
mercury and lead in edible mushrooms growing in a historical
silver-mining sea. Food Chemistry 96: 5805.
Taguchi T, Furue H, Kimura T et al. (1982) Life-span prolongation
effect of lentinan on patients with advanced or recurrent colorectal cancer. International Journal of Immunopharmacology 4:
2719.
Tochikura T, Nakashima H, Ohashi Y et al. (1988) Inhibition (in
vitro) of replication and of the cytopathic effect of human immunodeficiency virus by an extract of the culture medium of Lentinus edodes mycelia. Medicine and Microbiological Immunology
177: 23544.
Tsai SY, Tsai HL & Mau JL (2008) Non-volatile taste components
of Agaricus blazei, Agrocybe cylindracea and Boletus edulis. Food
Chemistry 107: 97783.

2010 The Author

Journal compilation 2010 British Nutrition Foundation Nutrition Bulletin, 35, 292299

Nutritional and health benefits of mushrooms

Tseng YH, Lee YL, Li RC et al. (2005) Non-volatile flavour components of Gandoerma tsugae. Food Chemistry 90: 40915.
Verma A, Keshervani GP, Sharma YK et al. (1987) Mineral content
of edible (dehydrated) mushrooms. Indian Journal of Nutrition
and Dietitians 24: 1414.
Vetter J (1990) Mineral element content of edible and poisonous
macrofungi. Acta Alimentaria 19: 2740.
Vidovic SS, Mujic IO, Zekovic ZP et al. (2010) Antioxidant
properties of selected boletus mushrooms. Food Biophysics 5:
4958.
Wada T, Hayashi Y & Shibata H (1996) Asiaticusin A and B, novel
prenylated phenolics from Boletinus asiaticus and B. paluster
(Boletaceae) fungi. Bioscience, Biotechnology and Biochemistry
60: 1201.
Wang HX, Liu WK, Ng TB et al. (1996) The immunomodulatory
and antitumor activities of lectins from the mushroom
Tricholoma monogolicum. Immunopharmacology 31:
20511.
Wang HX, Gao J & Ng TB (2000) A new lectin with highly potent
antihepatoma and antisarcoma activities from oyster mushroom
Pleurotus ostreatus. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communication 275: 8106.
Wasser SP (2002) Medicinal mushrooms as a source of antitumor
and immunomodulating polysaccharides. Applied Microbiology
and Biotechnology 60: 25874.

2010 The Author

Journal compilation 2010 British Nutrition Foundation Nutrition Bulletin, 35, 292299

299

Wasser SP (2010) Medicinal mushroom science: history, current

status, future trends and unsolved problems. International Journal
of Medicinal Mushrooms 12: 116.
Wasser SP, Tam KK & Elisashvilli VI (2002) Hypoglycemic, interferonogenesis, and immunomodulatory activity of Tremellastin
from the submerged culture of Tremella mesenterica. International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 4: 21527.
Wong KH & Cheung PCK (1998) Nutritional assessment of three
Chinese indigenous legumes in growing rats. Nutrition Research
18: 157380.
Yang JH, Lin HC & Mau JL (2002) Antioxidant properties of
several commercial mushrooms. Food Chemistry 77: 22935.
Yilmaz N, Solmaz M, Turkekul I et al. (2006) Fatty acid composition in some wild edible mushrooms growing in the middle Black
Sea region of Turkey. Food Chemistry 99: 16874.
Zakhary JW, Taiseer M, Abo-Bakr El-Mhady A et al. (1983)
Chemical composition of wild mushrooms collected from Alexandria. Food Chemistry 11: 3141.
Zhang M, Cui SW, Cheung PCK et al. (2007) Antitumor polysaccharides from mushrooms: a review on their isolation process,
structural characteristics and antitumor activity. Trends in Food
Science and Technology 18: 419.