Geotechnical Conference

Proceedings of Indian Geotechnical Conference
December 13-15,2012, Delhi (Paper No. B201)
STUDIES ON ENHANCING STABILITY OF SLOPE USING REINFORCEMENT

N. Ramya Gandhi, PG Student, Anna University, Chennai600 025, India. Email: ramyagandhi.civil@gmail.com.
K. Ilamparuthi, Professor and Head, Anna University, Chennai600 025, India. E-mail: kanniilam@gmail.com.
ABSTRACT: In this paper, slope is analyzed to understand their mechanism by including soil reinforcement using Finite
Element Method. The variation of safety factor for the slope stabilized with inclusion of vertical piles is analysed for a
homogeneous slope of 1:1 slope angle. The variations are studied in terms of parametric analysis for clay and sandy slope by
varying the pile parameters such as position, length, spacing and stiffness of the pile. Results show that the factor of safety
increases while increasing the pile length and pile stiffness. For the range of spacing analysed (2D to 6D), the 4D spacing
appears to be optimum in sandy slope but in clayey slope the spacing effect is marginal.
INTRODUCTION
PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS OF PILE SLOPE SYSTEM

A typical soil slope 1:1.5 is considered and the slope is
stabilized using the single row of pile and is analyzed using
2D and 3D software. The properties of the homogeneous soil
and stabilizing pile are shown in Table 1.1.
Table 1 Properties of the soil and the stabilizing pile
Properties of the soil
Properties of the pile
Unit weight
Unit weight
= 18 kN/m
= 25 kN/m
Youngs Modulus = 20 MPa
Youngs Modulus = 30GPa
Poissons ratio
= 0.25
Poissons ratio
= 0.2
Cohesion
= 25kPa
Length of pile
= 15m
Internal friction
= 10
[[
[[
Diameter of pile = 0.5m
The results of analysis did not show much variation in safety

factors when the analysis is performed for the condition of
2D and 3D by varying the position of the pile through toe to
crest of the slope and length of the pile. In case of 3D
analysis the safety factor decreases for increase in the S/D
ratio as shown in Fig. 1.
1.6
1.55
FOS
The evaluation of stability of slopes in soil is an important,

interesting, and challenging problem in the field of
geotechnical engineering. The wide variety of applications of
slope engineering include excavations, hill roads, railway
lines, embankments, earth dams, reservoirs, open-cut mines
and coastal slope stability. Extensive engineering and
research studies performed over the past 70 years provide a
sound set of soil mechanics principles to understand practical
problems of slope stability. The use of piles to stabilize active
landslides, and as a preventive measure in stable slopes, has
become one of the important innovative slope reinforcement
techniques in recent years. Lee et al. (1995) presented a
simplified approach to the study of a row of piles used for
slope stabilization. The study was extended to show the effect
of pile diameter, pile spacing, pile position and limiting soil
pressure into the homogeneous soil slope and two layer soil
slopes. Ausilio et al. (2001) have used the kinematic
approach of limit analysis for the stability of slopes that are
reinforced with piles. Yang et al. (2011) studied the effect of
embedded pile length on the factor of safety and pile
behavior in three-dimensional elasto-plastic model using
strength reduction method.
1.5
1.45
2D
3D
1.4
0
4
S/D
Fig. 1 Variation of safety factor with respect to spacing of

pile
In case of 2D analysis there is no variation in the results of
spacing and diameter effect. This is because in 2D analysis
the pile is modelled as a wall of equivalent stiffness along the
length of the slope. Since spacing effect is not included in the
analysis, the arching effect due to soil flow through the space
between the piles is not taking place. Thus resulting in the
reduced safety of the pile-slope system. The 3D analysis has
the ability to include the interaction between the soil and pile
further analysis is carriedout by varing pile parameters and
soil parameters.
A 3D finite element solution has been obtained for a row of
single pile installed in a homogeneous soil slope. The slope is
10 m high with the rigid base at 30 m below the ground
surface. The parametric analysis is carried out for various soil
and pile properties using homogeneous soil slope of constant
thickness 6 m with slope inclination of 1:1 and the piles are
provided to improve the safety of the slope. The geometry
N. Ramya Gandhi & K.Ilamparuthi

and parameters which are used in the analysis are shown in
Fig. 2.
S
1
H=10m
Xp
L- Length of pile
X-Width of pile
Xp-Position of
pile from toe
H-Slope height
S-Pile spacing
D
30m
Slope soil and foundation soil

are same
From the Fig 3, it is evident that the effective position to

place the pile through toe to crest will be nearer the toe for
the clayey soil slope whereas it will be at the middle for the
sandy soil slope.
Effect of pile length
The effect of pile length on factor of safety of slope is
brought out in Fig 4(a) and 4(b) for the slope beds of clay and
sand The safety factor increases with increase in length of the
pile. However, it is found to have marginal increase in the
factor of safety beyond certain length as shown in Fig 4 (a)
and (b). In clayey soil slope, the length to the depth ratio
(L/H) is effective if the ratio is between 1 and 2.5 where as in
sandy soil slope the L/H ratio of pile more than 1.5 is not
adding to factor of safety. Thus length more then effective
length to depth ratio lies between 1 and 1.5.
Fig. 2 Geometry of the pile slope system

2.4
From the analysis it is found that in clayey soil slope factor of

safety is higher for the pile located at 0.2X from the toe (Fig
3a) where as in sandy soil slope, the factor of safety is
maximum when the pile is at the centre of the slope (0.5X)
irrespective of the angle of shearing resistance of the sand
(Fig 3b).
2.2
40
cohesion (kPa)
Effect of pile position
35
FOS
30
1.8
25
20
1.6
=10o
H=10m
D=0.5m
S/D = 2
=1V:1H
Xp/X=0.5
Clayey
soil
1.4
40
1.8
35
1.6
30
25
1.4
cohesion (kPa)
FOS
a) 2.2
=10o
H=10m
L = 15m
D=0.5m
S/D = 2
=1V:1H
1.2
Clayey soil
1.9
1
0
L/H
20
1.2
40
1.7
0.2
0.4
0.6
Xp/X
0.8
FOS
30
1.3
25
1.1
b) 1.9
1.7
40
1.3
35
1.1
30
25
20
0.9
(degrees)
FOS
1.5
c=5kpa
H=10m
L=15m
D=0.5m
S/D=2
=1V:1H
Sandy
soil
0.7
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Xp/X
Fig. 3 Variation of safety factor with respect to the position

of the pile for the slope 1:1 (a) Clayey soil slope (b) Sandy
soil slope
(degrees)
35
1.5
c=5kpa
H=10m
D=0.5m
S/D=2
Xp/X=0.5
=1V:1H
Sandy soil
20
0.9
0.7
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
L/H
Fig. 4 Variation of safety factor with respect to the length of

the pile for the slope 1:1 (a) Clayey soil slope (b) Sandy soil
slope.
Effect of pile stiffness
The effect of stiffness of the pile in the soil slope are
represented in terms of stiffness factor (k=EpIp/EsL4). The
stiffness of the pile mainly depends on the diameter of the
pile and also depends on the elastic modulus of the pile(Ep)
Studies on enhancing stability of slopes using reinforcement
FOS
40
1.8
35
30
1.6
25
cohesion (kPa)
1.4
=10o
H=10m
L = 15m
S/D = 2
Xp/X=0.5
=1V:1H
2
40
1.8
35
1.6
30
1.4
25
Clayey
soil
cohesion (kPa)
2.2
factor of safety may be attributed to more loss in the arching

effect due to increase in the spacing.
FOS
and the soil(Es). Fig 5 (both a and b) shows that the safety
factor increases with increase in stiffness of the pile but its
contribution to factor of safety is insignificant irrespective of
soil type and their strength particularly if stiffness factor is
more than 0.002. Thus shows pile of high rigidity is not
favorable to increase the safety.
=10o
H=10m
L = 15m
D=0.5m
Xp/X=0.5
=1V:1H
Clayey
soil
20
1.2
20
1.2
S/D
1
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
2
Stiffness Factor (k)
40
1.8
1.7
FOS
30
1.5
25
1.3
(degrees)
35
35
1.4
30
Sandy
soil
25
1.2
Sandy
soil
20
20
1.1
1.6
FOS
40
1.9
(degrees)
2.1
c=5kpa
H=10m
L=15m
S/D=2
Xp/X=0.5
=1V:1H
c=5kpa
H=10m
L=15m
D=0.5m
Xp/X=0.5
=1V:1H
1
0
S/D
0.9
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
Stiffness Factor (k)
Fig. 5 Variation of safety factor with respect to the stiffness

soil slope.
Effect of pile spacing
Effect of slope angle

The effect of slope angle is analyzed for two types of soils of
clay and sand and piles of two different stiffnesses (ie.
D=0.5m and 1.0m). From the analysis, it is inferred that the
safety factor increases with decrease in slope angle both in
clay and sandy slopes and for the given slope angle, if the
stiffness of pile increases the factor of safety also increases as
shown in Fig. 7. But the increase is insufficient in clay slope
when compared to sand slope.
2.5
35
2
20
1.5
Cohesion (kPa)
The response of spacing between pile over factor of safety is

analyzed and the results are present in Fig 6 (a) and (b) for
clay and sandy slopes respectively. From the analysis, it is
observed that in case of clay slope the safety factor is reduced
marginally with increase in pile spacing (Fig 6(a)). But in
sandy slope the safety factor increases up to pile spacing of
4D and there after it decreases (Fig 6(b)) on further increase
in the spacing.
Reason for the increase in the factor of safety with spacing in
sandy soil is arching of sand between the piles. When piles
are at closer spacing they attract more force by resisting the
movement of the soil. On increasing the spacing the relative
motion between the pile and soil develops arching of soil and
this is effective till the spacing is 4D. Spacing more then 4D
provide the soil betwwen the piles to move easily thus
showing reduction in the factor of safety but it is not less than
the factor of safety value of 2D spacing. The reduction in the
Fig. 6 Variation of safety factor with respect to the S/D ratio

soil slope.
FOS
0.7
=10o
H =10m
L = 15m
D =0.5m
S/D = 2
Xp/X=0.5
1/m=H/X
Clayey
soil
D=0.5m
D=1m
1
1
1.25
1.5
m
1.75
N. Ramya Gandhi & K.Ilamparuthi
2.5
(degrees)
FOS
35
c=5kpa
H=10m
L=15m
D=0.5m
S/D=2
Xp/X=0.5
1/m=H/X
20
1.5
Sandy soil
1
1
1.25
1.5
m
1.75
D= 0.5m
D= 1m
Fig. 7 Variation of safety factor with respect to the slope

angle (a) Clayey soil slope (b) Sandy soil slope
CONCLUSIONS
From the analysis of pile stabilized slope systems carried out,
following conclusions are drawn.
The effective pile location of the clay slope is 0.2 times

the width (X) of the slope from the toe, where as in
sandy slope the favorable location, which offers higher
factor of safety, is at the mid width of slope.
The factor of safety increases with the length of pile.

The effective length of the pile is 1 to 2.5 times the
height of the slope (L/H= 1 to 2.5). The corresponding
effective length in sand is 1 to 1.5.
Stiffness of pile plays important role in enhancing the
stability. As the stiffness factor increases the safety
factor also increases. The maximum factor of safety is
obtained for the stiffness factor of 0.002 irrespective of
material of the slope.
The safety factor decreases with increase in pile
spacing. The optimum spacing is 4D for the sandy slope
of 1:1 and the spacing has marginal influence the case
of clay slope.
REFERENCES
1. Ausilio, E., Conte, E. and Dente, G. (2001). Stability
Analysis of Slopes Reinforced with Piles, Computers
and Geotechnics, 28, 591 611.
2. Lee, C. Y., Hull, T. S. and Poulos, H. G. (1995).
Simplified Pile Slope Stability Analysis, Computers
and Geotechnics, 17, 1-16.
3. Yang. S. and Ren, J. (2011). Study on Embedded
Length of Piles for Slope Reinforced with One Row of
Piles, Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical
Engineering, 3, 167178.

December 13-15,2012, Delhi (Paper No.B202)
STABILITY ANALYSIS OF NAILED SOIL SLOPES: STATE-OF-THE- ART

S. Sahoo, Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi, smruti_5010@yahoo.co.in
B. Manna, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi, bmanna@civil.iitd.ac.in
K. G. Sharma, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi, kgsharma@civil.iitd.ac.in
ABSTRACT : The paper reviews the-state-of-the-art of analyzing the stability of nailed soil slopes subjected to both static and
dynamic loadings and also focuses on the different analytical approaches and assumptions made for the design of soil nailing
structures. Following a brief outline of the historical developments of theoretical approaches, numerical methods, experimental
investigations, design and construction methodologies of nailed soil slopes as well as some of the critical observations from the
literature are discussed. Finally, general observations have been made with regard to the scope and development of various
nailed soil-slope stability methods and to ensure safe and economical soil nail slope design in line with international practice.
INTRODUCTION
Soil nailing is a practical and proven technique used in
constructing excavations and stabilizing slopes by reinforcing
the ground insitu which will be mobilized when movement
occurs. This geotechnical engineering process has a wide
range of applications for stabilizing excavations and slopes,
such as are associated with deep foundations or cut and cover
tunneling schemes. This paper highlights the recent
developments in soil nailing concepts and practice and also
summarizes the major features, and historical evolution of
soil nailing. The fundamental concept of soil nailing consists
of placing in the ground passive inclusions, closely spaced, to
restrain displacements and limit decompression during and
after excavation. A factor, which makes soil nailing
technique more desirable than other earth reinforcing
methods when performed on cuttings or excavations, is its
easy and flexible top-down construction.
SOIL NAIL HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT
Soil nailing methods are widely used in geotechnical
constructions. Nowadays, these technologies can be used in
Tie-back retailing walls, Temporary supports, ground anchors
and Tunneling supports. Therefore, soil nailing has a great
contribution in geotechnical constructions. In the late 60s,
soil nailing developed and used for supporting tunneling
shotcrete [1]. This method used a flexible lining that enabled
soil deformation around the excavation, which had been
reinforced by a number of bolts or nails. An active zone is
formed around the excavation and the lining is subjected to
reduced loading [1]. This technique is the traditional
tunneling technique method for preventing soil deformation
and reducing the subjected ground pressures of tunnel. As
reported by Ortigao [1], the first time nailing was used in
tunneling construction work in 1970 in Brazil. After that, this
nailing method is widely used in France, Canada, Germany,
UK and in the USA, among other countries. The soil nailing
for slope stability method is similar to the tunneling support
method (tieback). The difference is they are installed nontensioned at a slight downward inclination on slope. Such
construction work used soil nailing for slope improvement
work in Versailles (France) for first time in 1972 [2]. One of

the first national guideline publications for soil nailing was
produced in Japan in 1987 ; the USA has produced national
guideline publications through the Federal Highway
Administration on this subject in 1996 [1]. The Geotechnical
Engineering Office (GEO) of Hong Kong extensively uses
soil nailing to stabilize thousands of man-made slopes in
residual and saprolitic soils and in 1996 presents its
prescriptive design method. Since 1995, over ten thousand of
such soil nailing structures has been constructed in Hong
Kong through LPM program to stabilize slopes in residual
soil [3]. Regarding the development of the soil nail head, in
the early 90s, an exposed soil nail head was commonly used
in the soil nailing system. With a large size and exposed
head, it was possible to transfer the component of load from
the slope face to soil nail. However, buried soil nail heads are
now common, since the late 90s. Hidden into the slopes
surface and with a small size, the soil nail head (approximate
0.6m-0.8m) is the main element of the design in soil nailing
system. This type of soil nail head can be covered by hydro
seeding surface on top of soil nail head to provide a natural
and environmentally friendly slope surface.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
A soil-nailed system is required to fulfil fundamental
requirements of stability, serviceability and durability during
construction and throughout its design life. Other issues such
as cost and environmental impact are also important design
considerations. The design of the soil-nailed system should
ensure that there is an adequate safety margin against all the
perceived potential modes of failure. The deformation of the
system should not result in excessive ground settlement and
affect the efficient use of nearby structures, facilities or
services. Appropriate corrosion protection measures should
also be provided to the steel reinforcement to ensure that the
soil-nailed system is sufficiently durable.
The assumptions taken by different soil nailing design
methods are shown in table 1 [4].
S. Sahoo, B. Manna & K. G. Sharma
Table 1: ASSUMPTIONS OF DIFFERENT SOIL NAILING DESIGN METHODS

Methods
Analysis
Material
properties
input
Nail Forces
Failure
surface
Failure
mechanisms
as
Safety Factorsb
(1)Soil
Strength,Fc,F
(2)Pull-out
resistance,Fpc
(3)Tension
bendingc
(1)1.5
(2)1.5
(3)Yield stress
Plastic moment
(1)1(residual shear
strength)
(2)1.5 to 2
(3)Yield stress
French
Method
(Schlosser [5])
Limit
moment
equilibrium
Global stability
Soil parameters
(c, )
Limit nail forces

Bending stiffness
Tension, shear, moments
Circular, any
input shape
Mixeda
German
Method
(Stocker et al., [6])
Limit
force
equilibrium
Global stability
Soil parameters
(c, )
Lateral friction
Tension
Bilinear
Pull-out
Davis Method
(Shen et al., [7])
Limit
force
equilibrium
Global stability
Soil parameters
(c, )
Limit nail forces

Lateral friction
Tension
Parabolic
Mixed
(1)1.5
(2)1.5
(3)Yield stress
Modified
Davis
(Elias and Juran,
[8, 9])
Limit
force
equilibrium
Global stability
Soil parameters
(c, )
Limit nail forces

Lateral friction
Tension
Parabolic
Mixed
(1)1
(2)2
(3)Yield stress
Kinematical Method
(Juran et al., [10])
Working
analysis
Local stability
Soil parameters
(C/(H), )
Non dimensional bending

stiffness parameter(N)
Tension, shear, moments
Log-spiral
Not applicable
(1)1
(2)2
(3)Yield stress
Plastic moment
stress
Source: Elias and Juran [8, 9].

a
Mixed failure mechanisms: Limit-tension force in each nail is governed by either its pull-out resistance factored by the safety
factor or the nail yield stress, whichever is smaller. Pull-out failure mechanism: Limit-tension forces in all the nails are
governed by their pull-out resistance factored by the safety factor.
b
Definitions of safety factors used in this analysis:
*For soil strength, Fc=c/cm, F=(tan)/(tanm); where c and are the soi cohesion and friction angle, respectively, while cm and
m are the soil cohesion and friction angle mobilized along the potential sliding surface.
*For nail pull-out resistance, Fp = f1/fm ; f1 and fm are the limit interface shear stress and the mobilized interface shear stress,
respectively.
c
Recommended limit nail force.
downward placement of reinforcement is less effective
compared to the horizontal one [24]. French and Davis
CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS FROM LITERATURE
The literature survey on the nailed soil structures reveals that methods [5, 7] ensure global stability of the structure where
lots of work have been done on the design and construction as the kinematical method examines the local stability. The
methodologies [11, 12, 13], laboratory modeling [14, 15, 16] kinematical and French methods provide the evaluation of
and numerical modelling [17, 18] of nailed excavations and effect of ground water and nail bending stiffness on the
slopes under static load condition. Hong et al. [19] have stability of structures [25]. For large deformation of soil
looked into the performance of nailed soil slopes under nailed walls, the bending resistance of the nails is mobilized,
dynamic condition in the laboratory. Lou and Ye [20] and providing a greater resistance to failure. The failure surface
Sabahit et al. [21] have studied theoretically the performance intersects the ground surface at a distance of approximately
of such structures under seismic conditions. The failure or 0.35 times height from the wall face. The lateral deformation
distress reported in the Literature due to Earthquakes showed of the wall is approximately equal to the vertical deformation
how vulnerable these structures are to ground motions and and is in the range of 0.3% of the wall height. [16]. The
hence more research is required to properly understand the number of nails can significantly influence the shape of the
behaviour of nailed soil structures under seismic conditions failure surface, its location and the factor of safety. The factor
[22]. Very small displacement is sufficient to generate of safety increases with increase in the number of nails [26].
friction at the soil-nail interfaces and to mobilize high tensile The influence of bending stiffness on slope stability appears
forces in the nails. Relatively large displacements are to be small compared to the axial reinforcement forces and
necessary to mobilize the passive lateral earth thrust on the hence it may be ignored for the design purposes [27]. The top
reinforcement and to generate the bending moments in the nail does not substantially contribute to the retaining force of
nails [23]. The maximum and minimum effects of the the wall system. The nail force increases for a short duration
reinforcement are obtained for the horizontal and the inclined during construction and remains almost constant thereafter
upward placement of the nails, respectively. The inclined [28]. For a Coulomb material, the logarithmic spiral failure
Stability Analysis of nailed soil slopes: State-of-the-art
surface is the only kinematically admissible solution

compatible with the observed displacements. The vertical
force transferred to the foundation soil is relatively small as
compared to lateral earth pressure retained by the reinforced
soil structures [29]. Under the surcharge loading condition,
the failure of the wall system occurred through a progressive
breakage of the nails initiated at the top nails. As the
surcharge loading increases, the equivalent earth pressure
coefficient in the upper nails tends to increase toward the at
rest value [30]. The pseudo-static method can be used for
coefficient of horizontal acceleration, kh, less than 0.2.
Pseudo-dynamic analysis is preferable for higher value of kh.
The horizontal placement of reinforcement requires minimum
force for equilibrium and hence it is preferable to place the
reinforcement in the horizontal direction [21]. The induced
anchor stress increases proportionally with interface stiffness,
interface strength, deformation coefficient and anchor length,
but decreases slightly with anchor diameter [31]. The actual
normal pressure on the shaft of the nail in a dilative soil is
higher than the overburden pressure. The friction coefficient
decreases with the increase of the overburden pressure [32].
The length and spacing of soil nails have significant effect on
the deformation behaviour and failure mechanism of soil
nailed structures. For unstable reinforced slope, the ratio
between the maximum nail length and the excavation depth
was 0.32 or 0.34. However, when the ratio was 0.48 or 0.80,
the model slope was substantially stable against global failure
[33]. Hao & Azzam [34] have performed numerical analyses
of nailed excavations for evaluating the influence of nail
parameters such as length and dip angle. For a surface wall of
100mm, the nails at the excavation top should be longer than
the ones at the base. They also noted that the nails
inclination should not exceed 15. Similar conclusions have
also been reported by Gerscovich et al, [35]. The most
unfavourable condition corresponds to vertical slopes (Lima
et al, [36]). A slight decrease of the excavation slope angle,
from 90 to 80, resulted in a significant improvement of soil
nailing response and is therefore recommended for
geotechnical design. Studies (Lima et al, [36]) carried out
with different slope inclinations (60 to 90), have indicated a
significant reduction on the magnitude of horizontal
displacement when the slope angle of the excavation was
reduced from 90 to 80. Besides, the vertical slopes showed
a reasonably vertical movement towards the excavated
region, and the maximum displacement, around 0.2%H,
occurred at the top of the excavation [36]. The application of
the optimization technique in the design of nailed slope
predicted that horizontally placed nails result in optimal
design [17]. For nailed slopes in cohesionless soil, the factor
of safety increases with increase of angle of internal friction
of the soil, the ratio of the length of nail to height of slope,
cohesion of soil and nail inclination up to 15 with horizontal.
The nails grouted with cement performed better than driven
nails [37].
CONCLUSION
The state-of-the-art of analyzing the nailed slope stability has
advanced remarkably in the last 20 years and has reached a
mature stage of development. Several formulations and

computer programs have been developed to determine in a
rational way the response of nailed soil slopes having various
slope as well as nail arrangements and supported on/in any
kind of soil deposit. Numerous studies have been published
exploring the nature of associated phenomena and shedding
light on the role of the key parameters influencing the
response. This progress in developing new methods of
analysis for slopes and excavations has been paralleled by an
equally impressive progress in our understanding of the static
and dynamic behavior of soils and the development of
excellent in situ and laboratory procedures to obtain
representative values of soil parameters.
At present, there is a great need to calibrate our analytical
procedures by means of actual case histories. Systematic
post-construction observations of actual performances of
nailed soil slopes are the key to this important task.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
J.A.R.ORTIGAO. A.S.F.J.SAYAO (2004).

Handbook of slope stabilisation.
DERECK.CORNFORTH (2005). Landslides in
practice: investigation, analysis, remedial and
preventive options in soils.
Civil Engineering and Development Department
(CEDD), GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
OFFICE ( 2008). Geoguide 7 Guide to soil nail
design and Construction, Hong Kong.
Abramson, L., Thomas, S., Lee, S., Sharma, B., G.
G., and Lenn, W. W. (1996). Slope Stability and
Stabilization Methods. A Wiley Interscience
Publications, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Schlosser, F., 1983. Analogies et differences dans
le Comportement et le Caicul des Ouvrages de
Soutenement en Terre Arme et par Clougae du Sol,
Annales de LInstitut Technique du Batiment et des
Travaux Publics, No. 418.
Stocker, M. F., G. W. Korber, G. Gassler, and G.
Gudehus, 1979. Soil Nailing, Proceedings
International Conference on Soil Reinforcement:
Reinforced Earth and Other Techniques, Paris, Vol.
I, pp. 469-474, March.
Shen, C. K., L. R. Hermann, K. M. Romstad, S.
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1821-1833.

December 13-15,2012, Delhi (Paper No. B 203)
EFFECT OF SUPPORTED EXCAVATION ON THE PERFORMANCE OF

NEIGHBOURING PILE FOUNDATION
Madhumathi R.K, Research scholar, Anna University, Chennai600 025, India. Email: madhumathi17@gmail.com.
Ilamparuthi K, Professor and Head, Anna University, Chennai600 025, India .E-mail: kanniilam@gmail.com.
ABSTRACT: This paper describes the results of series of model tests conducted on pile and two pile groups embedded in
loose and medium dense sand behind a retaining wall. The pile head deflection is found to decrease exponentially with
increasing distance between the pile and the retaining wall. The pile group tests reveal that the response of a pile within a pile
group due to excavation induced soil not only depends on its distance from the retaining wall but also the position relative to
other piles within the pile group. It is also found that the piles arranged in a line perpendicular to retaining wall shows lesser
deflection than the single pile and also for the piles of pile group arranged in a row parallel to retaining wall. A numerical
study is also carried out using Plaxis 3D Foundation and the results are compared with the experimental results. The maximum
pile head deflection of pile thus obtained from the FEM is compared reasonably with the results of model test.
INTRODUCTION
Piles are used for transferring load from the superstructure
through weak compressible strata or through water, to stiffer
or more compact and less compressible soils or rock. They
are used to support structures such as foundation of high rise
buildings, transmission towers and offshore platforms which
are subjected to significant magnitudes of vertical loads and
lateral loads. Apart from this, piles are subjected to lateral
forces due to soil movement. Due to increasing construction
practices of underground structures and deep excavations,
damages to piles due to ground movements are severe and
designing the piles for this condition becomes essential. For
structures requiring many basement levels and underground
facilities, the excavation works becomes necessary below
several meters from the ground.
The response of pile foundations due to ground movement
was brought out by researchers such as Poulos and Chen
(1996 and1997) by conducting experimental studies through
1g models. Leung et al. (2000 and 2003) and Ong et al.
(2009) studied free-field displacements and additional
responses of adjacent pile foundations in sand and clay
through centrifuge tests. In the theoretical studies of Poulos
& Chen (1997), boundary element method (PALLAS) is used
for analyzing the pile subjected to lateral soil movement. Pan
et al. (2002) and Miao et al. (2006) conducted three
dimensional finite element analyses of passive pile behavior.
However research work in this area appears scarce. This may
be due to difficulty in simulating the lateral soil movement in
the laboratory which needs elaborate instrumentation in field
testing and the complexity involved in understanding the
mechanics. In order to contribute towards understanding the
response of piles behind the supported excavation particularly
pile parameters like location of pile, pile group arrangement,
spacing of pile and depth of excavation 1g model tests were
carried out on model piles both single and two pile groups
embedded in sand by inducing lateral soil movement. Tests
were carried out by varying soil and pile related parameters
and the behavior of instrumented pile and pile groups were
analysed. The experiments conducted were simulated

numerically by treating pile as shell element and the soil as
solid element. The pile material and the soil are modeled as
linear elastic and Mohr- Coulomb materials respectively
available in the material library of Plaxis 3D Foundation. The
numerical results thus obtained were compared with the
results of experiments and are presented in detail in this
paper.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND PROCEDURE
1g model tests were conducted using a model container
having internal dimensions of 650 mm in length, 400 mm in
width, and 600 mm in height. The front face of the container
was made transparent by fixing Perspex sheet for monitoring
the whole testing process. The model piles were fabricated
from a hollow circular aluminum tube, instrumented with
strain gauges. The length and diameter of piles are varied to
perform tests at different L/D ratios. The single pile of
diameter (D) 19.05 mm and length (L) 381 mm is used for
model pile of L/D ratio 20. The model retaining wall is made
of an aluminum alloy plate with a thickness of 0.5 mm. Pile
group of 2x1 configurations is taken for the study. The tests
were carried out in both loose and medium dense sand bed
for the following two arrangements: (i) piles in a row parallel
to retaining wall and (ii) piles in a line perpendicular to
retaining wall. The tests were conducted with varying spacing
of 2.5D, 3.5D and 4.5D.
Ground movement is simulated in laboratory by excavating
the soil. While carrying out excavation, the movement of pile
and retaining wall is monitored continuously. The
displacement of the pile and the retaining wall at the top was
measured using a dial gauges having a least count of 0.01mm
and a travel of 25 mm. The bending moment of the pile and
the retaining wall are measured using strain gauges. The
strain gauges were calibrated to obtain the relationship
between bending moment and strain. The displacement of the
pile and the retaining wall at the top (at the surface level of
the sand bed) and their strains for each excavation depth were
Madhumathi R.K &, Ilamparuthi K

recorded at predetermined time intervals (i.e. at the interval
of ten minutes). Fig. 1 shows the schematic setup of the
model and Plate 1 presents the photographic view of the test
setup.
Fig. 2 Finite Element Model

Fig. 1 The Experimental Setup
Retaining
Wall
Model Pile
Wooden
Planks
Fig. 2 shows the finite element model simulated for the

analysis. The basic soil elements of a 3D finite element mesh
are 15-node wedge element, which is composed of 6-node
triangles in horizontal direction and 8-node quadrilaterals in
vertical direction.
RESPONSE OF SINGLE PILE
The tests were carried out in both loose and medium dense
sand bed for piles placed at distances of 2D, 3D and 4D from
the face of retaining wall.
PLAN VIEW
Dial
Indicator
ELEVATION VIEW
Plate 1. The Photographic View of the Test Setup.

NUMERICAL MODELLING
The results obtained from model tests were verified by
carrying out numerical studies using finite element method
PLAXIS 3D Foundation.
Fig. 3 Pile Head Deflection Vs Excavation Depth for Pile of

L/D=20
Fig. 3 shows the comparison of pile head deflection obtained
through finite element analysis and from model tests for the
pile of L/D ratio 20 embedded in medium dense sand and
placed at a distance of 3D and 4D from the retaining wall.
The pile head deflection increases exponentially with depth
Effect of supported excavation on the performance of neighbouring pile foundation

of excavation for the piles placed at 3D and 4D. The finite
element analysis also confirms this response and it compares
reasonably with the experimental results. As the distance
between the pile and retaining wall increases the deflection
decreases.
Fig. 6 shows the comparison of single pile deflection with

pile group deflection for the piles embedded in medium dense
sand. The pile group comprises two piles in a line
perpendicular to retaining wall.
3D
Fig. 4 max/D and Distance of Pile from Retaining Wall

Relationship in Medium Dense Sand
Fig. 6 Deflection of Piles Vs Excavation Depth for Two Pile

a Row perpendicular to Retaining Wall.
In Fig. 4 the relationship between max/D (max represents the

maximum pile head deflection for depth of excavation
h=160mm and D represents the diameter of the pile) and
distance of pile from retaining wall obtained from finite
element analysis is compared with model tests for the pile of
L/D ratio 20 embedded in medium dense sand. It can be
observed that the value of max/D decreases exponentially as
the distance from the retaining wall increases and it compares
well with experimental values.
It is noted that deflection of single pile is more than the

deflection of pile group. It can also be observed that the
deflection of piles in a line perpendicular to wall is less than
the piles parallel to wall. The provision of a pile cap for two
piles arranged in a line would help to moderate the pile-group
deflection against soil movement. The rear piles, that are
located farther from the wall which is less affected by the soil
movement, that supports the front pile.
RESPONSE OF TWO PILE GROUP

Fig. 5 shows the response for the single pile embedded at the
distance of 3D and two piles in a row parallel to retaining
wall. It is noted that deflection of single pile is more than the
deflection of two pile group irrespective of the depth of
excavation for spacing of piles tested. The deflection of pile
group observed in the tests show the trend as seen in the tests
on single piles. Deflection at the pile head increases with
depth of excavation with increasing rate.
Relation between Pile deflection ratio with Pile Spacing

The relationship between pile deflection ratio and pile
spacing for piles embedded in loose sand and medium dense
sand beds is given in Fig. 7. The maximum deflection of pile
group is compared with the maximum deflection of single
pile for identical conditions and is defined as pile deflection
ratio. The values thus determined are compared to bring out
the effect of spacing in the pile group response. The pile
deflection ratio varies almost linearly with pile spacing
irrespective of density and orientation of pile group.
3D
Fig. 5 Deflection of Piles Vs Excavation Depth for Two Pile

in a Row Parallel to Retaining Wall
Fig. 7 Relation between Pile Deflection Ratio and Pile

Spacing
Madhumathi R.K &, Ilamparuthi K

It is also observed that for two piles arranged in a row
parallel to retaining wall, the pile deflection ratio is almost
same for both loose and medium dense conditions for
spacings less than 3.5D and it decreases linearly as the pile
spacing increases.
Comparison of Experimental and Numerical Results of
Pile group deflection
The comparison of pile group deflection between PLAXIS
and model test for the piles embedded in medium dense sand
at a spacing of 2.5D is shown in Fig. 8 and 9 for the piles
parallel and perpendicular to the retaining respectively.
pile group arranged in a row parallel to retaining wall exhibit

lesser deflection than the single pile. The test results in case
of piles arranged in a line perpendicular to retaining wall
illustrate that the rear pile reduces the group deflection by
offering support to the front pile, which results in lesser
deflection than single pile and the piles of pile group
arranged in a row parallel to retaining wall. The pile
deflection ratio in loose and medium dense sand is 0.8 for
piles arranged parallel to the retaining wall, which is
independent of density whereas the value is 0.65 and 0.6
respectively for piles arranged perpendicular to the retaining
wall. The results of numerical analysis show almost identical
response of pile deflection versus depth of excavation as seen
from the laboratory model tests. The ratio of max/D decreases
with increasing distance of pile from retaining wall and this

response compares well with the experimentally observed
values.
3D
REFERENCES
1.
2.
Fig. 8 Comparison of experimental and Plaxis results for
two Pile Group of L/D ratio 20
3D
3.
4.
5.
Fig. 9 Comparison of experimental and Plaxis results for

two Pile Group of L/D ratio 20
The finite element analysis slightly underestimates the
deflection when compared with experimental results in case
of pile groups
6.
7.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents the response of model piles behind the
supported deep excavations in dry sand. On comparing the
behaviour of piles it is observed that the pile head deflection

decreases exponentially with increasing distance between the
pile and the wall. The pile group test results reveals that the
8.
Poulos H. G, and Chen L. T, (1996) Pile response due

to unsupported excavation-induced lateral soil
movements. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 33
(3), 670-677.
Chen, L.T, Poulos, H.G. and Hull, T.S.,
(1997).Model Tests on Pile Groups Subjected to
Lateral Soil Movement, Soils and Foundations, Vol.
37 (1), 1 12.
Leung, C.F, Chow, Y.K. and Shen R.F. (2000).
Behaviour of Pile Subjected to Excavation-Induced
Soil
Movements, Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering., ASCE, Vol. 126
(11), 947954.
Leung, C.F., Lim, J. K., Chow, Y. K., and Shen R. F.
(2003), Behaviour of pile groups subjected to
excavation-induced soil movements. Journal Of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering.,
ASCE, Vol.129 (1), 58-65.
Ong D.E.L., Leung C.F. and Chow Y.K.., (2009)
Behavior of Pile Groups Subject to ExcavationInduced Soil Movement in Very Soft Clay, Journal of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering.,
ASCE, Vol. 135 (10), 1463-1474.
Poulos H.G, and Chen L.T, (1997). Pile Response
due
to
Excavation-Induced
Lateral
Soil
Movements,Journal
of
Geotechnical
and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, Vol.123 (2),
9499.
Pan J.L, Goh A.T.C, Wong K.S and Selby A.R,
(2002). Three-dimensional analysis of single pile
response to lateral soil movements, Int. J. Numer.
Anal. Meth. Geomech.,Vol. 26, 747758
Miao L.F, Goh A.T.C, Wong K.S and. Teh C.I
(2006). Three-dimensional finite element analyses of
passive pile behaviorInt. J. Numer. Anal. Meth.
Geomech., Vol. 30, 599613

December 13-15, 2012, Delhi (Paper No. B204)
VACUUM METHOD OF CONSOLIDATION RESPONSE OF SOFT CLAY WITH FABRIC

DRAINS
M.Mahalakshmi, PG Student, Anna University Chennai, Chennai600 025, India. Email: civil.maha89@gmail.com
K. Ilamparuthi, Professor, Anna University Chennai, Chennai600 025, India .E-mail: kanniilam@gmail.com.
ABSTRACT: In this study tests are performed on two layered soil system by applying vacuum, surcharge and combined
vacuum surcharge loading with and without pvds. The two layered system consists of intermediate plastic clay and high plastic
clay on bottom and top respectively. The parameters such as thickness of clay layer and pressure range are varied in this
research. To study suitability of hyperbola method for vacuum consolidation the results of the tests conducted are analysed by
hyperbola method and logarithm method. The improved rectangular hyperbola method gives the high value of coefficient of
consolidation for the soil tested when comparing with log time method. The test results indicate that the vacuum pressure
induces less settlement than the surcharge and combined surcharge vacuum pressure. The rate of consolidation of vacuum
pressure is more compared to the surcharge pressure of same magnitude.
.
INTRODUCTION
The last few decades, field of geotechnical engineering has
attained many milestones with successful implementation of
new technologies and satisfactory performance. The
performance and stability of structure depends on the
properties of soil mass. In the recent times the availability of
with good soil is depleting day by day, we are forced to use
location of soft soil deposit. Soft soils are geologically recent
deposits, which are available dominantly along the narrow
tidal plains all over the world. To avoid excessive settlement
of highly compressible soil after construction, its properties
can be improved by adopting suitable ground improvement
technique. Ground improvement in its broadest sense is a
technique adopted to modify any property of soil to improve
its engineering performance. Various ground improvement
methods are available to increase strength, reduce
compressibility, reduce risk of liquefaction potential of
subsoil and increase stability of soil slopes. Preloading is the
most popular ground improvement technique and is widely
used for treatment of soft clays.
Vacuum Preloading Technique
This technique is developed based on vacuum dewatering
system, which was used to drain the water in low permeable
deposits. The concept of vacuum preloading was first
introduced by Kjellman(1952) of Swedish Geotechnical
Institute. One of the first applications of this technique was
runway extension at Philadelphia International Airport in
1957. Since then, this technique has been successfully used
for soil improvement and or land reclamation projects in
many countries (Saowapakpiboon et al [3], Shang et al [4]).
In vacuum preloading method, vacuum is applied to the pore
phase in a sealed membrane system. The vacuum causes
water to drain out from the soil and creates negative pore
water pressure in the soil. This leads to an increase in
effective stress to the magnitude of the induced negative pore
water pressure, without the increase of total stress. In order to
achieve rapid pre-consolidation, pvds are often used along
with the vacuum preloading. Reasonably good amount of
work on vacuum consolidation was carried out to develop

techniques to enhance its performance and efficiency. Chai et
al [1] suggested that vacuum consolidation applies an
isotropic consolidation pressure increment to a soil and it will
normally result in less settlement than the surcharge load of
same magnitude. Series of testing was conducted on large
scale consolidation apparatus to study the effect of vacuum
and surcharge loading (Rujikiatkamjorn, and Indraratna
[2]).The present study investigated the performance of
vacuum consolidation on two layered soil system by
laboratory model test. The results obtained from the test are
discussed by hyperbola method and logarithm time method.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials Used
Two different types of clay samples collected from Egmore
(sample 1) and Kishkinda(sample 2) area. These samples
tested for basic soil properties. The liquid limit and plastic
limit values of sample 1 are 45% and 20% respectively and
are classified as CI. The LL and PL values of sample 2 are
78% and 34% and are classified as CH. From the
consolidation test on remoulded clay samples, the
compression index for CI and CH was found to 0.478 and
0.608 respectively. The prefabricated vertical drains are used
to distribute the vacuum pressure to the deeper layers and
drain out water from the sub soil. In this study commercially
available geosynthetic drain was used. The n value taken
for this study is 6.73. The size of the drain was modified
based on the requirement of the project.
Experimental Setup
A simple vacuum preloading setup was fabricated to apply
vacuum pressure to the soil sample. The arrangement consists
of
1. Vacuum pump of capacity 100kPa
2. Vacuum Regulator
3. Drainage Chamber
4. Vacuum Gauge
K.Ilamparuthi &, M.Mahalakshmi

5. Dial Gauge
Vacuum pump is used to create negative vacuum pressure. It
is directly connected to the vacuum regulator which is used to
apply the required vacuum pressure. A dessicator is used as a
drainage chamber as well as air and water separator. One end
of the vacuum chamber is connected to the vacuum regulator
and another end is connected to the vacuum gauge. The
applied pressure can be monitored with the vacuum gauge.
The end of vacuum gauge is connected to the consolidation
cell. The simple vacuum preloading setup which is fabricated
in lab is shown in Fig. 1
height and 6cm was used. The thickness of each layer is

taken as 0.95cm. The samples of required thickness are
collected from the bed of CI and CH prepared independently
using sample cutter and spacer disc and filled in the
consolidation ring. Pvds are used for the drainage purpose.
The size of the drain is 100mm length and 3.5mm width. The
n value taken for this study is 6.73. The sizes of the drains
are cut such that the n value is 6.73. For tests on
conventional mould pvds of 10mm is used.Tests were also
carried out in larger sample of 15.5cm diameter and 4cm
thick by applying surcharge pressure, vacuum pressure and
combined vacuum surcharge pressure. In case of larger
mould the thickness of each layer maintained as 2cm and the
order of soil layer is same as the conventional mould.
Surcharge Preloading
The entire conventional consolidation setup with two layered
soil system was placed on frame. Tests were carried out for
three different magnitudes of pressures 30, 50, 80kPa
independently. The dial readings are taken continuously at
predetermined time intervals of 0.25, 1, 2.25, 4, 6.25, 9,
12.25, 16, 20.25, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 144, 169, 225, 256,
300 and 1440 minutes by maintaining the same magnitude of
pressure. In case of test on large size sampling also sample of
required diameter and thickness was collected from the clay
bed already prepared. Instead of porous stone, a sand layer of
0.5 cm thickness was placed above and below the clay
sample. The mould is then placed in the loading frame and
the required surcharge pressure is applied. The dial gauge
reading is recorded continuously for predetermined time
intervals.
Fig. 1 Vacuum preloading setup

Experimental Procedure
In order to investigate the consolidation behaviour of two
layered soil system, tests are conducted on two mould sizes.
One is a conventional consolidation cell of 1.9 cm height and
6 cm diameter and another one is a large size mould of 10cm
height and 15.5 cm diameter. Tests on two layered system
was performed by combining the clay of low and high
compressibility qualities.
Preparation of Soft Clay
Two natural clay samples are used to form layered soil
system. The weight of dry sample to be taken is calculated
based on fixed density and water content. Initially the soil
was thoroughly mixed with water and kept covered for 48
hours of hydration, the soil was kneaded well and checked for
moisture content. The initial moisture content maintained for
intermediate plastic clay was 40% and high plastic clay was
70%.
Details of Tests
Tests were carried out by applying surcharge, vacuum and
combined surcharge vacuum pressure with following three
magnitudes of pressures 30, 50 and 80kPa independently. In
this study the conventional consolidation mould of 1.9cm
Vacuum Pump
The pressure of magnitude 30kPa, 50kPa and 80kPa are
applied. The vacuum pressure is applied by means of vacuum
pump. For the application of vacuum pressure, initially the
vacuum pump is turned on and the regulator is adjusted to set
the required pressure. The surface of the cell is sealed with
grease to prevent leakage. The vacuum pump is then operated
and the settlement was recorded for predetermined time
intervals. The test is carried out till the dial gauge reading
remains constant for a long time or 10 hours. The same
procedure is followed for large size mould also. For drainage
purpose the sand layer of 0.5 cm is used in large size mould.
Combined Vacuum and Surcharge Preloading
The tests were conducted by applying combined vacuum
surcharge pressure of 50kPa and 80kPa. The readings are
noted until the constant value is reached or minimum for 10
hours. After the completion of tests on conventional mould
and large size mould the final water content is determined for
each test.
CONSOLIDATION BEHAVIOUR OF TWO LAYERED
SOIL SYSTEM WITHOUT PVD
Consolidation tests are carried out in conventional mould
with the application of surcharge and vacuum pressure of
30kPa, 50kPa and 80kPa and combined pressure of 50kPa
Vacuum method of consolidation response of soft clay with fabric drains

and 80kPa on two layered soil system without pvds. The
results obtained are analysed by the method Hyperbola and
Logarithm time method. Fig. 2 shows the logarithm time
curve for surcharge, vacuum and combined surcharge
vacuum pressure of 50kPa. It is observed that the coefficient
of consolidation is 1.50 10-4 cm2/sec, 4.35 10-4 cm2/sec
and 5.27 10-4 cm2/sec and the settlement achieved is
3.80mm, 2.15mm and 4.07mm for surcharge, vacuum and
combined surcharge vacuum pressure of same magnitude
respectively. The settlement achieved and the reduction in
water content is more for combined surcharge vacuum
loading compared to other two methods of loading.
In general the improved rectangular hyperbola method gives

the high values of coefficient of consolidation.
The settlement achieved by vacuum pressure is less
compared to surcharge pressure of same magnitude. From the
graph, it is also noticed that the relation between the log t and
dial reading is same for vacuum pressure of 50kPa and 80kPa
for certain period of time.
Fig. 4 Log t vs dial reading curve for varying vacuum

pressure
Fig. 2 Log t vs dial reading for surcharge, vacuum and

combined surcharge vacuum pressure of 50kpa
Figures 3-4 present the hyperbola plot and logarithmic time
curve for varying vacuum pressure. It is noted that the
settlement achieved is 2.01mm and 2.25mm by hyperbola
method and logarithm time method for vacuum pressure of
80kPa. The variation between the predicted settlements by
both the methods is marginal. The maximum underestimation
of settlement by hyperbola method is approximately 17 %
against the logarithm method.
CONSOLIDATION BEHAVIOUR OF TWO LAYERED

SOIL SYSTEM WITH PVD
The behaviour of two layered soil system is also studied with
pvd placed at the center of consolidation ring. The drains are
used to simulate radial drainage under surcharge loading. In
the case of vacuum preloading other than the radial drainage,
drains are used to distribute the vacuum pressure. Fig. 5
shows the logarithm time curve for the varying vacuum
pressure with drains. The time for 50% consolidation is same
for both vacuum pressure of 50kPa and 80kPa.
200
Time/Settlement
(min/mm)
VP=
30kPa
150
y=0.973x+38.689
100
y=0.47x+12.9
50
y=0.447x+9.699
0
0
50
Time (min)
100
Fig. 3 Rectangular hyperbola plot for varying vacuum

pressure
Fig. 5 Log t vs dial reading curve for varying vacuum

pressure with drains
K.Ilamparuthi &, M.Mahalakshmi

When comparing the time for time for 50% consolidation for
tests with drains and without drains the performance is well
established only at the tests conducted with drains.
TESTS ON LARGER SAMPLE
In order to understand the performance of vacuum
consolidation test is also carried out in larger sample by
applying surcharge, vacuum and combined surcharge vacuum
pressure of 80kPa. From the result it is well known that the
vacuum pressure induces less settlement than the other two
pressures because of inward lateral movement of soil by
vacuum pressure. The rate of consolidation is high for
vacuum loading than the surcharge loading.
DEGREE OF CONSOLIDATION VS TIME FACTOR
The degree of consolidation vs time factor is discussed by
logarithmic time method. Fig. 6 presents the comparison of
experimental results with theoretical curve without drains for
three different vacuum pressures. From the graph it is
inferred that irrespective of loading intensity the experiment
results compare reasonably with the theoretical curve for the
range of consolidation of 0% to 40%. Beyond 40% degree of
consolidation, the results show marginal variation with the
theoretical results. This may be due to reason attributed to the
difficulties faced during experiments in maintaining constant
vacuum pressure.
Fig. 7 Comparison of experimental results with theoretical

curve for vacuum pressure with drains
CONCLUSIONS
The conclusions drawn from the experimental work are
presented below.
The settlement achieved by vacuum consolidation is less than
surcharge and combined vacuum surcharge loading
irrespective of magnitude of pressure and size of soil sample.
This is because of inward lateral movement of soil takes
place in case of vacuum consolidation. The hyperbola method
estimates the final settlement with in the acceptable variation
with settlement measured at the end of the test. In certain
cases of vacuum consolidation, it is difficult to obtain the
standard curve by logarithm time method, thus determination
of t50 value is difficult. In such cases the hyperbola method
can be adopted to determine the coefficient of consolidation.
REFERENCES
Fig. 6 Comparison of experimental results with theoretical

curve for vacuum pressure
Figure 7 shows the variation of degree of consolidation with
time factor are presented for the vacuum loading with drains
along with the theoretical curve obtained from Barrons
equation. For the vacuum loading with drains, the variation
between experimental results and theoretical values is almost
same upto 50% consolidation.
1. Chai J.C., Carter J.P. and Hayashi S. (2005), Ground

deformation induced by vacuum consolidation, Journal
of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering,
ASCE, Vol 131, pp 1552-1561
2. Rujikiatkamjorn C. and Indraratna B. (2006),
Improvement of soft clays using vacuum assisted
consolidation method, Geocongress Atlanta, pp 1-6.
3. Saowakpiboon J., Bergado D.T., Hayashi S., Chai J.C.,
Kovittayanon N. and Zwart T.P. (2008), Ceteau pvd
vacuum system in soft Bangkok clay: A case study of the
Suvarnabhumi airport project, Lowland Technology
International, Vol 10, No 1, pp 42-53.
4. Shang J.Q., Tang M. and Miao Z. (1998), Vacuum
preloading consolidation of a reclaimed landfill: A case
study, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol 35, pp 740
749

December 13-15,2012, Delhi (Paper No.B205.)
FLOATING STONE COLUMNS IN SOFT CLAY WITH UNREINFORCED AND

GEOCELL REINFORCED SAND CUSHION
Dr. Mukul C. Bora, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Dibrugarh Polytechnic, Assam, mukul1968@gmail.com
Dr. Sujit Kumar Dash, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IITKharagpur, sujit@civil.iitkgp.ernet.in
ABSTRACT: Stone column is one of the most versatile methods of improving fine grained soil when there is a need for
moderate increase in bearing capacity and reduction in post construction settlement. A layer of granular cushion is provided at
the top to reduce the stress concentration as well as for the facilitation of drainage. In this experimental investigation, model
footing load tests were carried out on stone columns reinforced soft clay bed with unreinforced and geocell reinforced sand
cushion. It was observed that the Geocell reinforced sand layer improves the bearing capacity further and also reduces the
lateral deformation of the stone columns at its top. The optimum height of the sand layer is found out to be diameter (D) of the
footing. With the height of Geocell reinforced sand layer about the diameter of the footing an increase in 7.5 times in the
bearing capacity can be achieved for the soft clay bed.
1.
INTRODUCTION
Stone column or granular piles (as it sometimes called as) is

one of the most versatile method of ground improvement
where a moderate increase in bearing capacity is envisages.
Stone columns were first employed in Europe in the 1835
(Moreau et. al)s and have been used extensively after its
discovery as a by product of Vibrofloatation technique since
1950. The sand columns were originally used to densify loose
deposits. It provides a reinforcing effect, increases the
horizontal effective stress and acts as a vertical drain. Stone
columns have been introduced into engineering practice to
improve the bearing capacity and to reduce the settlement in
a weak or soft soil. This practice is considered one of the
most versatile and cost effective techniques for improving in
situ ground conditions.
The use of sand columns in geotechnical engineering to
improve the bearing capacity of weak or soft soil, and reduce
the settlement of foundations resting on weak soil are found
in the reported work of Bergado et al., (1991, 1992). Stone
column is constructed by filling a cylindrical cavity with
granular material. The soft soil improvements via stone
columns are achieved from due to faster rate of consolidation
and load carrying capacity increase and/or settlement
reduction due to inclusion of stiffer granular material. When
vertical and corresponding lateral granular column
deformations occur under a vertical load, the surrounding soil
stratum exerts passive earth pressure to the column materials.
Because the lateral confining pressure of the native soil
typically increases with the increase in column depth and the
mechanical behavior of the granular material is usually
controlled by the lateral confining pressure. It was observed
by Hughes and Withers, (1974) and Madhav and Miura,
(1994) that most granular columns fail from bulging near the
top due to insufficient lateral support. Recent experimental
studies on stone columns carried out by Bae et. al (2002),
McKelvey et. al. (2004), Ambily and Gandhi (2007) and

Black et. al. (2007) investigated the load deformation
behaviour of single and group of stone columns to obtain the
different parameters like optimum length, spacing and
deformation pattern of stone columns under the applications
of external load. The most of the studies were concentrated
on the end bearing stone columns with undrained strength of
clay upto 10kPa and of various area replacement ratios. The
analytical studies on stone columns were conducted by
Alamgir et. al. (1994), Poorooshasb and Meyerhof (1997) and
developed some theoretical model to study the deformation
behaviour of soft ground reinforced by columnar inclusions.
It was observed by the previous researchers that a layer of
granular materials at the top of the stone column reduces the
stress concentration at the top of the stone column and hence
reduces the doformation at the top.
Keeping in view of the aforesaid literature, an experimental
investigation were conducted on floating stone column
reinforced clay bed with undrained shear strength of 5kPa to
understand its load behaviour with unreinforced and geocell
reinforced sand cushion.
2. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS:
Materials used
A locally available natural silty clay soil was used to prepare
the clay subgrades. The specific gravity of this soil is found
to be 2.63 (ASTM D 0854 02). The particle size
distribution was determined as per ASTM D 6913-04 and
shown in Fig. 1. The liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity
index of the soil are found to be 40%, 21% and 19%
respectively (ASTM D 4318-05). As per the Unified Soil
Classification System (USCS) [ASTM D2487-06] the soil
can be classified as clay with low plasticity (CL).
Dr. Mukul C. Bora, Dr. Sujit Kumar Dash

The particle size distribution of the crushed stone aggregate
used for the construction of stone columns is shown in Fig.1.
The average particle size of the material (D50) is 4.9mm. The
crushed stone aggregate used has Coefficient of uniformity
(Cu) of 2.32 and Coefficient of curvature (Cc) of 0.88 and is
classified as poorly graded gravel (GP) as per Unified Soil
Classification System (USCS). The specific gravity,
maximum dry density (dmax) and minimum dry density
(dmin) of the aggregate are found to be 2.69, 16.83 kN/m3 and
14.17 kN/m3 respectively. The aggregate density in the stone
columns was maintained as 15.95 kN/m3 (ID = 71%). The
angle of internal friction has been obtained through large size
direct shear test setup wherein the test specimen dimension
was 300mm 300mm 150 mm. The peak friction and
dilation angle of the aggregate were found to be 48 and 15
respectively.
100
was placed at the centre of the tank. The footing was loaded
with a computer controlled motorised hydraulic system
supported against the upper cross head of the reaction frame.
Clay
Aggregate
Percent finer
80
60
Fig.2: Schematic diagram of the test setup used in this

investigation
40
Three series of test were conducted to achieve the set

objective of this investigation. The details of the test series
with the different parameters of the stone columns are
20
furnished in the table 1.
The clay bed was prepared with pulverised and dried soil and
then mixed with predetermined amount of water. In order to
achieve moisture equilibrium the moist soil was kept in
0
airtight containers for about a week. To prepare the test bed,
0.00
0.01
0.10
1.00
10.00
100.00 the moist soil was placed in the test box and compacted in
Particle size (mm)
0.05 m thick layers till the desired height was reached. The
shear vane was gently lowered into the soil and the test was
carried out. Table 2 presents the average values of different
Fig. 1: Grain size distribution of materials used in this
properties of the compacted moist clay and their ranges
investigation
measured in the test bed. The coefficient of variability is
found to be within 1.5 %.
TEST SETUP
Table No: 1
The model tests were conducted in a test bed-cum-loading
Test
Type of
Details of parameters
frame assembly in the laboratory. Schematic diagram of the
Series
reinforcement
investigated
test set-up are shown in Fig.2. The soil beds were prepared in
a steel tank with inside dimensions of 1000 mm 1000 mm
1300 mm (depth). The four sides of the tank are made of
thick mild steel sheet and are braced laterally on the outer
surface with steel channels to avoid yielding during the tests.
The model foundation used is made of a steel plate of 150mm
in diameter and 30 mm in thickness. It is rigidly attached to
the load cell assembly system. A rough-base condition was
achieved by cementing a thin layer of sand on to the base of
the model foundation with epoxy glue. In all tests the footing
Clay Bed
Constant parameter: cu = 5kPa
Clay+SC
Clay+SC
Clay+SC+
Constant parameter: cu=5kPa

Variable parameter: L/dsc =
1,3,5, 7
Constant parameter: cu=5kPa
Variable parameter: S/dsc = 1.5 ,
2.5, 3.5
Constant parameter:
cu = 5kPa, S/dsc = 2.5. L/dsc=5
Variable parameter: h/D = 0.53,
Sand
Floating stone columns in soft clay with unreinforced and Geocell reinforced sand cushion
0.90, 1.10, 1.60

Constant parameter: cu = 5kPa ,
L/dsc = 5, S/dsc=5
Variable parameter: h/D=0.53,
0.90, 1.10, 1.60
Note: SC: Stone Column, GC: Geocell Mattress
Tests under series 2 and 3 were carried out to study the

behaviour of the stone column reinforced foundation system
for different length and spacing of stone columns. In each
series only one parameter was varied while others were kept
constant. The bearing pressure and settlement responses of
the footing, with and without stone columns in the clay beds
are depicted in Fig.3 and 4.
Table 2: Properties of clay in the foundation bed
Geocell reinforced clay bed
Clay+SC+Geocell Mattress
Property
Range
Average Value
Moisture Content
Bulk Unit weight (b)
Vane shear strength (cu)
35.8-36.5 %
18-18.1 kN/m3
4.8-5.2 kPa
36 %
18.05 kN/m3
5 kPa
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Unreinforced clay bed
The variation of bearing pressure with footing settlement for
footing on unreinforced clay bed is presented in Fig. 3. It
could be observed that though there is no pronounced peak,
but slope of the pressure-settlement response increases
substantially, till settlement about 12% of the footing
diameter, and tends to become almost vertical beyond that.
This indicates that the soil has undergone failure and hence is
unable to support additional pressure.
Bearing pressure (kPa)

10
15
20
The geocell layer, which is a continuous cellular structure,

was prepared by cutting the biaxial geogrids to required
length and height from full rolls and placing them in
transverse and diagonal directions with bodkin joints at the
connections (Bush et.al. 1990). The bodkin joint is formed by
pulling the ribs of the diagonal geogrid, up through the
transverse geogrid and slipping a dowel through the loop
created. The dowels used for making geocell joints, in the
present study, were plastic strips of 8 mm width and 3 mm
thickness cut from commercially available plastic sheets
made of low density polymer. After formation, the geocell
cage was kept on the clay surface in the desired alignment.
Then the geocell pockets were filled with sand, using sand
raining technique. It should be mentioned here that the height
of raining to achieve a certain relative density is higher in this
case (i.e. with geocells) for higher relative density of soil The
difference in density at different places in the test tank is
found to be 1.5 %. A partly filled typical geocell reinforced
sand cushion over stone column reinforced clay bed is shown
in Fig. 4.
25
Footing settlement, s/D(%)
4
8
12
16
20
24
28
Fig. 3: Bearing pressure footing settlement response of

unreinforced clay - Test series 1
Stone column reinforced clay bed
Fig.4: A typical partly filled geocell layer in the test bed.

Effect of length of stone column
Fig 4 depicts the bearing pressure versus footing settlement
responses for different lengths of stone column, expressed in
non dimensional form with respect to its diameter (L/dsc). It
could be observed that even with stone column of length as
small as its diameter (L/dsc = 1), in the clay bed, the

performance of the footing (both in terms of increase in

bearing capacity and reduction in settlement) can be
increased substantially. The performance improvement
continues to increase with increase in length of stone column.
It is of interest to note that the stone column length varying
from 3dsc to 5dsc there is substantial improvement in terms of
increase in bearing capacity and reduction in settlement of the
foundation bed beyond which further improvement is
marginal.
40
60
80
80
100
120
Clay
Clay+SC(S/dsc=3.5)
Clay+SC(S/dsc=2.5)
100
Clay
Clay+SC(L/dsc=1)
Clay+SC(L/dsc=3)
60
20
40

0
20
Clay+SC(S/dsc=1.5)
12
16
20
24
Clay+SC(L/dsc=5)
Clay+SC(L/dsc=7)
28
12
Fig. 6: Bearing pressure Vs footing settlement for different

spacing of stone columns
Effect of Sand cushion
16
The bearing pressure - footing settlement response of stone

column reinforced clay bed for the optimum length (Lsc=5)
and spacing (S/dsc=2.5) with different heights of sand layers
is presented in Fig. 7. From the response it is observed that
due to presence of granular materials at the top of the stone
columns the bearing capacity of the foundation bed is
increased further.
20
24
28

length of stone columns

0
0
Effect of spacing of stone column
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Clay
Clay+SC+Sand (h/D=0.53)
The bearing pressure-footing settlement responses (Fig. 6) for

different spacing of stone columns (S/dsc) indicates that there
is an increase in bearing pressure, when the spacing (S)
reduces from 3.5dsc to 2.5dsc and is substantially high beyond
which further increase in bearing capacity is marginal. Hence
the optimum spacing of the stone columns can be taken as
2.5dsc. For too small spacing (i.e. S = 1.5dsc) the lateral
movement of soil gets substantially arrested by the ring of
stone columns. In fact the peripheral stone column
(surrounding the footing) has undergone visible lateral
buckling (Fig. 9) indicating that it has been subjected to high
lateral thrust from soil deforming away under footing
penetration. The bearing pressurefooting settlement
response is shown in Fig. 6.
12
16
20
24
28

height of sand layers
Floating stone columns in soft clay with unreinforced and Geocell reinforced sand cushion
Table. 3: Summary of Improvement factors for Unreinforced

and Geocell Reinforced Sand cushion
Effect of geocell reinforced sand cushion
Response of bearing pressure with footing settlement for

geocell reinforced sand cushion on stone column reinforced
clay bed is depicted in Fig. 8. It could be observed that the s/D
bearing pressure for geocell reinforced sand cushion (%)
reinforced bed is about 180kPa whereas the bearing pressure
1
for the same height of sand cushion is 100kPa. So an increase
3
of about 80% in bearing capacity can be achieved by
reinforcing the granular cushion with geocell reinforcement.
5
UR
2.60
GR
4.38
UR
2.89
GR
4.29
UR
3.26
GR
7.44
UR
3.71
GR
5.48
3.66
4.27
4.42
4.58
4.90
7.62
5.22
6.36
3.59
4.30
4.53
4.63
5.13
7.38
5.41
6.66
3.54
4.15
4.41
4.67
5.00
7.41
5.25
6.65
3.39
4.08
4.25
4.70
4.85
7.24
5.09
6.74
Clay
11
3.35
4.13
4.20
4.80
4.72
7.33
5.01
7.06
Clay+GC+SC (h/D=0.53)
13
3.41
4.23
4.26
5.09
4.80
7.56
5.02
7.41
15
3.42
4.34
4.28
5.29
4.81
7.75
5.09
7.76
17
3.40
4.41
4.28
5.45
4.83
7.96
5.04
7.96
19
3.47
4.57
4.30
5.69
4.89
8.21
5.09
8.29
21
3.55
4.73
4.37
5.92
4.99
8.49
5.16
8.59
23
3.61
4.87
4.42
6.18
5.05
8.79
5.22
8.96
25
3.65
5.02
4.45
6.43
5.15
9.13
5.29
9.28
27
3.69
5.13
4.51
6.73
5.21
9.42
5.37
9.59
Bearing Pressure (kPa)

0
0
Footing Settlement , s/D (%)
40
80
120
160
200
240
280
12
16
20
24
28

height of geocell reinforced sand layers
The amount of improvement achieved in terms of bearing
capacity is quantified by using a non-dimensional factor
called Bearing Capacity Improvement Factor. The
Improvement Factor (IFsc) is defined as the ratio of the
bearing pressure of the reinforced foundation bed, (qr)sc at a
given settlement to that of the unreinforced clay bed, (qu) at
the same settlement (Eq.1).
IFsc = qr / qu
[1]
The improvement factor achieved for different types of
reinforcement are summarized in table. 3.
h/D=0.53
h/D=0.90
h/D=1.10
h/D=1.60
Note:
UR: Unreinforced sand cushion
GR: Geocell reinforced sand cushion
CONCLUSIONS
From the discussion on the results of this experimental
investigation it can be concluded that
The length of stone columns giving maximum
performance is about 5 times that of the diameter of
the stone columns
The optimum spacing of stone columns is about 2.5
times that of the diameter of the stone columns
Too small spacing of stone column causes lateral
buckling of the surrounding columns
Bulging reduces with depth of the stone column and
ceases at depth beyond 4 times that of the diameter.
Moderate increase in bearing capacity of the clay
bed can be achieved with stone column of optimum
length and spacing. This improvement is about 3.5
times that of the unreinforced clay bed.
In case of stone columns in soft clay bed the stone
columns fails in bulging at top irrespective of the
termination level (i.e., end bearing or floating)
Stone columns with smaller length less than or equal
to 3 times that of the diameter fails in punching.
Foundation Engineering, New Delhi, Jan., 1994, pp.

163-64
12. McKelvey, D., Sivakumar, V., Bell, A. and Graham, J.
With the provision of sand cushion the bearing

capacity of the foundation bed can increased by
5.3times.
The provision of geocell reinforcement further
increases the bearing capacity and it is about
9.5times that of the unreinforced clay bed.
(2004). Modeling vibrated Stone columns on soft clay.

Journal of Geotechnical Engineering 157(GE3), 137
149.
REFERENCES
13. Moreau, Neil and Marry (1835). Foundations-emploi

du sable. Annales des Ponts and Chaussees, Memoirs,
No:224, 171-214
14. Poorooshasb, H. B. and Meyorhof, G. G., (1997).
Analysis of Behavior of Stone Columns and Lime
Columns. Computers and Geotechnics, 20(1), 47-70.
1.
Alamgir, M., Miura, N. and Madhav, M. R. (1994),

Analysis of granular column reinforced ground 1:
stress transfer from granular column to soil, Reports of
the Faculty of Science and Engineering, Saga University,
23, pp. 8194.
2. A. P. Ambily, A.P. and Gandhi, R. (2007) Behavior of
Stone Columns Based on Experimental and FEM
Analysis
Journal
of
Geotechnical
and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, Vol.133, No. 4,
pp: 405-415
3. ASTM Standard D0854, 2006, Test Methods for
specific Gravity of Soil solids by Water Pycnometer.
ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2006,
10.1520/D0854-05.
4. ASTM Standard D2487, 2006, Standard practice for
classification of soils for engineering purposes (Unified
Soil Classification System). ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA, 2006, 10.1520/D2487-06E01.
5. ASTM Standard D4318, 2005, Standard Test Methods
for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of
Soils. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA,
2005, 10.1520/D4318-05
6. ASTM Standard D6913, 2004, Standard Test Methods
for Particle-Size Distribution (Gradation) of Soils Using
Sieve
Analysis.
ASTM
International,
West
Conshohocken, PA, 2004, 10.1520/D6913-04R09.
7. Bae, W.S., Shin, B.W., and An, B.C., (2002).
Behaviours of Foundation System Improved with
Stone Columns. Proceedings of the Twelfth
International Offshore and Polar Engineering
Conference, Kitakyushu, Japan, 675-678.
8. Black, J., Sivakumar, V., and MeKinley, J.D., (2007).
Performance of clay samples reinforced with vertical
granular columns. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 44,
89-95.
9. Bora, M.C and Dash, S.K (2010) Load deformation
behavior of floating stone columns in soft clay, In
Proceedings of Indian Geotechnical Conference, 2010,
IIT Bombay, Mumbai, India.
10. Hughes, J.M.O. and Withers, N.J. (1974) Reinforcing
of soft cohesive soils with stone columns, Ground
Engineering, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp 42-49.
11. Madhav, M. R., Miura, N. 'Stone Columns', Panel
Rep., 13th Int. Conference on Soil Mechanics and

CASE STUDIES ON ROCK SOCKETED PILES IN I-T CORRIDOR REGION OF CHENNAI

Jasmine Nisha, J., Assistant Engineering Manager, L&T Construction, Chennai 89, jasminenisha@lntecc.com
Minu Ann George, Post graduate Trainee, L&T Construction, Chennai 89, minuann@lntecc.com
Karuppa Samy, K., Assistant Engineering Manager, L&T Construction, Mumbai-72, kksamy@lntecc.com
Murugesan, S., Engineering Manager, L&T Construction, Chennai 89, smgsoil@lntecc.com
ABSTRACT: Wherever rock strata are encountered at reasonable depth, it would be advantageous to socket the pile in to the
rock, so that the piles can achieve maximum load carrying capacity. In this paper few of the case histories on the rock socketed
piles installed in the I-T (Information Technology) corridor region of Chennai are discussed. There were about 7500 piles of
diameters 600, 800 and 1000 mm. In total 19 vertical load tests were conducted including initial load test and routine load tests
for three projects. The results from the pile load tests are analysed and the pile designs are reviewed. Based on these studies, it
is inferred that the piles can be designed to capacities close to their structural capacity, if the piles are properly socketed in to
the rock systematically. The study also recommends some guidelines to be followed for termination of the rock socketed piles.
INTRODUCTION
Chennai is one of the important cities where major
Information Technology (IT) Parks are being developed in
Special Economic Zone. In Chennai, the Old Mahapalipuram
Road (OMR) region is the most preferred location for the
establishment of the IT Parks, may be because of its
proximity to the Bay of Bengal. This road is also referred as
IT Corridor of Chennai. In the IT Corridor region of Siruseri
and Sholinganallur the general sub-soil condition is that 10 to
12m of overburden soil followed by soft disintegrated /
weathered / fresh Charnockite rock strata. IT office buildings
normally have 10 to 20 stories and basements for car parking.
Hence pile foundations are almost inevitable in this region.
And the piles are always socketed in to the hard Charnockite
rock. Socketing in to the rock also enables maximum
mobilisation of the load carrying capacity of piles. This paper
discusses few case histories on the installation and testing of
the rock socketed piles in Siruseri and Sholinganallur of the
IT Corridor region of Chennai.
Rock Socketed Piles
Rock Socketed Piles are generally concrete bored cast-in-situ
piles which transmit the loads of the structure to the rock
through resistance developed either at the pile tip by end
bearing or along the interface surface by pile rock adhesion
or through both. The design of the rock socketed piles are
done as per IS:14593 or as per Cole and Stroud (1977)
method. Generally structural capacity of the pile is limited to
25% of the characteristic strength of the concrete as per the
clause 7.3.5 of the IS: 2911 (PartI/SecII) (2010). In Mumbai
region it is customary that the pile capacities are generally
limited to a pile stress of 550T/m2 as per Datye (1990).
Depending on the strength of the rock the vertical load
carrying capacity of the pile can be as much as equal to the
structural capacity of the pile. This is achieved by designing
the socketing length of the pile in to the rock so that the
geotechnical capacity of the pile is always higher than the
structural capacity. The most difficult challenge in the
installation of rock socketed piles is the identification of the
suitable rock strata and appropriately terminating pile at

competent level as per the design. The piles are installed by
rotary hydraulic rigs as they enable faster construction,
control on the alignment of pile and easy installation. It is
always recommended to have a well experienced Geologist at
the site to identify the rock strata considering all the
contributing factors like rock type and weathering condition,
strength of the rock, energy applied to drill the rock,
socketing depth into the rock strata etc. In this paper four
projects where rock socketed piles were used as foundation
system are discussed. The locations were mainly Sirusery and
Sholinganallur. In total about 7500 piles were installed and
about 19 vertical load test results and 8 lateral load test
results on various diameters of piles are available. The
diameters of the piles are predominately 600, 800 and 1000
mm. All the load test results were analysed and it was found
that the piles have hardly undergone settlement to its elastic
compression. This study has shown very good performance
of the rock socketed piles which are socketed in to the
Charnockite rock. Based on these studies, the load capacities
of the pile for future projects have been increased close to the
structural capacities.
GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION
Geotechnical investigations in this region were undertaken in
all the three case histories (PR1, PR2 and PR3) to support the
design and construction program. From all these projects a
total of 31 boreholes ranging from 10.5 m to 30 m deep are
available. From all these bore log data the generalized subsoil
profile in this area can be deduced as shown in Fig. 1. The
silty clay or clayey sand normally extends up to 5 to 15 m.
The contribution from this overburden soil is ignored in pile
designs. However negative drag, if any, cannot be ignored.
The results from the laboratory tests on soil and rock samples
are available. The ground water table established from the
investigation indicates that the water table to be considered at
ground level for all design purposes owing to the seasonal
fluctuations. The properties of charnockite rock assessed in
the case histories are given in Table 1.
Jasmine Nisha, J., Minu Ann George, Karuppa Samy, K., and Murugesan, S.
PILE SOCKETING AND TERMINATION

Socketing length of piles into rock is generally designed such
that the pile is able to carry the design load (close to its
structural capacity) safely with adequate factor of safety. The
Fig. 1 Generalised Sub surface profile in I-T Corridor region

of Chennai
Table 1 Engineering properties of charnockite rock
Description
Unconfined Compression
strength
Point Load Index
Youngs Modulus
Color
Grain size
Mineralogy
Age
Parameters
5190 to 126900 kN/m2
6000 to 7000 kN/m2
287500 to 8144400 kN/m2
Bluish, greenish, brownish
Rounded to rod shaped
Quartz, Garnet, Microcline,
Hypersthene, Feldspar, Pyroxene
600 mm, 800 mm and 1000 mm diameter having safe

capacities of 1500 kN, 2500 kN and 4000 kN respectively
were proposed. It is mandatory to verify the pile capacities by
conducting initial as well as routine static pile load tests
(loading up to 2.5 times and 1.5 times the safe design load
respectively) as per IS:2911/Part-IV (1985). The piles for
routine load test were chosen from those identified as critical
pile as observed during the pile boring by considering the
following criteria.
Difference in pile toe level observed among the adjacent
piles
Least socketing onto hard rock
Distribution among entire site
Covering all range of pile lengths
Defective piles identified if any
The Table 2 shows the statistics of the piles and the load test
piles in all the projects. In addition to this other tests such as
pile integrity tests and high strain dynamic tests were
conducted. Due to page limitation those test results are not
included in this paper.
Table 2 Number of vertical load test
Number of Test Piles Number of
Diameter of Pile
Working
Lateral
Vertical
(mm)
Piles
Load Test Load Test
450
63
600
800
1000
Total
4
3
1
8
6
7
6
19
3298
2345
851
6474
2.5 billion years ago
socketing depth normally depends on type of rock, depth at

which the rock is available below the pile cap and load
carrying capacity of pile. In this region it is very difficult to
establish the start of the rock, as the strata slowly transform
from soil at ground level, highly weathered rock to fresh
rock, along the depth. The thickness of the weathered rock in
this region varies highly within short horizontal distances. In
some locations the weathered rock may extend to a deeper
depth that the fresh rock may be available beyond 20 to 25 m.
However, in that location, it is not essential that the pile has
to be socketed in to the fresh rock, as the higher shaft length
in the weathered rock can mobilise the required pile capacity.
As per design, the pile can be socketed 5 times the diameter
(5D) in weathered rock if the weathered rock extends beyond
5D and if fresh/hard rock is encountered, pile can be socketed
1D in to the hard rock.
PILE LOAD TESTS
The objective of conducting pile load test is to determine the
ultimate load carrying capacity and to arrive at the safe load
carrying capacity of pile and to validate the design capacities.
The theoretical pile capacities of rock socketed piles were
estimated based on Cole and Stroud (1977) method. Piles of
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The pile load test results are interpreted as per guidelines of
IS 14593 and summarised in Table 3.
Table 3 Results from all Static Pile Load tests
Settlement
Dia. of Length Ultimate
Project
of Pile
Load
Pile
Gross
Net
No.
(m)
(kN)
(mm)
(mm) (mm)
600
10.35
3056
6.18
3.42
800
10.30
6063
3.50
0.78
PR1
6.75
4250
3.52
1.62
1000 11.75
10069
6.23
2.37
9.15
6982
3.04
1.19
800
15.00
6324
7.60
3.81
9.30
3720
1.43
0.28
PR2
10.30
3720
5.40
2.66
1000 12.50
5977
7.88
3.92
12.70
5977
6.69
4.10
600
15.30
2320
3.20
1.62
PR3
12.50
3142
2.64
1.46
Case Studies on Rock Socketed Piles in IT Corridor Region in Chennai
Project
No.
Settlement
Dia. of Length Ultimate
Load
Pile of Pile
Gross
Net
(m)
(kN)
(mm)
(mm) (mm)
12.68
3142
3.17
1.35
16.60
3016
4.11
2.61
800
13.20
5315
2.30
1.12
12.90
5315
3.31
1.27
17.70
5315
3.64
2.12
1000 16.20
9292
8.27
3.74
20.02
6982
2.80
0.92
It is observed from the results of pile load tests (Table 4) that

the piles have hardly undergone settlement to its elastic
compression.
Fig. 3 Settlement chart for the 800 mm dia. piles
Vertical Load Test Results

Further a comparative study was made between the actual
settlement of the piles from various load tests and the
respective theoretical estimate of the elastic compression of
the pile material due to the corresponding loading. Fig. 2
shows the chart from the load tests on 600 mm diameter
piles. The straight hatched bars show the actual settlements
and the horizontal hatch portions of the bars show the
recovery upon unloading. The bars with hatches refer to the
corresponding theoretical estimate of the elastic compression
of the pile material.

Similarly Fig. 3 and 4 show the settlement comparison charts
for the 800 mm and 1000 mm diameter piles respectively.
From the comparison, it could be observed that in many of
the cases the piles have not even undergone settlement to the
extent of the elastic compression of the pile material. This
may be inferred as, only a part of the pile shaft which is
above the rock strata has undergone, elastic compression, as
most of the shaft length is held firmly by the socketing in to
the rock. Moreover, the settlement of the rock strata may be
negligibly small that it can be assumed for practical purposes
that the rock strata has not undergone any deformation due to
pile loading.
Lateral Load Test Results

The results from the lateral load tests on the piles were also
analysed in the similar manner. Fig 5, 6 and 7 show the charts
comparing the actual lateral deflection and the theoretical
estimate for 600, 800 and 1000 mm diameter piles. From Fig.
5, 6 and 7 it is clearly established that the actual deflection
under lateral loads are so less that it is only a fraction of the
theoretical estimated deflection. Moreover in general the
lateral deflections are far less than that allowable as per the
codal provisions. This behavior could be because of the
formation of fixity at shallow depth due to the socketing
resistance offered by the rock strata.
From the study of all the load tests it is broadly understood
that the design of rock socketed pile are more on the
conservative side and there is still scope for safe
enhancement pile capacities close to the structural capacities
of the piles. This study has given adequate confidence to
enhance to the pile capacities in the I-T corridor region to
about 80% of the structural capacities for further projects.
Still this cushion of 80% is kept to take care of all
uncertainties both in subsurface strata or workmanship,
which may be met within piling.
Jasmine Nisha, J., Minu Ann George, Karuppa Samy, K., and Murugesan, S.
CONCLUSIONS
Fig. 5 Deflection comparison chart for the 600 mm dia. piles
From the study made on the rock socketed piles in few

projects located in Chennai I-T corridor region, the following
conclusions can be made.
1. I-T corridor region in Chennai is mostly manifested with
Charnockite rock, which has strong mechanical properties
favourable for rock socketed piles.
2. The piles have hardly undergone settlements which are
less than the elastic deformation of the pile, indicating
that only a portion of the pile embedded into the rock has
not undergone deformation.
3. The piles in this region with adequate socketing length
and properly socketed in to the rock can mobilise
capacities close to the structural capacities of the pile.
4. However, systematic termination of the pile with
geological identification of the rock strata and adequate
socketing length of the pile are most essential aspects for
the rock socketed piles
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors appreciate the help rendered by Mr. S. Malick,
Cads person, L&T (B&F) in preparing all the settlement
comparison charts.
Fig. 6 Deflection comparison chart for the 800 mm dia. piles
Fig. 7 Deflection comparison chart for the 1000 mm dia piles
REFERENCES
1. Cole, K.W. and Stroud, M.A. (1977) Rock Socket Piles
at Coventry Poi Market Way, Coventry. Symposium on
Piles in Weak Rocks, Institution of civil Engineers,
London, pp 47 62.
2. Datye, K.R. (1990). Bored Piling in Bombay Region.
Advance in Geotechnical Engineering, IGC 1990,
Mumbai, India, pp. 571-587.
3. IS 14593 (1998). Indian standard code of practice for
Design and Construction of Bored Cast In-Situ Piles
founded on Rock-Guidelines. BIS, New Delhi.
4. IS:2911 (Part-I/Sec-II) (2010) Indian Standard for
Design and Construction of Pile Foundations - code of
Practice - Part 1 Concrete Piles Section 2 Bored Cast Insitu Concrete Piles. BIS, New Delhi.
5. IS:2911 (Part-IV) (1985) Indian Standard for Design and
Construction of Pile Foundations - code of Practice - Part
4 - Load Test on Piles. BIS, New Delhi

STUDY OF EXPANSIVE CLAY STABILISATION BY DIFFUSION OF CHEMICAL

SOLUTIONS
Y. S. Golait , Professor Emeritus, Ramdeobaba College of Engineering and Management, Nagpur.
S. P. Lajurkar, Former P.G. Student, Ramdeobaba College of Engg. and Management, Nagpur, geetlajurkar@gmail.com.
R. G. Bade, Former P.G. Student, Ramdeobaba College of Engineering and Management, Nagpur.
ABSTRACT: Majority of field constructions involve use of soil as foundation material. Natural expansive soil is very poor in
such cases as it has very low strength and high compressibility coupled with exhibition of large volumetric changes caused by
water content changes during dry-wet seasons. This necessitates its in-situ ground improvement with respect to increasing the
bearing capacity and reducing its compressibility and swell-shrink nature. There are only few techniques for this purpose.
Diffusion of chemical solution into the soil mass by ponding or through bore hole is considered as a possible method of
expansive soil ground improvement. A very limited work on this aspect is reported in the literature. The paper highlights the
laboratory investigations carried out on Nagpur black cotton soil in which three chemical solutions, viz. calcium chloride,
sodium silicate and consolid-444, were diffused and their effects on strength improvement and swell reduction were observed.
INTRODUCTION
In the field construction activities expansive soils are used
either as construction material for compacted earth structures
(dams, embankment, etc.) or as foundation material for
transferring the structural loads through foundation elements.
In the former case the soil stabilization technique by using
various types of admixtures (granular material, lime, cement,
fly ash, natural or synthetic fiber pieces, industrial waste
products, chemicals etc.) is the most popular and widely
recommended method. Every year a very large number of
published papers report the studies and findings on this
aspect. Different new types of materials are also being tried
and studied. The method essentially involves mixing the
specified quantity of admixture in dry pulverized expansive
soil, adding water and then compacting the wet mixture in
place by suitable compacting machines and devices. It is to
be realized that in the whole domain of civil engineering
construction activities in field this type of construction
process is relatively very small in magnitude as against the
cases wherein light or heavily loaded structures are to be built
on expansive soil grounds.
The natural expansive soil is very poor as an engineering
material as it has very low bearing capacity and high
compressibility and exhibits large cyclic volumetric changes
during dry-wet seasons. This notoriously named very poor,
treacherous and problematic expansive clay is thus required
to be modified in-situ for the effective and trouble-free
performance of the structure. Any method that will suppress
its swell-shrink magnitude and reduce the swelling pressure
is considered as the main requirement for founding light
weight structures like single and double storied buildings,
pavements etc. However, for the construction of heavily
loaded structures on expansive soil sites, in-situ ground
improvement with respect to strength and stiffness is of prime
importance. The grouting method is viewed as practically and
economically unfeasible in expansive clayey soil because of
its very low permeability. The literature review indicates that

the following methods and approaches are found to provide
reasonable solutions to problems of constructions on
expansive soil ground:
Use of under-reamed piles: This bored R.C. pile with

enlarged bulb formed at a depth well below the active
zone of deposit anchors the lightly loaded structure
against it getting lifted up due to vertical soil movement
during swelling of soil [1].
Provision of cohesive non-swelling (CNS) layer below

the base of shallow foundation [2]. This layer is
supposed to suppress the swelling pressure and reduce
substantially the soil heave. In lieu of the composition
specified for CNS material, different alternative and
better compositions of material to be used in the cushion
layer (CSS) are also suggested [3].
Granular pile anchor (GPA) for developing the effect

like that of CNS [4].
Vertical inclusions in the ground in the form of geopiles

[5,6] to counteract heave and stone columns for
improving the bearing capacity
The method of expansive ground modification by chemical

solutions is viewed to possess high potential for its use in
field practice [7, 8]. The review of literature on this technique
shows that this methodology has been inadequately
investigated. Very limited work at Warangal, India with
respect to reduction in plasticity characteristics and swellshrink nature of in-situ deposit appears in the literature [9,
10]. The investigation presented in the paper was undertaken
to study to certain extent the effects of diffusion of three
chemical solutions on the strength improvement and swell
reduction of expansive black cotton soil.
Y. S. Golait, S. P. Lajurkar & R. G. Bade
PRINCIPLE AND BASIC CONCEPT

It is realised that the in-situ expansive clay has certain water
imbibing capacity of varying magnitude depending on its
initial water contents. Expansive clay with its electrochemical
activity and the associated adsorptive forces exhibits certain
osmotic pressure and water suction characteristics. Water
thus diffuses in to the soil mass in a definite zone surrounding
the point of water supply source. It is thought that water
soluble chemical may also enter in to the soil body if its
solution is diffused in to it. The diffused chemical solution
after entering into the soil mass may interact with the
electrochemically active clay particles of expansive soil and
change the nature and thickness of the adsorption complex
surrounding the particles, thereby altering its characteristics
like plasticity, strength, stiffness, swell-shrink nature etc.
LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS
The laboratory investigations were carried out on
reconstituted expansive soil samples (simulating the drying
process of field soil) to study the diffusion effects of
solutions of three chemicals and on samples with three initial
physical states with respect to wetness or water content
conditions. The diffusion effects on the final volumetric
strain and unconfined compressive strength exhibited by wet
soil at the end of full diffusion were studied.
Soil
Expansive black cotton soil collected from the neighborhood
of Nagpur city was used. Its basic properties are: liquid limit
wL = 61%, plastic limit Ip = 32%, clay and silt content 86%,
FSI = 36 and specific gravity = 2.69.
Chemicals
Commercially available calcium chloride (CaCl2), sodium
silicate (Na2Sio3) and Consolid (C-444) were selected for the
study. Many investigators have established the effectiveness
of calcium chloride and sodium silicate for stabilization of
soil when the soil is to be used as construction material [7, 8].
Calcium chloride is essentially water retentive in
mechanically stabilised bases and surfacing. Being
hygroscopic and deliquescent the salt absorbs moisture from
the atmosphere and retains it. It is highly soluble in water and
calcium cations can easily replace other adsorbed cations in
the adsorption complex of clay particles thereby facilitating
the base exchange phenomenon to take place. It lowers the
vapour pressure and increases the surface tension. Besides, it
acts as soil flocculent. Sodium silicate solution in water,
known as water glass, is found to aid penetration of chemical
solution for stabilization of deep soil deposit. It reacts with
clay of electrochemical environment and precipitates in the
form of insoluble silica gel within soil pores. The third
chemical used in the studies is an organic chemical substance
Consolid-444 (hereafter referred to as C-444). It is in liquid
form and is developed by m/s Consolid AG-Switzerland in
late 1960s. On diffusion of its solution in clay, it breaks up
the adhering water films and leads to an irreversible
agglomeration of fines (i.e. minus 75 micron fraction). Its use
in stabilizing the clay subgrades for pavement construction is

common in many countries.
Procedure
Pulverized black cotton soil was mixed with water to attain
its water content at approximately 40-45 percent (midway
between its plastic limit wp and liquid limit wL). Wet mass
was kept in airtight plastic bag for minimum ten hours for
uniform distribution of water. Wet soil was then pressed into
fifteen PVC open ended tubes each of 4.5cm inside diameter
and 9 cm height for getting identical wet cylindrical soil
samples. All the samples were air dried in shade, making
them upside down frequently. Drying of initially fully
saturated plastic soil sample caused its gradual shrinking
(without development of cracks within) and consequent
reduction in its water content and the degree of saturation. It
was observed from few pilot tests of sample drying that 7
days air drying brought the water content of the sample to
32% while 14 days and 21 days drying lowered down the
water content to 25.2% and 20.3% respectively. These values
of water content for the soil under investigation pertained to
water content near-saturation state, near-OMC state and nearnatural dry condition respectively of field soil deposit. Five
samples (Series A) were dried for 7 days. Remaining five
each were dried for 14 days (Series B) and 21 days (Series
C). This procedure formed the shrunken cylindrical samples
of diameter 4.25 to 4.30 cm and height 7.25 to 7.31 cm. Out
of the five samples in each series one was tested for
determining its initial water content and dry unit weight. The
remaining four were kept for diffusion of fluids (i.e. water,
and solutions of three chemicals) for 7 days in separate test
assemblies as shown in Fig. 1. The test assembly ensured
laterally confined state of sample at all stages. The increase in
height of sample (h) with respect to its initial height (h) was
observed from the dial gauge readings during 7 days of
diffusion period. Samples were then taken out and after
removal of circumferential wrapping, they were tested for
UCS. The final water content of sample was then determined.
Fig. 1 The Experimental Setup
Study of Expansive Clay Stabilisation by Diffusion of Chemival Solutions

The laterally confined soil samples at three initial water
contents (wi) when immersed in four fluids caused diffusion
laterally. During diffusion and simultaneous interaction of
chemicals with clay particles, the increase in water content
and vertical swell took place. The maximum change in water
content (w) and the maximum increase in the length of the
samples were noted. The maximum volumetric strain due to
swelling is expressed as h/h. After completion of diffusion
process the unconfined compressive strengths of samples
were determined. These results are presented in Table 1.
Solution
CaCl2
w (%)
h/h (%)
UCS (kN/m2)
2.4
2.1
150
8.3
9.9
160
11.8
16.4
164
Solution
Na2SiO3
w (%)
h/h (%)
UCS (kN/m2)
2.3
2.1
164
7.2
8.5
168
9.8
13.7
168
Solution
C-444
w (%)
h/h (%)
UCS (kN/m2)
6.0
5.4
75
12.4
14.0
81
15.7
21.5
84
Swelling Behaviour during Diffusion

The samples at the initial water contents of 32%, 25.2% and
20.3% immersed in water finally attained almost the same
water content (i.e. 39.6%, 39.2% and 39.9%) with w of
7.6%, 14.0% and 19.6% respectively. The resulting
maximum swelling as expressed by h/h values are 6.8%,
16.7% and 25.3%. As compared to this the diffusion of
chemical solutions caused much smaller values of w and
h/h. This swelling characteristic as shown in Fig 2 indicates
that although the maximum values of w and h/h are
significantly different for three chemical solutions, the rate of
change of volumetric strain with change in water content is
almost the same for all diffusing fluids. Besides, w during
diffusion is also governed by the initial water content of soil
(Fig. 3). For the high concentration of CaCl2 and Na2SiO3
used in the study, the swelling behaviour of the investigated
soil is almost identical.
The swelling for diffusion of three chemical solutions is
compared with swelling effected by water. The decrease in
volumetric strain is found to depend not only on type of
chemical solution but also on the initial water content of soil
as shown in Fig.4. The less concentration of C-444 solution
used in the investigation indicated relatively smaller
reduction in swelling as compared to that for other two
solutions.
Water
Sol. C-444
Sol. CaCl2
Sol. Na2SiO3
Fig. 2 Change in water content vs. maximum volumetric

strain during diffusion of fluids in soil samples of different
initial wetness
25
Change in water content,

w (%)
Table 1 Results of Volumetric Strain and Unconfined

Compressive Strength
Diffusing Parameters
Initial water content of sample, wi
fluid
32%
25.2%
20.3%
Water
w (%)
7.6
14.0
19.6
h/h (%)
6.8
16.7
25.3
40
47
49
UCS (kN/m2)
32% wi
25.2% wi
2 0.3% wi
Water
Sol. C-444
Sol. CaCl2
20
15
Sol. Na2SiO3
10
5
0
15
20
25
30
35
Initial water contents,wi (%)
Fig. 3 Change in water content for different diffusion fluids

with respect to initial water content
Sol. C-444
Sol. Na2SiO3
Fig. 4 Decrease in swelling during diffusion of chemical
solutions
Sol. CaCl2
Strength Characteristics of Treated Soil

The values of unconfined compressive strength of samples
after diffusion of fluids are given in Table 1. These UCS
values are not much different irrespective of different initial
water contents of soil before treatment. The UCS increases
slightly with increase in wi. The average value of UCS of
samples diffused by water is 44 kN/m2 and for any initial
water content, the value is found to vary by about 10%.
Similarly, the variations up to 5.1%, 1.8% and 6.2% were
observed for diffusion of solutions of CaCl2, Na2Sio3 and C444 respectively with respect to corresponding average UCS
values of 158 kN/m2, 167 kN/m2 and 80 kN/m2.
Y. S. Golait, S. P. Lajurkar & R. G. Bade
Considering the UCS of sample diffused by water as the base,

the UCS values of samples treated by chemical solutions are
found to increase substantially for any initial wetness
condition of soil. On the basis of average strength values, the
increase in UCS was observed as 259%, 279% and 80% for
treatments with solutions of CaCl2, Na2Sio3 and C-444
respectively. The Figure 5 shows this improvement in
strength of chemically treated soil samples for different initial
water contents given separately. The very high values of
percent increase in UCS for CaCl2, Na2SiO3 treatment is
probably because of relatively high concentration of solutions
of these chemicals used in the study.
There are diverse views and findings about the effect of
CaCl2 on the strength of CaCl2-treated clay soil. Desai and
Oza [11] and some other investigators reported that CaCl2
works not only by cation exchange but also by intercalation
whereby CaCl2 enters into the intermiscellar spaces of clay
mineral structure, thus bringing about significant
modification in clay behavior. Murty and Krishna [10]
observed from the field study that the UCS values of lime and
CaCl2 treated soil decreased despite the reduction in soil
heave. However, from the same field study it is pointed out
that both the c and values of treated soil are larger than
those for untreated soil. Numerous laboratory studies in the
past [7] have revealed positive effects of CaCl2 and lime on
improvement of strength of expansive soil. The study
presented in this paper substantiates this generally established
fact in respect of in-situ expansive ground improvement by
diffusion process also. The other chemicals like Na2SiO3 are
also found to exhibit similar effects. It is felt that more
elaborate laboratory as well as field investigations are needed
to recommend this technique for field practice.
Sol. CaCl2
Sol. C-444
Sol. Na2SiO3
Fig. 5 Increase in UCS treated samples at different water
content
CONCLUSIONS
The following important conclusions are drawn from the
laboratory investigations:
The diffusion of chemical solution in expansive soil is
possible and it develops the positive effects in respect of
improving the strength characteristics and reducing the
swelling behavour.
The initial water content condition significantly governs
the maximum water content change and the
corresponding swelling during diffusion. Different

chemicals have different effects on these values of water
content change w and volumetric strain h/h. However,
the rate of change in volumetric strain with change in
water content is almost the same for all the diffusing
fluids for a particular swelling soil.
The decrease in swelling caused by diffusion of chemical
solutions depends significantly on the initial water
content state of soil.
Diffusion of chemical solutions effects in increasing the
UCS of expansive soil significantly. The percent increase
in strength of treated soil is found to be marginally
dependant on the initial water content of soil.
REFERENCES
1.
Mohan, D., Jain, G.S. and Sharma, D. (1973),

Foundation practice in expansive soils of India, Proc. 3rd
Inter. Conf. on Expansive soils, Haifa, Israel, 319-324.
2. Katti, R. K. (1979), Search for solutions to problems in
black cotton soils, First Indian Geotechn. Soc. Annu.
Lect., Indian Geotech. Journal, 9 (1), 188.
3. Murty, V.R., and Praveen, G.V. (2008), Use of
chemically stabilized soil as cushion material below light
weight structures founded on expansive soil. ASCE Jl.
of Materials in Civil Engg., 20(5), 392-400.
4. Phanikumar, B.R., Sharma, R.S., Rao, A.S., and
Madhav, M.R. (2004), Granular pile anchor foundation
system for improving the engineering behaviour of
expansive clay beds, Geotech. Test. Jl., 27(3), 279287.
5. Sharma R.S., and Phanikumar, B.R., (2005), Laboratory
study of heave behaviour of expansive clay reinforced
with geopiles, ASCE Journal of Geotech. and Geoenv.
Engg., 131(4), 512-520.
6. Krishna, P. H., Murty, V. R., and Kumar, A. K. (2004),
A comparative study on load carrying capacity of model
underreamed and anchored granular micropiles, Proc.,
Indian Geotechnical Conf. Warangal, India, 183186.
7. Phanikumar, B.R., Ramesh, V. and Shastry, M.V.
(1998), Efficiency of calcium chloride in stabilizing
swelling soils, Proc. IGC-1998,Vol. 1., 245-246.
8. Keshava N.K., Chaitanya G. and Prasad Raju G.V.R.
(2011), Evaluation studies of expansive soil treated with
electrolytes, Proc., Int. of the International Journal of
Engineering Science and Technology (IJEST), 3(12)
8298-8306.
9. Murty V.R., and Harikrishna, P. (2006), Stabilization of
expansive clay bed using calcium chloride solution,
Proc. ICE-Ground Improvement, 10(1), 39-46.
10. Murty, V.R. and Krishna, P.H. (2007), Amelioration of
expansive clay slopes using calcium chloride solution,
ASCE Jl of Materials in Civil Engg., 19(1), 19-25.
11. Desai I .D. and Oza B. N. (1977), Influence of anhydrous
calcium chloride on the shear strength of expansive soil,
Proc., 1st National Symposium on Expansive Soils,
HBTI-Kanpur, India, 4.14.5.

CASE STUDY ON THE USE OF PVDS FOR GROUND IMPROVEMENT FOR THE DEPOT AREA
OF CHENNAI METRO RAIL
M. VINOTH, L&T Construction, Buildings and Factories, Chennai 89, E mail: vinothmani@lntecc.com
L. VARALAKSHMI, L&T Construction, Buildings and Factories, Chennai 89, E mail: lakshmi@lntecc.com
S. MURUGESAN, L&T Construction, Buildings and Factories, Chennai 89, E mail: smgsoil@lntecc.com
R.G. ROBINSON, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai 36, E mail: robinson@iitm.ac.in
ABSTRACT: A depot for rail bogie maintenance of Chennai Metro Rail Ltd. is under construction at Koyambedu in Chennai,
India covering an area of about 270,000m2. The depot area is developed with an average height of soil filling for about 1.0 m over
the existing ground level. The sub-soil strata comprise a layer of soft clay at depth of 7 to 18 m below existing ground level. This
layer is expected to undergo long term consolidation settlement due to the loads from filling and rail operations. Hence Ground
improvement using Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVD) with surcharge was undertaken to accelerate the consolidation over the
entire depot area. As a priory trial area of about 100 m 50 m was treated with PVD and monitored through field instrumentation
to verify the time rate settlements as per design. The predicted settlements and consolidation time matched reasonably well with
that of measured values from the field. It was observed that almost 70% of consolidation has happened within about a months time
as the clay is having high radial co-efficient of consolidation. It is concluded that the site is ideal for the improvement by
accelerating the consolidation with the help of PVD and surcharging.
SUBSURFACE PROFILE
The subsurface investigation comprised the following.
1. Detailed investigation through 33 boreholes
2. 66 numbers of Dynamic cone penetration tests (DCPT)
done in grid pattern over the plan area of the depot and
3. 15 numbers of Static cone penetration tests at discrete
location spread across the grids.
From all these investigations the average and the generalised
soil profile was deduced and is shown in the Table 1. The
profile of average SPT values observed along the depth of all
the bore holes is shown in Fig.1. Out of 33 bore holes, three

boreholes were made only to collect undisturbed samples at
continuous intervals especially over the depth at which soft
silty clay soil was encountered.
Table 1 Generalised Soil Profile
Depth from
Type of layer
EGL (m)
Medium sand
0.0 7.0
Silty clay
7.0 18.0
Hard clay
18.0 24.0
Dense sand
24.0 30.0
20
40
SPT-'N'
60
Avg.
SPT N
13
5
20
50
80
100
120
0
5
10
Depth (m)
INTRODUCTION
A depot for rail bogie maintenance of Chennai Metro Rail Ltd.
is under construction at Koyambedu in Chennai, India. The
depot covers an area of about 270,000 m2. The Natural Ground
Level (NGL) within the depot is on an average at level of +9.0
m above Mean Sea Level (MSL). The formed floor level of the
depot is proposed to be at +10.0 MSL. Inside the depot, it
would be open ballast-less track, first of its kind in the country.
The formation for all the tracks within the depot will be on
concrete slabs supported by Hydraulic Bound Layer (HBL) laid
over the formed ground. The soil profile in the depot shows the
presence of soft silty clay at a depth of 7 m to 18 m from the
NGL. Because of the loading due to the fill soil (form NGL to
+10.0 MSL) throughout the depot and track loading, the soft
clay layer is expected to undergo consolidation, leading to time
dependent settlement in future. Hence it was proposed to
accelerate the consolidation by Prefabricated Vertical Drains
(PVD) and surcharge. This paper discusses on the geotechnical
aspects of the design execution and monitoring of the ground
improvement works with PVD and also the learnings from the
study.
15
20
25
30
35
Fig. 1 The profile of SPT values observed along the depth of

various bore holes.
Vinoth, M., Varalakshmi, L., Murugesan, S. and Robinson, R.G.
The presence of crust layer of about 7 m thick at the ground

level may cater to all the bearing capacity requirements of
shallow footings. All major structures within the depot are
designed to have pile foundation by-passing the soft silty clay
layer. However, due to the earth fill loading over the entire
depot area and the railway track movements, it is estimated that
the long term consolidation settlement could be in the range of
about 250 mm. Hence some form of ground improvement was
necessitated to prevent this settlement after the commissioning
of the depot. As settlement was the only problem, accelerating
it by PVD would be an ideal choice, compared to all other
forms of ground improvement. Accordingly ground
improvement with PVD was chosen and the surcharge of 2 m
height of fill over +10.0 MSL was designed to simulate all the
possible future loading over this level.
Fig.3 Ch/Cv ratio vs depth vs different pressure ranges
SPECIAL LAB TEST
In designing the PVD, the most important parameter to be
determined is the co-efficient of consolidation in the horizontal
direction (Ch). For determining Ch, special test was carried out
at the IIT Madras laboratories on undisturbed soil samples. This
consolidation test was conducted modelling the field behaviour
of drainage through PVDs in the lab. A schematic of the test set
up, is shown in Fig. 2.
Generally, ratio of coefficient of consolidation in horizontal

direction to that in the vertical direction (Ch/Cv) falls in the
range of 1.5 to 2. However, in this particular soil it that (Ch/Cv)
ratio is greater than 5 for almost for all the depths and pressure
ranges. This is attributed to the stratified nature of the soil and
the presence of horizontal seams of sand layers. Such high
values of (Ch/Cv) prove that the clay can be consolidated much
faster by horizontal drainage rather than vertical drainage.
Initially to assess the effectiveness of the PVD in accelerating
the consolidation field trials were made over an area of 50 m
100 m.
DESIGN OF PVD
The design of PVDs were carried out as per Federal highway
administration [2] and IS: 15284/Part-2 (2004,[3]). Properties
of the PVDs used are given in Table-2.
Fig. 2 Schematic of the apparatus set up for conducting radial

consolidation test
Experimental setup and procedure adopted for the special test is
based on Sridhar and Robinson (2011,[1]). During the
consolidation process, the time-settlement data were recorded
for pressure ranges of 25-50 kPa, 50-100 kPa and 100-200 kPa.
From the results obtained from the consolidation tests a plot
was made with Ch/Cv ratio verses depth for various pressure
ranges and the same is shown in Fig. 3.
Table 2 Properties of the Prefabricated Vertical Drains

Properties
Values
Material
PP
Width
100 mm
Thickness Drain
4 mm
Permeability
310-5 m/s
Pore size
75 m
Discharge capacity 240 kPa (Straight)
6510-3 /s
Discharge capacity 240 kPa (Buckled)
6010-3 /s
The PVDs were installed up to a depth of refusal to the mandrel
penetration, which is approximately equivalent to an SPT N
value of 20. All the PVDs were installed through stitcher rig.
Triangular pattern of installation was followed because it
provides more uniform consolidation between drains than the
equivalent square pattern. The natural ground was scrapped and
removed for depth of about 0.5 m to avoid any vegetation or
loose fill. Over this scrapped surface a 150 mm thick blanket
Case Study on the use of PVDs for Ground Improvement for the Depot area of Chennai Metro
layer with coarse grained gravelly soil was laid as drainage

layer. Above this layer engineered fill with unit weight of
20kN/m3 was laid up to a level of +10.0 MSL. This is to ensure
that after the consolidation settlement, the ground at the level of
+9.7 MSL is available with good quality earth. The surcharge
fill having unit weight of 17kN/m3 was proposed. Having set
all afore said parameters, the design of PVDs is left with only
the decision on the spacing. The spacing of the PVDs was
computed based on the time available for the consolidation.
Settlement Calculation
The calculations for predicting the settlement [4] of the sand
layer Eq. 1 and clay layer Eq. 2 are shown below,
i) Elastic settlement is calculated based on the following
P
formula, 1 =
= 19 mm
(1)
E
ii) Consolidation settlement is calculated based on the
(2)
following formula, 2 = mv H P = 249 mm
The available time for the consolidation of the soft silty clay
layer was three months hence as a first step PVD was designed
with 1.5 m spacing. The input parameters considered for the
design is shown in the Table.3
Total Degree of Consolidation,

U=
1- (1- Uv)(1- Ur) = 90 %
(8)
So the time required for 90 % consolidation is three months
with PVD spacing of 1.5 m and surcharge height of 2m. Based
on this design ground improvement scheme was proposed for
the entire depot site.
SITE PLAN AND INSTRUMENTATION
As mentioned earlier that entire depot site covers an area of
270,000m2, this huge area is divided into three stages and inturn divided into small grids of dimension (50 m 50 m). One
plate settlement marker was installed for every 900 m2 and one
Casagrande type piezometer for every 10,000 m2. Total number
of plate settlement markers and casagrande piezometers
installed in site were around 300 and 28 respectively. The
execution of the ground improvement work involved
preparation of the existing ground, placement of Engineer fill
soil to raise ground level to +10.0 MSL throughout the depot
area, over which 150 mm coarse grained gravelly soil drainage
layer was laid for facilitating drainage of water collected by the
PVDs. The PVDs were installed using a mandrel that provided
minimum subsoil disturbances. PVDs were installed upto the
bottom of the soft clay layer as per IS:7356 Part-I (2002) [5].
Plate settlement gauges were bedded 1 m below the natural
ground to measure the actual settlement of the natural ground
surface. Piezometer was installed to monitor the pore pressure
variation in the clay layer. The piezometers were positioned
such that it measures the excess pore pressure induced at the
mid height of the clay layer. The schematic representation of
the PVD and the instrumentation is shown in Fig. 4.
Table 3 Input parameters considered in PVD design

Parameter
Value
Vertical Coeff. of consolidation (Cv)
1.64 m2/yr
Horizontal Coeff. of consolidation (Ch)
4 Cv
Thickness of clay layer
11 m
Ultimate consolidation settlement
249 mm
Time available
90 days
Width of PVD
100 mm
Thickness of PVD
4 mm
Steps involved in PVD design is shown in Eq. 3-8,
Step 1: Determination of Vertical consolidation
C t
Time factor, for normal consolidation (Tv) = Tv = v2
(3)
Vertical Degree of consolidation pertaining to this time factor,

(Uv ) =
4Tv
(4)
Step 2: Determination of Radial consolidation

For triangular pattern of installation of PVDs, Diameter of
equivalent soil cylinder (de) = 1.05s (where, s = spacing of
PVDs)
Time factor for radial consolidation, (Tr) =
Tr =
Cht
2
de
(5)
Radial degree of consolidation pertaining to the time factor,

(6)
Ur =1- exp[-8 Tr / F(n)],
Where , F(n) = n2 / (n2 -1)*log e (n) (3n2 -1)/4n2
(7)
Fig. 4 Schematic representation of PVDs with surcharge,

Piezometer and Settlement gauge
In the trial area the PVDs were installed at 1.2 m spacing
(although design spacing for other areas is 1.5 m) and the
surcharge height was up to 3 m inducing a pressure of 54 kPa at
Vinoth, M., Varalakshmi, L., Murugesan, S. and Robinson, R.G.
+10.0 MSL. 8 settlement gauges and one piezometer were

placed in the trial area.
SITE MONITORING
Monitoring of the ground Settlement and development of
excess pore pressure in the clay due to the surcharging started
immediately after placement of the surcharge and continued
until consolidation was completed. The readings from the
instrumentations were observed on daily basis for the initial
couple of weeks, and twice in week thereafter. Fig. 6 shows the
plot of surcharge loading height and corresponding settlement
occurred in the trial area.
In the Fig. 6 the top portion shows the filling and the removal
of the surcharge with time. In the bottom portion of the Fig. the
theoretical settlement with time for the corresponding surcharge
height is plotted. Contrasting to this is the actual settlement
observed in different settlement gauges within the surcharged
area. From the Fig. 6 it can be seen that observed settlement
was slightly lesser than the predicted settlement. This may be
because of varies reasons like the top 6m sand layer acting as a
crust preventing from the transfer of load to the bottom soft
silty clay layer, the soft clay layer may be over consolidated
clay with Over Consolidation Ratio (OCR) greater than 1.
the actual settlements. Hence surcharge would be removed after

ensuring the following.
1. Cease of progression of settlement
2. Convergence of the settlement as per Asaoka (1978)
[6].
After removal of the surcharges, the settlement was monitored
to notice any upheaval.
CONCLUSIONS
From this case study the following conclusions were deduced
on the design and execution of ground improvement system
with PVDs.
1. A detailed geotechnical investigation, especially on the
consolidation characteristics of the soil strata is very much
essential for the optimal design of the PVDs.
2. Coefficient of consolidation in horizontal direction (Ch) is
very crucial and it has to be determined precisely.
3. As the current soil was having higher ratio of co-efficient of
consolidation in horizontal direction to that of vertical
direction, the soil is ideal for use of PVDs
4. Field monitoring through proper instrumentation is very
much essential for the study on the actual field
consolidation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors place on record appreciation to all the fellow
colleagues and the entire site execution team of the Depot who
had directly or indirectly contributed to the development of this
paper.
Fig. 6 Settlement vs. Time Plot for the corresponding

Surcharge height
SURCHARGE REMOVAL AFTER CONSOLIDATION
The final phase of the ground improvement is the removal of
the surcharge. After completion of the design duration of the
surcharge, the progress of settlement would be analysed, as
there may be some variations expected between the design and
REFERENCES
1. Sridhar, G. and Robinson, R.G. (2011), Determination of
radial coefficient of consolidation using log t method,
International Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,
(2011), 383-391.
2. Federal highway administration, Prefabricated vertical
drains, Engineering guide lines Vol.1.
3. IS 15284: Part 2: (2004), Design and construction of
ground improvement guidelines Pre consolidation using
vertical drains.
4. IS 8009: Part I: (1976), Code of Practice for Calculation of
Settlements of Foundations.
5. IS 7356: Part I: (2002), Code of Practice for Installation,
Maintenance and Observation of Instruments for Pore
Pressure Measurements in Earth Dams and Rockfill Dams,
Part 1 Porous tube piezometers.
6. Asaoka, A (1978), Observational procedure of settlement
prediction, Japanese Society of Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, (1978), Vol. 18

December 13-15,2012, Delhi (Paper No B 210.)
ESTABLISHING CONTROL PARAMETERS OF SHELL MATERIAL USING TEST SECTION

APPROACH IN EARTH & ROCK-FILL DAM
Vinod Kumar MauriyaDy. Manager (FES), KOLDAM HEPP, NTPC Limited, Bilaspur, H.P, vkmfes@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: The test sections are the tools of geotechnical engineering to obtain methodology for the execution of actual
work with economy and constructional advantage. The present paper describes the test section approach to establish the
methodology for Shell Material (#5) for adoption in actual execution in Main Dam & upstream cofferdam of Koldam HEP.
The investigations were carried out in two phases to obtain the optimum results. The main geotechnical parameters used in
evaluation of performance/ efficiency in the test section were gradation, settlement and density.
INTRODUCTION
The Koldam HEP (800MW), a 167m high Earth & Rockfill
dam across Satluj river is being executed in a Karstic terrain.
The various fill materials being used in Main Dam & U/s
cofferdam and Cross-section of Main Dam are as follows.
Table 1 Materials of Main Dam & upstream Cofferdam
Name
Type of Material Functional description
Material #1
Clay
Central Core
Material #2
Material #5
Processed
quartzite
Processed
quartzite
Processed
quartzite
Gravel
Material #6
Gravel
Material #7
Rockfill
Main Dam d/s Shell &

Upstream cofferdam shells
Drainage layer of the main
dam downstream shell
Transition layer
Material #8
Rockfill
Hard Rockfill for top layer
Material #9
Rockfill
Main dam upstream Shell
Material #10
Rockfill
U/s & D/s surface Rip-Rap
Material #3
Material #4
Main dam fine filter

Cofferdam filter
Main Dam coarse filter
Present paper describes the procedures to establish

methodology for Shell Material(#5) through test section
approach. The final derived methodology will evolve the
appropriate thickness of the layer and the corresponding
number of passes of the designated compactor for adoption in
actual execution. The quantum of Shell material (#5) to be
used in Main dam downstream Shell and upstream cofferdam
shells will be approximately 30 Lacs Cum.
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES
As per designed technical specification, Shell Material (#5)
(Gravels) in particular size ranges meeting the criterias of
UCS, specific gravity, water absorption, soundness, sonic
monitoring (Ic), Los Angeles value have been approved from
quarry. As per technical specification the shell material
excavated from quarry shall have following gradation range:
Table 2 Gradation range of Shell Material #5.
Size
Material #5
Dmax
800 mm
D60
50 - 150
D15
2 - 60
0.075mm
05%
MATERIAL SOURCES
The Shell Material (#5) is quarried from the alluvial and
conglomerate terraces identified in project area based on
preliminary investigations. The quarry was further subjected
to lab testing for the required parameters as per specification.
TEST SECTIONS
Test sections have been realized in following two phases.
Phase- 1 was intended to analyze the behavior of material
towards compaction and Phase-2 was intended to establish
the control parameters for the methodology. An area on the
platform upstream of the Diversion Dyke was selected to
perform the test sections.
Fig. 1 Typical Cross-Section of Main Dam
Vinod Kumar Mauriya
Equipments
The Bulldozer (Caterpillar D8R) was used for laying/
spreading the Shell Material (#5) at the test section after
transportation from quarry/ stockpile in Dumpers/ Trucks.
Vibratory Roller (CS 583-E) (16T) was used in compacting
the layers at test section.
Sub-base Preparation
The surface area is properly prepared by stripping off top
soil, eliminating lumps, drying, scarifying to a depth of
0.15 m, placing a minimum 0.20 meter first layer of material,
and compacting with 10 passes of compactor. A
topographical survey was conducted at control points. The
sub-base has been further compacted with 2 additional passes
with vibratory roller on original compacted surface and a
topographical survey has been done on longitudinal center
axis. Following guidelines were adopted at control points for
the acceptance of final surface.
- if the AVERAGE settlement is less than 3 cm => OK
- if the AVERAGE settlement is more than 3 cm => recompact the surface with 04 additional no of passes on the
whole sub-base and remake the test on the central part.
0.85 m.
2.55
11.30 m.
Cross Section of Test Section (Phase-1)

Evaluation of Parameters
Gradation
Initially, two grain size analysis has been conducted on
samples of more than 4 tons obtained from stockpiled area.
Two more grain size analysis have been conducted with a
weight more than 4 tons collected from both side of access
ramp and tested at site. All the samples are conforming to
gradation criteria specified for Shell Material (#5). The
gradation test results before spreading are given as below.
IS STANDARD SIEVE NOS.
100
Phase-1
Ramp-1"
90
Ramp 2
80
PERCENT FINER BY WEIGH
After this re-compaction, if the settlement remains superior to

3 cm that means that the sub-base is too incompetent add 40
cm of good quality materials (pink limestone) re-compact to
8 passes and remake the test or change the zone.
PH-12
70
PH-13
60
50
40
30
20
10
Methodology of Laying & Compaction

The test section (11.3 m x 70m) was divided in two Sections
A &B. Access ramps for equipment were provided on
both sides of the test section. Each truck load of Shell
material was placed on the prepared sub-base and spread by a
bulldozer to a designated thickness of 2.55 meter (3 lifts of
0.85m thickness each). Section A was compacted by 16
passes of the designated compactor and Section B was
compacted by 6 passes of the compactor. The grid of
measurement points have been separated in two longitudinal
axis (line A & line B) and 1 point has been taken every 1.0
meter. The Plan and Section of test section is as below.
0
0.01
0.10
1.00
10.00
100.00
1000.00
GRAIN SIZE IN mm.
Fig. 4 The gradation test results before compaction

Compaction
Compaction efficiency was evaluated in terms of settlement
at established control points. An initial survey of the final lift
surface was conducted on a grid of 1.0m x 1.0m. The control
points are surveyed for elevation (settlement) readings versus
compactor passes using a square plate having a cross pattern
and center mark. Settlement were measured every 2 passes of
the compactor. Compaction data derived from the test section
are presented in terms of percentage settlement with number
of passes as below.
The Settlement of Material 5 Versus Number of Passes
5.00
BLOCK A-LINE A
BLOCK A -LINE B
Settlement (%
4.00
11.3
AVERAGE
3.00
2.00
1.00
70
0.00
0 Passes
2 Passes
4 Passes
6 Passes
8 Passes
10 Passes
Number of Passes
Fig. 2 Plan of Test Section (Phase-1)
Fig. 5 Settlement vs no of passes of Sec-A
12 Passes
16 Passes
Establishing Control Parameters of Shell Material using Test Section Approach in Earth & Rock-fill Dam
The Settlement of Gravel Materials # 5 Versus Number of Passes
Visual Observations
Following photograph was observed at the excavated trench
walls of Section B (after 6 passes). The bigger particles
(maximum size around 300 400mm) are well interlocked in
the fines.
4.00
BLOCK B-LINE A
BLOCK B -LINE B
AVERAGE
Settlem
ent (%
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
0 Passes
2 Passes
4 Passes
6 Passes
Number of Passes
Fig. 6 Settlement vs no of passes of Sec-B
Fig. 7 Avg settlement vs no of passes for the Sec- A& B

Density
The field density tests on Shell Material(#5) have been
conducted by Water Replacement Method as per IS 2720
(Part33). The field density tests have been conducted at two
locations, in both Section A & B. Following methodology
was adopted in carrying out the field density tests.
Fig. 8 View of Test Section (Phase-1), Sec-B.

Interpretation of results
The field density of the compacted Shell Material(#5) are
found to be meeting the range specified in technical
specifications for both 16 passes & 6 passes. Further Phase-2
investigations were carried out for finalization of the
compaction parameters.
Phase-2
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
A flanged steel ring of 2.0mx2.0 m. size is placed on

compacted surface of shell material.
Loose and sharp fragments on the surface within the ring
are removed then excavated carefully by hand from
within the ring for 0.65 m. depth per layer and placed
loose material in a prepared plastic sheet for the purpose
of the gradation testing.
The suitable polyethylene sheet is laid loosely over the
ring so that it is in as close contact as possible with the
inside of the ring and the exposed surface.
The depression in the slack membrane is filled with
water to within 75 100 mm of the top of the ring.
The volume of water added and the distance from the top
of the ring to the water surface are measured and
recorded.
Methodology of Laying & Compaction

On the prepared sub-base, each layer (1.0 m thick) was
divided in two sub-section of 6.3mx 15.0m. Access ramps
for equipment were provided on both sides of the test section.
Subsection A was compacted by 6 passes and subsection
B by 8 passes of the designated compactor. Three layers
with heights of 1.00m have been tested. The compaction was
carried out without addition of water, but layers two and three
were investigated after the ingress of the monsoon and due to
heavy rains the materials was in an almost saturated state.
The Plan and Section of test section in Phase-2 is as below.
The obtained results of the field density are shown as below.

Table 3 Test results of compaction
Section
A
Depth
(M)
0.00
0.80
1.60
0.00
0.80
1.60
No. of
Passes
16
16
16
6
6
6
Density
gm/cc
2.44
2.21
2.35
2.22
2.18
2.24
Fig. 9 Plan & Section of Test Section (Phase-2)
Vinod Kumar Mauriya
Evaluation of Parameters
Gradation
Except for the tested material from the ramps of layer No 01
(before compaction) all the tested material is found within the
range of specifications. As expected, in this phase also the
Material does not change in gradation by compaction.
Compaction
The compaction was evaluated by settlement measurements
(expressed as percentage of the layer thickness) in reference
to the number of passes of compactor. Leveling
measurements were carried out on a grid of points 1.0m x
1.0m. The grid of measurement points was located
symmetrical to the longitudinal axis. Two grading before and
after compaction of each subsection were carried out. After
compaction the density of the material was calculated in the
same two pits on each layer by the water replacement
method. The average settlements of all the three layers
separately for subsection A & B is presented below.
Fig. 11 View of trench in Subsection A
The Average Settlement Graph of Block A-B Test Section

Material #5 Phase 2 , for all three layers
6.00
5.00
Settlement (%)
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
AVERAGE LINE A&B OF BLOCK A

AVERAGE LINE A&B OF BLOCK B
0.00
0 Passes
2 Passes
4 Passes
6 Passes
8 Passes
Fig. 12 View of trench in Subsection B
Num ber of Passes
Fig. 10 Settlement of subsection A & B.

Density
The Field density test was carried out by the water
replacement method (IS 2720 Part 33) in the same pits in
which gradations were carried out. The results are
summarized in the table as below:
Table 4 Results of Field density tests
Pit
Subsection A
(6 passes)
No 1
No 2
Layer 3
2.29
2.31
Layer 2
2.29
2.28
Layer 1
2.31
2.30
AVERAGE
2.30
Subsection B
(8 passes)
No 1
No 2
2.38
2.39
2.37
2.39
2.34
2.36
2.37
The above results are showing high values in comparison to

the average density established in Phase-1 test section. The
observed average density in 6 passes in phase-2 is 2.30gm/cc
against the average density of 2.21gm/cc in phase-1.
Visual Observations
Two trenches were cut across the two subsections A & B
and through all three layers which shows very good
interlocking of fine and coarse material as seen below.
CONCLUSIONS
The Phase-1 & Phase-2 investigations evolve that gradation
after compaction is not changing significantly. High field
density values were observed in Phase-2 both for 6
(2.30gm/cc) and 8 passes (2.37gm/cc) of the compactor. The
investigations of Phase-1 & Phase-2 are reviewed against the
requirements specified in the specifications and it is inferred
that layer thickness of 1.0m with 6 passes of the designated
compactor is providing an optimum result for Shell material
(#5), which were recommended for further trials on other
stockpile materials.
REFERENCES
1. IS 2720 Part 33: Determination of the density in place by
the ring and water replacement method.
2. IS 2720 Part 4: Methods of Test for Soils: Grain Size
Analysis.
3. EM 1110-2-2300, 30 Jul 04: General design &
Construction Considerations for Earth & Rockfill Dams,
US Army Corps of Engineers (2004).
4. Earth Manual, Part-1 (1998) of U. S. Department of the
Interior Bureau of Reclamation.
5. CECW-EG, Engineer Manual, 1110-2-2301 (1994), U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers: Engineering and Design:
Test Quarries and Test Fills

December 13-15, 2012, Delhi (Paper No. B 211)
NON-LINEAR BEHAVIOUR OF SILTY SANDS FROM

CATCHMENT AREA OF YAMUNA RIVER
S.Ojha, Research Scholar, CED, FoT, Delhi University, Delhi, India, sadanand_ojha@yahoo.com
P.Goyal, Student Scholar, M.Tech,CED,DTU,Delhi, India,paritosh_goyal222@yahoo.co.in
A.Trivedi, Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India, atrivedi@dce.ac.in
ABSTRACT: The observation test results by several investigators would show that behavior of silty sand at varied stress
levels is essentially non-linear. However for all practical purposes it is assumed to be linear in a lower range of strains. This
simplification leads to significant error in estimation of strength and deformation properties of silty sands. This study presents
the behavior of silty sand at high strain level and its engineering implications for structural loading. Due to the rapid increase
in demand in the housing sector, a large number of multistoried residential buildings are being constructed in and around
capital region of Delhi in the proximity of the river Yamuna. For a safe design to ensure that these structures dont have any
structural damage in their life time, the knowledge of strength behavior of silty sand obtained from the proximity of river
Yamuna becomes a matter of importance. In the present paper, the behavior of siltysand has been studied in the laboratory and
the results have been compared with the behavior of materials as published by varied investigators in relation to the Boltons
empirical shear strength fitting parameter for clean sands (Q=10).It was observed that the Yamuna sand containing silts has
comparable values (7.2-9.1) of empirical shear strength fitting parameters (Q) atselect densities as shown in the present work.
INTRODUCTION
The stress-strain response of sand at small, intermediate, and
large-strain levels depends upon soil state variables (the
relative density Dr of the sand, the effective stress state, and
fabric) and other factors related to the nature of the sand
(particle shape, particle size distribution, particle surface
characteristics, and mineralogy). The factors related to the
constitution and general nature of the sand particles are
referred to as intrinsic variables [1,2]. Examples of intrinsic
variables are the critical-state friction angle c, the maximum
and minimum void ratio emax and emin, and the dilatancy
parameters Q and R of the peak friction angle given by the
correlation of Bolton[1].However natural sand deposit of
Yamuna sand abundantly found near Delhi region, contain
significant amount of silt and or clay. The authors have
reviewed the work carried out by the previous researcher [115] andhave addressed the effect of silt sized particles on the
stress-strain response of Yamuna sand when silt is present
upto 15% by weight.
As such the knowledge of the shear strength parameters (Q
and R) of silty sand would be necessary for the safe design of
structures being constructed on the Yamuna basin. There is
no past studies reported so far in the engineering literature
which provide a direct relationship for prediction of the shear
strength and dilatancy parameters of silty sand obtained from
the river Yamuna. The samples were prepared at different
relative densities and were subjected to different level of
mean effective confining pressure. The stress-strain response
was recorded and shear strength and dilatancy parameters
were obtained for each fine percentage.
Critical state and peak friction angle were calculated for each
soil sample. The various state variables were also calculated
for clean sand and sand containing silt in various proportions

and a co-relation for shear strength of silty sands was found.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
A series of triaxial tests was performed to assess how the
shear strength of Yamuna sand changes when certain
percentage of fines is present in it [Table 1-3]. The clean
Yamuna sand is designated as CS [Table 1]. The grain size
distribution of samples considered in this study is shown in
[Fig. 1]. The diameters of the sand particles range from 0.1 to
0.6 mm. Yamuna sand is defined as SP according to the
Unified Soil Classification System. The coefficient of
uniformity Cu is 1.852, and the mean grain size D50 is 0.225
mm. The maximum and minimum void ratios emax and emin
are 0.78 and 0.5, respectively [Fig. 2]. Its specific gravity G
is 2.67. Yamuna sand particles are round to sub round. The
fines are silt content which passes through 75 micron sieve
size. Its specific gravity is 2.63, with the grain size
distribution shown, together with the grain size distribution
of clean Yamuna sand, in Fig. 3. Static drained triaxial
compression tests were conducted on isotropically
consolidated sand samples with 0, 5, 10, and 15%, fines.
Samples were prepared by first estimating the weights of
sand and silt needed for a fines content. These amounts of silt
and sand were then mixed in a cylindrical Plexiglas tube
completely filled with desired water. The silt and sand are
thoroughly mixed by vigorous shaking of the Plexiglas tube
for approximately 20 min to achieve sample uniformity.
Afterward, the rubber cap is removed, a very small amount
of desired water is added to raise the water level back to the
top of the tube, and the tube is topped with the pieces of
high-density polyethylene film.

S. Ojha, P.Goyal & A. Trivedi
The contents of the tube are then released into the membrane
by raising the tube. Densification of the sample is
accomplished by carefully and symmetrically tapping the
sides of the sample mold immediately after slurry deposition.
Because the mass of sand and silt used in sample preparation
can be accurately estimated, it is possible to obtain a relative
density that is reasonably close to a target value by
measuring the height of the sample as it gets compacted.
Thesamples had heights of the order of 76 mm and diameters
of the order of 38 mm. The confining pressures ranging from
50 kPa to 400 kPa were applied to the samples and the rate of
strain was kept slow enough at 1.25 per minute to ensure
uniformity of results. The volume change of the sample was
measured using a sensitive differential pressure techniques.
The stress-strain data was recorded. The details of the sample
preparation and testing procedures was as recommended by
IS 2720.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
The shear strength of sand may be expressed in terms of a
number of intrinsic parameters (c, Q and R) [1]. The
intrinsic parameters are a function of the nature of sand and
thus changes with fines content for a given soil density. A
series of tri-axial tests were performed to assess how the
shear strength of sand changes as an increasing percent of
low plastic fines is prepared. In order to explain the effect of
fines on the behavior of clean sand, an experimental program
was developed. The experimental study was carried out for
fine content in the range of 5% to 15%. A series of tri-axial
shear tests, relative density tests and model plate load test
were performed to assess the effect of fine content on angle
of internal friction, minimum and maximum void ratios of
clean sand. The effective size (D10), the mean grain size
(D50), coefficient of uniformity (Cu), and coefficient of
curvature (Cc) are calculated and given in Table 1. The
maximum and minimum void ratio of clean sand emax and
emin are 0.78 and 0.50. Its specific gravity of silt and sand is
2.63 & 2.67.
PRELIMINARY RELATIONSHIPS
The data of a typical drained compression test on a dense,
cylindrical sample with frictionless ends is required to
interpret preliminary stress - dilatancy relations. Strains were
inferred from boundary displacements and volume changes,
and they therefore under estimate the strains in the rupture
zone which developed between points [2]. The achievement
and accurate determination of the ultimate conditions may be
considerably hampered by the non-uniformity of the sample
and the uncertainty regarding membrane correction following
the formation of a rupture plane. Nevertheless such evidence
as exists suggests that soil in rupture zones will dilate fully to
achieve a critical state, at which shear deformation can
continue in the absence of a volume change. The point of
peak strength is usually associated with the maxima of (d1 /
d3)[2-3, 9, 14, 17]. A typical result of triaxial testing on
silty sand is shown in Fig. 3. The corresponding volume
change vs axial strain plots can be obtained from the details
of the out-put captured by the first author [5]. Bolton [1]
reviewed a large number of tri-axial and plane-strain test

results for 17 clean sand and proposed a much simpler
relationship between , c and which he found to be
operationally equivalent [17] as shown in the following Eqs.
= c + 0.8
(1)
The relationship between the peak friction angle p and the
critical-state friction angle c can be written for both tri-axial
and plane-strain test.So that the dilatancy angles for both
types of test are expressed in terms of the same quantity IR,
referred to as the dilatancy index, for plane-strain conditions,
p= c + 5IR
(2)
for tri-axial conditions,
(3)
p= c + 3IR
IR = Dr (Q ln100p`p / PA) R
(4)
Where, Dr is relative density expressed as a number between
0 and 1, P`pis mean effective stress at peak strength in kPa,
PA is reference stress (100 kPa) in the same units as p`p, Q
and R are fitting parameters and Eqs. (2) and (4) are valid
for 0 IR 4 as per Bolton [1].
Further we define IN as,
(5)
IN = [p- c]/3 +Dr ln 100 (p`p/ PA)
A typical variation of IN with relative density is shown in
Fig. 4. Using the relationships of Eqs (1-5), we obtained the
values of Q and R tabulated in Table 6. As such, the estimate
of IR, IN, and dilatancy angle can be made for wide ranging
granular materials namely sands, silty sands [2, 6, 15], coal
ashes [9-12, 20], and even rock masses [3, 14, 19].
Table 1 Characterization of Silty Sand
Sample
CS
CS + 5% Silt
CS + 10% Silt
CS + 15% Silt
D10
0.13
0.12
-
D30
0.19
0.18
0.18
0.18
D50
0.22
0.22
0.22
0.21
D60
0.25
0.24
0.24
0.24
Table 2 Consolidated Drained Test Data Sheet

Sample
3 Diameter Length Area
kPa
mm
mm
mm2
100
38
78
1134
CS+
200
38
78
1134
fines
400
38
78
1134
Table 3 Work Program for Tri-axial Test
Nomenclature
Total Accepted Silt
Tests
Results
(%)
Dm0.256Dr40
3
1
5
Dm0.224Dr47
2
1
10
2
1
15
Dm0.219Dr23
Dm0.256Dr61
1
1
5
Dm0.224Dr63
1
1
10
1
1
15
Dm0.219Dr40
Dm0.256Dr75
3
1
5
2
1
10
Dm0.224Dr70
2
1
15
Dm0.219Dr67
Cc
1.07
1.13
-
Volume
mm3
85058.6
85058.6
85058.6
P`p
(kPa)
147
155
186
159
186
175
220
181
192
Non-linear behaviour of Silty sand from catchment area of Yamuna river
Fig. 4 A typical variation of In with relative density

Fig. 1 Size v/s percentage finer
Table 5Dilatancy parameters in a range of pressure [6]

`3p
kPa
4
6.2
11.2
20.8
50.3
Fig. 2 Variation of void ratio withpercentage finer

Table 4 Dilatancy parameters for silty sands [2]
Silt
Best Fit
Trend line; R = 0.5
Q
R
r2
Q
r2
0
9.0
0.49
0.93
9.0
0.93
5
9.0
-0.5
0.98
11.0
0.92
10
8.3
-0.69 0.97
10.6
0.87
15
11.4
1.29
0.97
10.3
0.96
Fig. 3Axial strain v/s deviator Stress
Best Fit
`mp
kPa
9.3
14.3
25.8
47.2
108.4
Trend line
with R=1
Q
r2
r2
6.9
6.2
7.4
7.5
8.9
0.47
-0.23
0.13
0.03
0.79
0.92
0.94
0.99
0.987
0.999
7.7
8.1
8.7
9.0
9.3
0.914
0.839
0.954
0.945
0.997
Table 6 Dilatancy parameters for fines [5]

Silt
D50
Best Fit
Trend line
(%) (mm)
with R=1
Q
R
r2
Q
r2
5
0.256
7.23
0.5
0.818
6.56
0.783
10 0.224
8.46 -0.57 0.826
6.70
0.747
15 0.219
9.13 -0.48 0.889
6.90
0.687
Table 7 Intrinsic variables of some clean sand
Sand type
emin
emax
Gs
D50
Ref.
Ham river
0.92
0.59
33
0.22
[7]
Monterey
Sand
0.57
0.86
37
[1]
Toyoura
Sand
0.61
0.99
35.1
2.65
0.16
[8]
Ottawa
Sand
0.48
0.78
29
[2]
CS+5%
fines
0.5
0.78
24.7
2.67
0.25
[5]
CS+10%
fines
0.46
0.76
25.6
2.66
0.22
[5]
CS+15%
fines
0.42
0.72
26.9
2.64
0.21
[5]

S. Ojha, P.Goyal & A. Trivedi
DISCUSSIONS
The analysis of a large number of drained tri-axial
compression tests were carried out with volumetric strain
measurement. The tests were performed on consolidated
specimens of clean sand of river Yamuna with silt which
allow the following inferences. Table 5 shows the results of
linear regression following Eqs. (1-5) for the data of Yamuna
sand with 5, 10 and 15% silt contents. They refer to the value
of confining stress 100, 200 and 400kPa. Table 4, 5 and 6
show Q and R values obtained [2, 6 and 5]. It indicates that
Q and R values are significantly lower in the pressure range,
relative density and sizes. It appears that Q and R are
sensitive to these parameters. Table 7 shows the value of
intrinsic variables for various sands &silty sand investigated
worldwide along with the findings of the present results.
These findings have typical applications in estimation of
dilatancy [1-3, 6, 9-12, 13-14], hardening-softening [18-19],
collapse behavior [15], bearing-capacity of ash fills [10, 12,
16] and prediction of engineering behavior of granular
materials namely silts [2, 4, 6, 13] to ashes [9-12] and rock
masses [3, 14, 9] as per the works cited in this paper [4-5, 912, 13-16, 18-20].
CONCLUSIONS
As a result of present work, the dilatancy of silty sand is
obtained.The knowledge of the shear strength parameters (Q
and R) of silty sand are essential for the safe design of
structures being constructed on the Yamuna basin which can
be directly assessed on the basis of the present study. It is
observed that due to the presence of silt there is a significant
change in the strength properties of silty sand as reflected by
the changes in the values of Boltons [1] shear strength
fitting parameters Q & R for Yamuna sand. The authors
supplemented the value of Q & R reported in the literature
for silty-sand. The outcome of present work indicates that Q
& R are sensitive to the mean sizes, density and extent of
confinement. Such a sensitivity of Boltons shear strength
parameters Q & R significantly contributes to the nonlinear
behavior of silty sand obtained from the catchment of river
Yamuna.
REFERENCES
1. Bolton, M. D. (1986). The strength and dilatancy.
Geeotechnique, 36(1), 5578.
2. Salgado R., Bandini P. and Karim A. (2000). Shear
Strength and Stiffness of Silty Sand, Journal of
Geotechnical and Geo-environmental Engineering, vol.
126(5), 451462.
3. Trivedi A. (2010). Strength and dilatancy of jointed
rocks with granular fill, ActaGeotechnica, vol. 5(1), 1531.
4. Gupta R. and Trivedi A. (2009). Effects of non-plastic
fines on the behavior of loose sand an experimental
study, EJGE, 14, (B), 1-14.
5. Ojha S. (2006) Non linear behavior of few sand and its
engineering implication Unpublished PhD work,FoT,
University of Delhi.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Chakraborty T. and Salgado R. (2010). Dilatancy and

Shear strength of sand at low Confining Pressure,
Journal of Geotechnical and Geo-Environmental
Engineering, ASCE, 136(3), 527-534.
Bishop. A. W. & Green, G. E. (1965). The influence of
end restraint on the compression strength of cohesion
less soil, Geotechnique, 15 (3),243-266
Diego C.F. Lo Presti, Pedroni S. and Crippa V. (1992).
Maximum dry density of cohesionless soil by
pluviation and by ASTM D 4253-83: a comparative
study. Geotech. Testing J., 15(2), 180189.
Trivedi, A., and Sud, V. K. (2002). Grain
characteristics and engineering properties of coal ash.
Granular Matter, 4(3), 93101.
Trivedi, A., and Sud, V. K. (2005). Ultimate bearing
capacity of footings on coal ash. Granular Matter,
Springer, 7(4), 203212.
Trivedi A and Singh S. (2004). Geotechnical and
geoenvironmental properties of power plant ash.
Journal of the Institution of Engineers. India. Civil, 85,
9399.
Trivedi, A., and Sud, V. K. (2007). Settlement of
compacted ash fills. Geotechnical and Geological
Engineering, 25(2), 163176.
Simoni, A., and Houlsby, G. U. Y. T. (2006). The
direct shear strength and dilatancy of sandgravel
mixtures. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering,
24, 523549.
Alejano, L., and Alonso, E. (2005). Considerations of
the dilatancy angle in rocks and rock masses.
International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining
Sciences, Elsevier, 42(4), 481507.
Ayadat, T, Hanna, A. (2007) Prediction of collapse
behaviour in soil, Revue Europenne de Gnie Civil, 11
(5), 603-619.
Choudhary, A.K., Jha, J.N., Gill, K.S. (2010) Laboratory
investigation of bearing capacity behaviour of strip
footing on reinforced flyash slope, Geotextiles and
Geomembranes, 28, 4, 393-402.
Parry R.H.G., (1995). Mohr Circle stress path and
Geotechnics. E &FN Spoon, London.
Usmani, A., Ramana, G., and Sharma, K. (2012) StressStrain-Volume Change Modeling of Delhi Silt in
Triaxial Compression and Extension, International
Journal of Geomechanics, , 12 (3), 323-326.
Trivedi, A. (2012) Estimating Insitu Deformation of
Rock Masses Using a Hardening Parameter and RQD
Int.J. Geomech.,ASCE, doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)GM.19435622.0000215.
Sachan, A. and Rao, K., (2010). Permeability of Panki
fly ash under stress, International Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, 4(1), 63-70.

December 13-15,2012, Delhi(Paper No.B212)
ROCK DYNAMICS AND ACOUSTIC EMISSION STUDY FOR HILL ROCK SLOPE
R.K.Panigrahi, Principal Scientist, Geotechnical Engineering Division, CRRI, New Delhi, panigrahi_crri@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT: This paper deals with a knowledge base in rock dynamics and rock engineering studies for researchers and
engineers. Acoustic emission technique is a tool for understanding and real time monitoring of rock slope stability. Acoustic
emission technique used to study the growth of micro cracks and brittle fracturing. The paper highlights the importance of rock
dynamic study coupled with Acoustic emission technique to generate high quality inputs data for design of stabilization
measures for rock slope to solve the complicated problems pertaining to hill road.
INTRODUCTION
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE FOR ROCK SLOPE
The assessment of rock or rock mass requires a detailed study

of physico-mechanical properties of materials pertaining to
unstable rock slopes. The unstable removable blocks prone to
failure require the study of influence of material properties
and internal deformation for stability of rock slopes.
Kinematic analysis and properties of rock in a specific
location of an unstable rock slope throughout the length of
road are to be properly assessed to evolve a suitable set of
remedial measures either to stabilize or to preempt the
failure. The predominant rock types exposed in the unstable
rock slopes adjacent to roadways of National and State
highways passing through hilly terrain of India plays a major
role for stability of Rock slope. The slope stability is one of
the most common problems in natural hill slopes in India.
The performance of rock under particular condition depends
upon its physical and mechanical properties. Therefore,
physico-mechanical properties play very important role on
stability of slopes. The mechanical properties are basically
known as strength properties and they give an idea about the
performance of the rock mass when subjected to particular
loading system. These properties are strength, deformability,
elasticity and plasticity. There are several failure criteria
available to describe the deformation of the rock mass. These
failure criteria are based on the rock mass properties. Rock
Engineering investigations are necessary to understand and
quantify the number of factors related to mechanism of Rock
slope failures. The investigation should be well planned and
comprehensive. Prediction, monitoring and forewarning
systems are particularly important for rock slopes. Counter
measures must be designed and implemented for both post
failure conditions as retrofit works and pre-failure conditions
as mitigation measures. The new and modified techniques of
rock slope stabilization help to establish the cost and
complexity of both design and re-construction of rock slope
for a restoration of damaged road or a new road alignment
by-passing the existing one as an alternative solution. This
task of hill road stabilization is in-complete in itself if rock
dynamic and acoustic emission techiques are not conducted
prior to design of proper satbilisation measures. The
framework of Rock Dynamic Study for Hill Slope is shown
in Fig. 1.
Joint, fold, fault, thrust, shear zone etc. play a significant role
for failure of rock slope. The rock slope failures occur along
pre-existing natural rock discontinuities or plane of
weakness. In rock slope stability problems, the actual failure
or sliding surface depends upon spatial orientation, frequency
and distribution of the discontinuities and the inherent shear
strength of filling material in the discontinuities. The joint
controlled rock slopes prone to failure need an immediate
attention to find out cost optimum solution in the form of
remediation programmes for execution in hilly terrain of
India. Variation in thickness of strata and presence of
discontinuities such as joints, faults, shear zones etc. beneath
Investiogations of Rock
Slope
Engineering Geological
Investigation
RMR,Q,SMR, and
their relationship
Rockdynamic study and

Acoustic emission
Technique
Stabilisation and efficacy

of Rock Slope
Fig. 1 Framework of rock dynamics study for hill slope
the slope may be interpreted from the data collected from the
field using geophysical techniques. Presence of water body
located underneath the hill slope may also be demarcated by
these techniques. The use of ground penetrating radar is an
effective substitution for bore hole investigations. Seismic
refraction method been used most frequently to determine
depths and geometry of Rock blocks, rupture surfaces and
hence rock block volumes.
R.K. Panigrahi
ROCK STRESS AND ITS DETERMINATION

Only an assessment of stresses in rock will allow the
application of rock strength determination and failure theories
to a rational deign of rock slope. The emphasis with an
increased understanding of rock burst phenomena, advances
in distressing of rock and observation of different phenomena
in large scale cutting or excavations of rock slope or rock
slope materials. Regional differences in stress result from the
different thicknesses of crustal material which restrict mantle
flow in certain regions. Tectonic stresses are very difficult to
predict in regard to magnitude and directions unless there are
recent tectonic movements and seismic activity, horizontal
stresses are after higher than vertical ones. Conceptually, we
can distinguish between current or active tectonic stress and
remnant or previous tectonic stresses. Remnant tectonic
stresses are left over stresses which were not fully relieved by
rock deformation. Rocks can preserve tresses over long
period of time.
The Rock Stress determination methods are very important
and should be carried out properly. Over-coring -Planning
and quality control for stress determinations by over-coring
and Stress compensation method is inevitable..Hydraulic
fracturing-The results obtained from stress determination Is
a difficult to understand unless, what information has been
gathered about stresses or stress fields around a rock slope
site in different geologic environments. Ground stresses
represent three dimensional quantities, and are
mathematically described as tensor. In many cases the
principal directions of the ground stress tensor are parallel
and right angles to the earths surface. Therefore, the vertical
and horizontal stress components can be treated separately to
describe the change of stress magnitudes with depth.
Geological condition of rock slope and ground stresses are
Very important and care must be taken for the calculation of
stress in following manner..(1) All fractures and deformations
in rock all the result of forces loading rocks beyond their
elastic limit. (2) As regional deformation patterns appear to
have been in existence for long periods of time, the more
recent geologic deformations may provide an indication of
the most likely ground stress directions existing at present.
(3) Mapping of the geological fabric can identify surface of
extension, movement directions along faults and other
elements related to folding and faulting of strata. (4) Rock
testing has provides insights in to how fracturation and
folding will develop in relation to the orientation of principal
stresses. (5) Extension fractures will develop at a right angle
to the minimum principal compressive stress directions and
will contain the orientation of the maximum and intermediate
principal compressive stress. (6) The intersection of
conjugate shears is the direction of intermediate compressive
stress. From the orientation and relative movement observed
for various types of tectonic elements, a kinematic analysis
can be carried out to define the direction of movement in
geological strata and possibly the direction of principal
stresses. Rock masses are made up of rock substance,
geological features, and water. It has been also realized that

site conditions are after far different from the material
properties used in mathematical theory of elasticity and also
different form sample tested in laboratory. Therefore, to
apply the capabilities of rock mechanics analysis to the
realities of an excavation/cutting of rock slope, it is advised
to develop a connectional model from geological setting of
the site and to use rock mechanics classifications and in situ
testing for assessing permissible load and stress levels. Rock
slope overall stability analysis models study the principal
rock movement mode or failure phenomenon: sliding,
toppling, flexural buckling on others. The purpose of rock
slope engineer it to prevent rock mass protection work
designing is instead to determine paths and trajectories of
unstable blocks which detach from the rock slope. The
variables which mainly affect the choice and the positioning
of the protection works are: The maximum path length, the
height, the velocity and the energy assumed by the blocks
during the fall.
A block detached from a rock face may have the following
types of movement during flight: Free falling, bouncing,
rolling, and sliding.A mathematical model set up in order to
completely fallow the travelling of the block should be able
to desirable these four movement types. The problem
becomes more complex if the mathematical modeling does
not consider instantaneous passages from one movement to
another or take into account, that in reality, movement
combinations such as rolling and sliding or rolling and
bouncing, may occur. Analytical procedures for the
mathematical schematization of the rock fall phenomenon,
able to consider both the geometrical and mechanical
characteristics have been set up by several researchers, above
all in the last twenty years. Analytical formulations of rock
fall are divided into two categories: Rigorous method, and
lumped mass method. Rock fall movement analysis Block
detaching and throwing condition:- to start of a rock fall
movement involves an initial block condition which block
velocity, at the start of the free falling movement, depends on
the initial block velocity, at the start of the free falling
movement, depends on the initial instability mode and on the
block displacement which occurs before the block is thrown
into the air the principal rock slope instability mode may be
induced by: (i) Water pressure in joints, (ii) Earthquake
sharing or blast vibration, (iii) Pressure due to ice formation
in joints and (iv) Slope excavation or slope surcharging
before measuring virgin stresses with some of the methods
discussed in the following way an attempt should be made to
obtain an estimate of the in-situ stress filed. This can be done,
for instance, from stress versus depth relationships or
observations obtained from stress measurements made in the
past in the region of interest or by extrapolation from regions
with similar geological and tectonic settings. Information can
also be derived from the topography, the geology, the rock
fabric, the rock loading history, the first motion analysis of
earthquakes, the occurrence of stress release phenomena
(Squeezing, propus, buckling, etc.) breakouts in boreholes,
tunnels and shafts, rock bursts, and the presence of
Rock dynamics and acoustic emission study for hill rock slope
stratification, heterogeneities or geological structures. (faults,

folds, shear zones, unconformities, volcanic vents and dikes).
Estimating in-situ stresses can be useful in the early stage of
engineering design, for the planning process and when
selecting stress measuring methods and he location of these
measurements.
ROCK DYNAMIC STUDY FOR HILL ROCK SLOPE
The study of rock dynamics is important because many rock
mechanics and rock engineering problems involve dynamic
loading ranging from earthquakes to vibrations and
explosions. The study deals with the distribution and
propagation of loads, dynamic responses, and processes of
rocks and rate-dependent properties, coupled with the
physical environment. This study also includes are wideranging, covering fundamental theories of fracture dynamics
and wave propagation, rock dynamic properties and testing
methods. Numerical modelling of rock dynamic failure,
engineering applications in earthquakes, explosion loading
and tunnel response, as well as dynamic rock support. The
process and techniques for study of rock slopes with a special
emphasis on rock dynamic study and acoustic emission
technique in combination is inevitable for a suitable and
appropriate design for stabilization of uphill and downhill
rock slopes in hilly terrain of India. The same is shown in
Fig. 2. The stabilisation of rock slope cannot be complete in
itself without cost optimised design methods to implement at
site for a stable hill road alignment. The cost optimised
design method for affected road stretches of hill road due to
rock slope failure cannot neglect the study of rock dynamic
and acoustic emission technique for a long term stable hill
road.
Investigations of Rock Slope

Rock Dynamic Study
Acoustic Emission Technique
Remedial Measures of Rock Slope
Short Term Remedial Measures
Long-term Remedial Measures
Efficacy of Remedial Measures
Implementation of Remedial Measures
Monitoring of Remedial Measures
subject deals with the distribution and propagation of loads,

dynamic responses, and processes of rocks and ratedependent properties, coupled with the physical environment.
Rock dynamics has a wide range of applications in civil,
mining, geological and environmental engineering. However,
due to the additional "4th" dimension of time, rock dynamics
remains, in the discipline of rock mechanics, a relatively
more challenging topic to understand and to apply, where
documented research and knowledge are limited. Advances
in Rock Dynamics and Applications provides wide-ranging
and representative, covering fundamental theories of fracture
dynamics and wave propagation, rock dynamic properties
and testing methods, numerical modelling of rock dynamic
failure, engineering applications in earthquakes, explosion
loading and tunnel response, as well as dynamic rock support.
ACOUSTIC EMMISSION TECHNIQUE
The acoustic technique uses waveforms generated within
rock mass, due to cracks to identify the changes in
attenuation. Acoustic emission (AE) is elastic waves
generated in conjunction with energy release during micro
cracks, crack propagation, pore collapsing and internal
deformation in rock. Laboratory investigation reveals that
acoustic emission generated in a loaded rock gives an idea of
cracking process in it. AE phenomenon is also known as
Kaiser Effect. It is an important tool in proving vital
information regarding the stress levels. Sensitivity analysis is
accomplished by calculating the change in factor of safety
due to changing each variable such as angle of friction,
cohesion and unit weight. Reliability analysis is performed in
order to investigate the effects of uncertainties and variability
of rock design resistances on safety model. For centuries
mountains and rock sites were seen as almost insurmountable
obstacles to development. Our present excavation techniques
include blasting, which in its turn set off stress waves which
are transmitted through rock site, and which may strike
neighbouring installations with destructive force. The study
of stress waves in rocks therefore become increasingly
important, as more and more installations may be found in
neighbourhood of the location where blasting occurs. A good
knowledge of the way in which such stress waves are
transmitted is therefore indispensable for researchers,
engineers and geologist collaboring in such operation.
ROCK ENGINEERING INVESTIGATION
Fig. 1 Process and technique for study of rock slope
In India, acoustic emission studies related to deformation

processes in brittle rock and failure pre-cursor of rock burst
prone rock have been done. If this study has conducted field
oriented research studies using AE tools for rock stability
assessment. A basic parameter required in rock mechanics
design is the state of insitu stress. Conventional the study of
rock dynamics is important because many rock mechanics
and rock engineering problems involve dynamic loading
ranging from earthquakes to vibrations and explosions. The
The Rock Engineering investigation is a very important

component to study Rock block failure. The field
investigations are therefore, useful to diagnose the factors
responsible for failure of rock slopes and to design suitable
corrective measures based on the analysis of data generated
through field investigations as shown in Table.1. Rock
Structure rating, RMR, SMR, Rock defect study and Q are
found to be useful [1, 2, 3, 4] in high quality investigations
for highway projects.
R.K. Panigrahi
Table.1. Rock Engineering Investigation for Rock slopes
Techniques
Elements of Investigations
Rock
Structure
Rating
Rock Mass
Rating(RMR)
Geology+geometry+effect of
water inflow+joint condition.
Rock defect
study
Rock Mass
Quality(Q)
Rock defectsJoints---weakness zone
Slope Mass
Rating(SMR)
ground
RMR Values and classes: Very good(I)81-100, Good(II)- 61-80,Fair(III)- 41-60,

Poor(IV)- 21-40, Very Poor(V) - <20.
Q= (RQD/Jn) X (Jr/Ja)X (Jw/SRF)

RQD =115 - 3.3Jv
SMR = RMR - (F1.F2.F3) + F4
Where F1 is a factorial depending on
parallelism between joints and slope face
strikes; F2 refers to joint dip angle in the
planar mode of failure, measuring the
probability of joint shear strength; F3
reflects the relationship between the
slope face and joint dip; F4 is an
adjustment factor for the method of
excavation.
ANALYSIS OF ROCK SLOPE

Rock slope stability analyses are routinely performed and
directed towards assessing the safe and functional design of
slopes and/or the equilibrium conditions of natural slopes. In
general, the primary objectives of rock slope stability
analyses are, (i) to determine the rock slope stability
conditions; (ii) to investigate potential failure mechanisms;
(iii) to determine the slopes sensitivity/susceptibility to
different triggering mechanisms; (iv) to test and compare
different support and stabilization options; (v) and to design
optimal excavated slopes in terms of safety, reliability and
economics. Analyses are undertaken to provide either a factor
of safety or, through back-analysis, a range of shear strength
parameters at failure. More recent developments in rock fall
simulators include the use of different shaped rock elements
and extensions into three-dimensions. Numerical methods of
rock slope analysis are Continuum modeling, Discontinuum
modeling and Hybrid modeling. Continuum modeling is best
suited for the analysis of slopes that are comprised of
massive, intact rock, weak rocks, and soil-like or heavily
jointed rock masses. Continuum approaches used in slope
stability analysis include the finite-difference and finiteelement methods.
MECHANISM OF ROCK SLOPE FAILURE
The different mechanisms of rock slope failure are
a)Discontinuities such as faults, bedding planes, foliation,
cleavage, joints and brecciated zones, b)massive beds over
weak or plastic materials, c)Water pressure in cracks;
freezing of water in cracks; swelling due to hydration of
anhydrite, d)Shock caused by earthquake; blasting;

machinery and traffic, e)Strata inclined toward free face,
f)External loads such as buildings, increased weight due to
saturation or snow; accumulation of talus overriding landslide
material, g)Alteration of permeable beds such as sandstone
and weak impermeable beds, such as shale or clay and
h)Removal of part of mass by excavation; cuts; quarries; pits;
canals; removal of retaining walls; sheet piling; drainage of
lakes.
CONCLUSIONS
Stability monitoring of underground rock mass by rock
dynamic study, rock engineering investigation and acoustic
emission technique provide an in-depth know how regarding
its stability, which otherwise would have been an impossible
task with the existing conventional methods. Acoustic
emission investigations go hand in hand with the
conventional instrumentation. If not intricate know-how.
Laboratory investigations of in-situ stress determination also
indicate that vertical stress at the same depth with acoustic
emission method is near the values as determined by other
conventional methods. Researcher in the past has compared
in-situ stress obtained by acoustic emission technique, with
underground over coring methods. They too have found that
the two techniques appear to provide results, which are in
reasonable agreement. The success of a rock slope
stabilisation in hill roads mainly depend on a proper design
by rock dynamic and acoustic emission study in great detail.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
Beiniawski, Z T (1978). Rock Mechanics design in

mining and tunneling, A, A.Balkema, Rotterdam,
pp. 274, 19
Barton, N. (1976). The shear strength of Rock and
Rock Joints, Int.Jr.of Rock.Mech.Min.Sc &
Geomech.abstr, Vol.13, No.9, pp-255-279.
Palmstrom A. (1995). Rmi- a rock mass
Characterisation system for engineering properties,
university of Oslo, Norway, pp. 409.
Romanaa, M.: Practice of SMR classification for slope
appraisal, Proc.5thInt.Symp.onLandslides, Balkema,
Rotterdam, 12271229, 1988.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Author is grateful to Prof. Subhamaya Gangopadhyaya,
Director, Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi for his
kind permission to publish this paper. Author is also like to
thanks Head of the Division, Geotechnical Engineering
Division to provide facilities to carry out this Work.

December 13-15,2012, Delhi (Paper No.B213.)
EFFECT OF RANDOM MIXING OF NATURAL FIBERS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF

CLAYEY SOIL IN SUB-GRADE CONSTRUCTION IN ROADS
J. Maity, Assist.Professor, C.E.Dept.,Meghnad saha Institute of Technology, Kolkata, joymaity1975@yahoo.co.in.
B.C.Chattopadhyay, Professor, C.E.Dept., Meghnad saha Institute of Technology, Kolkata, ccbikash@yahoo.com.
S.P.Mukherjee, Professor & Head, C.E.Dept., Jadavpur University, Kolkata, email: sibapmukh@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT: In flexible road construction, availability of sufficient amount of soils for subgrade construction is itself
decreasing. In India, requirement of fill material is enormous and available soils near construction sites are found in many
situations to be weak in strength and of high compressibility. On the other hand, natural fibers like jute, coir, sabai grass etc. are
eco-friendly, cheap and are available in abundance in India. Such fibers can be used suitably as additive material in the sub
grade with soil by random mixing to result increase in strength and decrease deformability.
A systematic experimental program has been undertaken by the authors as regard to decrement of deformability and increment
in CBR of cohesive soil layers, on mixing randomly distributed different types of natural fibers in various proportions, with
varying length of fibers. The results of the investigation have been reported and discussed in this paper.
INTRODUCTION
With social and economical progress of human civilization
need of infrastructure development is becoming essential. For
transportation development in India huge amount
construction of roads are being made through different
schemes. For such constructions, requirement of fill material
for subgrade is enormous. But in many cases available soils
near construction sites are found to be weak in strength and
of high compressibility, even after routine compaction.
Reinforced soil structure is an effective technique for
increasing the strength of soil. Reinforced soil is widely used
as the construction material in formation of subgrade for
roads, railway tracks, airfields and in retaining walls or
abutments. Fiber-reinforced soil is becoming a viable soil
improvement method for geotechnical engineering problems
including stabilization of shallow slopes, construction of new
embankments with marginal soils, reduction of shrinkage
cracking in compacted clay liners and reinforcement of
roadway subgrades (Santoni et al. 2001).
In the recent years, randomly distributed fiber reinforced soil
can be advantageously utilized as a ground improvement
technique in the case of embankments, subgrades and in
similar other problems. The main advantages of randomly
distributed discrete fibres are the simplicity in mixing,
maintenance of strength isotropy and absence of potential
planes of weakness which may develop parallel to the
oriented reinforcement. The fibers added in constructions are
expected to provide better compact interlocking system
between the fiber and the soil system. Different materials for
fiber being used for study are glass fiber (Pazare et.al 2002),
Nylon fiber (Jain et al, 2003), synthetic fibre like
polypropylene fibres (Consoli et.al), Polyester fibre (Kaniraj
et.al), fragmented rubber shredded tyre (Lindh & Mattsson
2004) etc.
But the cost of synthetic fibers is high in India, which affects

cost effectiveness. This problem can be solved by using
locally available natural fibers as reinforcing material for low
traffic unpaved roads. Natural fibres like jute, coir, sisal,
palm fibre, sabai grass, etc. are mostly available in third
world countries at a low cost and their supply is ensured from
agriculture products. Shetty and Rao (1987) reported positive
influence of natural coir fibers on the CBR value of soils on
mixing such fiber with them. Rickson (2003) reported that
jute fabrics performed the best among other natural and
synthetic erosion control products under numerous
experimental conditions, with different rainfall intensities and
soil types.
In the present investigation, efficacy of using natural jute,
coir, sabai grass fibers with locally available clay has been
investigated. Results of the experimental study made with
various length and proportion of natural fiber mixed with
clay indicate improvement of its strength property.
MATERIALS AND TEST PROGRAMME
Clay
Locally available clayey soil around Kolkata in the state of
West Bengal, was used in this experimental study. The
physical properties of clay were determined in laboratory
and are given in Table 1. The clay was classified as CI.
Natural fibers
Natural fibers like Jute fiber, coir fiber and sabai grass fiber
were collected from local market and processed by cutting
into small pieces of length 5mm, 10mm and 20mm for use as
fiber material. Fibers were randomly mixed with clay with
various percentages of 1%, 1.5%, 2% and 2.5% to form
homogeneous mixture. The summary of the physical
properties of fibers are given in Table 2.
To investigate the effect of inclusion of these natural fibers
of various lengths and proportion, in clay taken, series of
Standard Proctor tests were conducted to identify the OMC
Maity, J, Chatoopadhyay, B.C. and Mukherjee,S.P.
and Maximum dry density values for each case. For any
series, the CBR tests were conducted for the clay mixed with
particular fiber length and percentage of the fiber by weight
at OMC both in unsoaked and soaked condition. All the tests
were conducted as per I.S. codal provision [IS 2720, Part 7
(1980) and Part 16 (1987) ].
The tests were performed for various parameters of
clay fiber mixtures as given in Table 3.
The mixing of fibers and clay was done manually with
proper care for preparing homogeneous mixture at each
stage of mixing.
The variation in MDD vs Fiber content and OMC vs Fiber

content curve for clay mixed with various percentage of
natural fibers of varying length are plotted and are shown in
Fig.1 and Fig. 2 respectively.
Table 4 Summary of Results of Standard Proctor and
Unsoaked and Soaked CBR tests
Test Result for Clay
Fiber
length
Table 1 Summary of Physical Properties of Clay

Properties
Classification (IS)
Specific gravity
Liquid Limit
Plastic Limit
Maximum dry density (gm/cc)
Optimum moisture content (%)
CBR (Unsoaked) (%)
CBR (soaked) (%)
Clay
CI
2.41
42%
23%
1.58
19.2
3.8
2.1
Jute
fiber
0.5cm
Jute
fiber
1.0cm
Jute
fiber
2.0cm
Table 2 Summary of Physical Properties of Fibers

Tests
Jute spoil
Coir
Sabai grass
Density (g/cc)
1.47
1.40
0.639
Diameter (mm)
0.03-0.14
0.1-0.45
0.955 (av.)
Table 3 Details of parameters used in Clay Fiber Mix

Type of Fiber
Length of jute
used
Fiber (mm)
Jute, Coir, Sabai

grass
Coir
fiber
1.0cm
Fiber Content (%)

0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%,
20, 10, 5
Coir
fiber
0.5cm
Coir
fiber
2.0cm
2.0%

From Standard Proctor tests, the Optimum Moisture Content
(OMC) and corresponding maximum dry density (MDD) for
each mix (different parameter used as mentioned in Table 3)
was determined. For each case Unsoaked and Soaked CBR
tests were conducted at OMC. The effect of adding natural
fibers, of varying proportion and lengths as given in Table 3,
on different compaction characteristics are discussed below.
The results of these tests are given in the table 4.
(A) Effect of Fibers inclusion on Standard Proctor tests:
The value of MDD and OMC obtained from the laboratory
tests are given in Table 4 for different natural fibers used.
Sabai
grass
fiber
0.5cm
Sabai
grass
fiber
1.0cm
Sabai
grass
fiber
2.0cm
% OF
Fiber
CBR
MDD
OMC
0.0%
1.58
1.0%
1.53
1.5%
1.51
21.4
5.1
3.7
2.0%
1.5
21.9
5.5
4.3
Unsoaked
Soaked
19.2
3.8
2.1
21
4.8
3.2
2.5%
1.49
22.4.
3.8
1.0%
1.52
21.5
4.8
3.3
1.5%
1.49
22.1
5.2
3.9
2.0%
1.48
22.8
5.7
4.5
2.5%
1.47
23
5.4
1.0%
1.51
22
4.5
3.1
1.5%
1.48
22.4
4.8
3.7
2.0%
1.46
23.2
5.3
4.2
2.5%
1.45
23.7
4.8
3.6
1.0%
1.56
19.7
3.5
1.5%
1.54
20.1
5.3
3.9
2.0%
1.53
20.5
5.8
4.4
2.5%
1.51
20.8
5.4
4.2
1.0%
1.52
19.9
5.2
3.7
1.5%
1.51
20.3
5.5
4.1
2.0%
1.5
20.6
4.8
2.5%
1.49
20.7
5.6
4.5
1.0%
1.51
20
4.8
3.6
1.5%
1.5
20.5
5.3
4.1
2.0%
1.49
21.2
5.7
4.6
2.5%
1.48
21.2
5.3
4.3
1.0%
1.51
20.2
4.2
2.8
1.5%
1.49
20.7
4.4
3.1
2.0%
1.47
21.5
4.7
3.6
2.5%
1.45
22.6
4.5
3.3
1.0%
1.49
21
4.4
1.5%
1.47
22.1
4.6
3.4
2.0%
1.45
22.7
4.9
3.7
2.5%
1.44
23.1
4.6
3.4
1.0%
1.49
22.2
4.2
2.9
1.5%
1.477
22.8
4.3
3.2
2.0%
1.45
23.4
4.5
3.5
2.5%
1.43
23.9
4.3
3.2
The results show that as the fiber content increases, the MDD
decreases. Also, as the fiber length increases, the MDD
decreases.
Effect of random mixing of natural fibers for the improvement clayey soil in Sub-grade construction of Road
On the other hand, as the fiber content increases, the OMC

increases. Also, as the fiber length increases, the OMC
increases.
Clay w ith 1 cm length jute"
Clay w ith 0.5 cm length coir"
Clay w ith 2 cm length coir"
Clay w ith 1 cm length sabai grass"
6
5.5
5
CBR
Clay w ith 0.5 cm length jute"

Clay w ith 0.5 cm length sabai grass"
Clay and Jute fiber 0.5cm length

Clay and Jute fiber1cm length
Clay and Jute fiber 2cm length
Clay and Coir fiber 0.5 cm length
Clay and Coir fiber 1 cm length
Clay and sabai grass 0.5 cm length
Clay and sabai grass 1 cm length
6.5
4.5
1.6
MDD VS % OF FIBER
1.58
1.56
1.54
Unsoaked CBR vs % of Fiber content
3.5
MDD
1.52
3
0.0%
1.5
1.48
0.5%
1.0%
1.5%
1.46
2.5%
3.0%
Fig. 3 Effect of Fiber content on Unsoaked CBR for clay.
1.44
1.42
0.0%
2.0%
% Fiber
0.5%
1.0%
1.5%
2.0%
2.5%
3.0%
Clay and Jute fiber 0.5cm length

Clay and Jute fiber1cm length
Clay and Jute fiber 2cm length
Clay and Coir fiber 0.5 cm length
Clay and sabai grass 0.5 cm length
% FIBER
5
Fig. 1 Effect of Fiber Content on MDD for Clay

4.5
4
CBR
The decrease in density is most likely a result of the fiber

having less specific weight in comparison with the soil
grains. The increase in moisture content is most likely the
result of the fibers having a greater water absorption capacity
than the surrounding clay.
3.5
3
2.5
Clay w ith 0.5 cm length jute"
Clay w ith 0.5 cm length coir"
Clay w ith 0.5 cm length sabai grass"
Soaked CBR vs % of Fiber content
2
0.0%
0.5%
1.0%
1.5%
2.0%
2.5%
3.0%
% Fiber
Fig. 4 Effect of Fiber content on Soaked CBR for clay.
Clay w ith2 cm length sabai grass"

24
On the other hand, the unsoaked CBR vs length of coir fiber

curves and soaked CBR vs length of coir fiber curves for clay
are shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 respectively. From these
figure, it is observed that the CBR values increases with the
increase of fiber length up to a maximum limit, after that it
decreases for all clay fiber mix. CBR value is maximum for
fiber length of 10mm for all natural fibers used.
OMC VS % FIBER
23.5
23
22.5
OMC
22
21.5
21
20.5
20
19.5
19
0.0%
0.5%
1.0%
1.5%
% FIBER
2.0%
2.5%
Unsoaked CBR vs Coir Fiber length
3.0%
6
Fig. 2 Effect of Fiber Content on OMC for Clay
5.5
5
CBR
(B) Effect of Fibers on California bearing ratio test:

CBR values obtained from laboratory tests are given in Table
4. The unsoaked CBR vs fiber content curves and soaked
CBR vs fiber content curves for clay are shown in Fig. 3 and
Fig. 4 respectively.
From these results, it can be observed that the CBR values
increases with the increase in fiber inclusion up to a
maximum limit, after that it decreases for clay fiber mix. For
all the fiber i.e. jute, coir and Sabai grass fiber, CBR value is
maximum for 2% of fiber inclusion of the dry weight of clay.
4.5
Clay with Coir fiber 1%
Clay with Coir fiber 1.5%
Clay with Coir fiber 2%
Clay with Coir fiber 2.5%
4
3.5
3
0
0.5
1.5
Length of Coir Fiber (cm)
Fig. 5 Effect of Coir Fiber length on unsoaked CBR for clay.
Maity, J, Chatoopadhyay, B.C. and Mukherjee,S.P.
Soaked CBR vs Fiber length
3.
Clay with Jute fiber 1%

Clay with Jute fiber 1.5%
Clay with Jute fiber 2%
Clay with Jute fiber 2.5%
5
4.5
CBR
4.
3.5
3
5.
2.5
6.
2
0
0.5
1.5
Length of Jute Fiber
Fig. 6 Effect of Jute Fiber length on Soaked CBR for clay.
7.
In a similar study, for improvement of properties of Black
cotton soils through randomly mixed natural reinforcement of
jute and coir fiber of various aspect ratios and proportions by
weight, it has been reported that maximum improvement in
terms of soaked CBR Value was observed at 2% of the fiber
irrespective of the types of materials (Gosavi, Patil, Mittal
and Saran, 2003). With the increase in proportion of added
jute fiber in sandy clay soil Pal et. al. (2010) also reported
gradual increase in CBR value from 0.5% to 1% of added
jute fiber of different length of 5mm, 10mm and 15mm.
The decrease of CBR value above optimum fiber content or
optimum fiber length may be due to the fact that, at that fiber
content or fiber length, fiber quantities are higher enough to
cause more fiber-fiber interaction than fiber-soil particle
interaction.
8.
9.
10.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions may be drawn from the present
study.
1. With the increase of the percentage of all types of
fibers with the used soil within the range tested in this
investigation, MDD decreases and OMC increases.
2. There is a considerable increase in both unsoaked and
soaked CBR value for clay when mixing with the
increasing of percentage of all three types of
randomly distributed natural fibers upto 2% of the dry
weight of soil, where after the value decreases.
3. Both unsoaked and soaked CBR value is maximum
for fiber length of 10mm for all types of fibers mixed
with the clay taken in this study. And optimum
percentage of fiber inclusion is 2%
REFERENCES:
1.
2.
Consoli N.C., Prietto P.D.M. and Ulbrich L.A.

(1998): Influence of Fiber and Cement Addition
on Behavior of Sandy Soil, Journal of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering,
Vol-124, no.12, pp. 1211-1214.
Gray, D. H. and Ohashi, H. 1983. "Mechanics of
fiber reinforcement in sand". Journal of
Geotechnical and Geo-environmental Engineering,
ASCE, vol. 109, no. 3, pp. 335-353.
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16.
Gosavi.M, Patil, K.A., Mittal, Saran.S (2003);

Improvement of Properties of Black Cotton Soil
Subgrade through Natural Reinforcement Proc.
Indian Geotechnical Conference, Vol.-I, Dec. 18-20,
2003, Roorkee, pp 379-383.
IS 2720 Part 7 (1980) Water content dry density
relation using light compaction.
IS 2720 Part 16 (1987) Laboratory determination
of California Bearing Ratio.
Jain, P.K., Jain, R. and Kumar, R. (2003)
Behaviour of expansive black cotton soil mixed
with nylon fibre, Proc. Indian Geotechnical
Conference, Roorkee, Vol- 1, pp. 389-392.
Kaniraj, S. R. and Havanagi, V. G. (2001) "Behavior
of cement-stabilization fiber-reinforced fly ash-soil
mixtures. Journal of Geo-technical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, vol. 127, no. 7, pp. 574584.
Lindh and Mattsson, Nina (2004) Composite soil
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made of rubber waste and cement stabilized soil, 5
international conference of Ground Improvement
Techniques, Malaysia, pp.195-202.
Maity, J., Chattopadhyay, B.C. and Mukherjee, S.P.
(2011); Variation of compaction characteristics of
sand randomly mixing with various natural fibers
Proc. Indian Geotechnical Conference, Vol.-I, Dec.
15-17, 2011, Kochi, pp 481-484.
Maity, J., Chattopadhyay, B.C. and Mukherjee, S.P.
(2010); Application of geonaturals spoils in sub
base for Road Construction Proc. Indian
Geotechnical Conference, Vol.-I, Dec. 16-18, 2010,
Mumbai, pp 617-620.
Pal, M, Majumdar, K, Barman, M and Sarkar, D
(2010), Study of Strength, CBR, Resistivity and
Conductivity of Soil-Jute Mixture, Indian
Highway, IRC, Volume . No. , pp.53-62.
Pazare, K.S., Chatterjee, P. (2002) Behaviour of
silty soil reinforced with randomly distributed
fibres. National seminar on ROTRAN, IIT,
Kharagpur, pp. 3.41-3.48.
Rao, S. and Jayalekshmi, S.(2010), Fibre
Reinforcement of Soil sub-grade Beneath Flexible
Pavements, Proc. Indian Geotechnical conference,
Mumbai, Vol 1, pp. 575 - 578.
Santoni, R.L. and Webster, S.L. (2001) Airfield
and Roads construction using fiber stabilization of
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Setty, K. R. N. S., and Rao, S. V. G. (1987)
"Characteristics of fiber reinforced lateritic soil".
Proc. Indian Geotechnical Conference, Bangalore,
India, pp. 329-333.
Sreedhar. M.V.S, Sathish, T., Kumar, K.K. and
Pravallika,P.K. (2009) Investigations on effect of
reinforcement in planar and fiber forms on CBR
value of sand Proc. Indian Geotechnical
conference, Guntur, Vol 1, page 194 197.

December 13-15,2012, Delhi (Paper NO B-214)
Improvement in CBR of the Expansive Soil Subgrades with a Single Reinforcement Layer
A.K.Choudhary, Associate Professor, Deptt. of Civil Engg., NIT Jamshedpur, India, Email: drakchoudharycivil@gmail.com
K.S.Gill, Associate Professor, Deptt. of Civil Engg., GNDEC Ludhiana, India, Email: kulbirgillkulbir@yahoo.co.in
J.N.Jha, Professor and Head, Deptt. of Civil Engg., GNDEC Ludhiana, India, Email: jagadanand@gmail.com
S.K. Shukla, Associate Professor and Program Leader, Discipline of Civil Engineering, School of Engineering, Edith Cowan
University, Perth, WA 6027, Australia, Email: s.shukla@ecu.edu.au
ABSTRACT: The performance of a pavement is very sensitive to the characteristics of the soil subgrade, which provides a
base for the whole pavement structure. It is therefore of utmost importance that the performance of such pavements is
improved by adopting proper design and construction methodology. This paper presents the results of a series of California
bearing ratio (CBR) and swell tests to evaluate the beneficial effects of placing a single layer of reinforcement horizontally at
varying depths from the top surface of the subgrade soil. The position of the reinforcing layer is optimized for two different
types of reinforcement namely, geogrid and jute geotextile. Results revealed that insertion of a single layer of horizontal
reinforcement placed within the specimen at certain specified depth from the top of the compacted specimen not only controls
the swell potential significantly but also improves the CBR value considerably.
INTRODUCTION
Problems associated with pavement construction become
more critical when the subgrade consists of expansive soils.
In India, expansive soils cover about 0.8106 Km2 area,
approximately one fifth of its surface area [1]. It is therefore
of utmost importance that the performance of such pavements
is improved by adopting proper design and construction
methodology. Reinforced earth technique is now being
widely used for various geotechnical engineering
applications. However, the application of reinforced earth in
the construction of pavements especially over poor and
problematic subgrades is limited. Several researchers have
conducted investigations using different types of
reinforcements and materials and reported that the provision
of a geomembrane layer can effectively restrain the heave
and swell pressure of underlying expansive soil [1].
Geosynthetics made from synthetic fibers are preferred over
other reinforcing materials in case of important highway
projects because of their strength and durability; however,
these materials are expensive resulting in higher project cost
and may not be environmental friendly in due course of time
under adverse condition. On the other hand, geotextiles made
from natural fibers such as jute, coir, sisal, and palm may
provide an economical and ecofriendly substitute to
geosynthetics for low cost road projects in rural areas,
especially where they are easily available. This paper
describes results of a series of CBR and swells tests to
evaluate the beneficial effects of placing a single layer of
horizontal reinforcement at varying depths from the top
surface of the expansive subgrade soil. The aim of the paper
is to optimize the position of the reinforcing layer for two
different types of reinforcement used in the investigation,
namely- geogrid and jute geotextile.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
Materials Used
The soil used in the present investigation was collected from
UCIL, Jadugoda mines area, Jamshedpur. The grain size
distribution curve of the soil is shown in Figure 1. Table 1
and 2 show physical properties of the soil and the reinforcing

elements used in the investigation.
Fig. 1 Grain Size Distribution

Table 1 Properties of expansive soil
Parameter
Value
2.72
Specific gravity
Grain size distribution:
8.0
Sand (%)
66
Silt (%)
26
Clay (%)
59
Liquid limit (%)
34
Plastic limit (%)
25
Plasticity index (%)
Parameter
FSI (%)
MDD
(kN/m3)
OMC (%)
Value
62.50
17.10
18.20
Sample Preparation and Testing

CBR and Swell tests were conducted on the unreinforced and
reinforced soil specimens. The specimens were compacted to
Table 2 Properties of reinforcing element
Parameter
Geogrid:
Material composition Polypropylene
Aperture size (mm)
Thickness (mm)
1.47
0.27
Jute Geotextile
Natural jute
fiber (woven)
1.49
3.2
Choudhary,Gill, Jha and Shukla
4.00
2.81
the maximum dry density (MDD) and optimum moisture

content (OMC). For the reinforced soil specimen, a single
layer of reinforcement was cut in the form of a circular disc
of diameter 147 mm, i.e slightly less than the mould diameter
150mm. The embedment ratio (z/d) was defined as the ratio
of depth of embedment (z) of the reinforcing layer from the
top surface of the compacted soil specimen to the diameter of
the loading plunger (d) and was varied as 0.25, 0.50, 1.0 and
1.50 as shown in Figure 2.
Annular
Surcharge
Weight
Loading Plunger
Top Surface of
Compacted Soil
d
z
Geogrid Layer
147mm
130mm
Soil Sample
Base Plate
150mm
Fig.2 Test model with geogrid layer

The required quantity of dry soil and water for filling the
mould was calculated based on the maximum dry density and
optimum moisture content obtained from the standard Proctor
test. The soil was mixed thoroughly after adding required
amount of water corresponding to the optimum moisture
content. The soil was filled in the mould up to the mark
where reinforcing layer was to be placed and then compacted
up to the desired level to get the required dry density. After
compaction of the soil, reinforcement was placed inside the
mould at the specified position. Finally the remaining soil
was filled and compacted. The top soil surface of the mould
was levelled. A filter paper and a perforated metallic disc
with adjustable stem along with an annular surcharge weight
(weight 25 N) were then placed on the top of the compacted
soil specimen. The whole mould assembly was transferred to
a soaking tank filled with water. After that the swell
measuring device was placed on the top edge of the mould. It
consists of a tripod and a dial gauge. The spindle of the dial
gauge was allowed to rest over the adjustable stem of the
perforated metallic plate. The initial dial gauge reading was
recorded. The mould assembly was left undisturbed for 96
hours in the soaking tank to allow soaking of water in the
specimen. After 96 hours of soaking, the final dial gauge
reading was recorded in order to measure the expansion or
swelling of the specimen due to soaking of water. Now the
whole mould assembly was transferred to a motorized
loading frame to conduct the CBR test. Initially a seating load
of 40 N was applied through the penetration plunger at the
centre of the specimen. The dial gauge of the proving ring
and penetration dial gauge were set to zero prior to

application of any further load. The load was then applied
through the penetration plunger at a constant rate of strain
(1.20 mm/minute) and the loads were carefully recorded up
to a total penetration of 12.50 mm. Finally load- penetration
curves were drawn for each case and corrections were applied
to the load-penetration curves wherever required using the
standard procedure. This process was followed for all the
specimens considered in the investigation.
CBR tests were conducted for both unreinforced as well as
reinforced case under soaked condition. For the reinforced
case, a single layer of reinforcement (geogrid) was placed at
varying depths from top soil surface. In order to ascertain the
influence of the position of the reinforcing layer on the
swelling characteristics and load- displacement response of
the specimen, the embedment ratio of the reinforcement was
varied from 0.25 to 1.50 (0.25, 0.50, 1.0 and 1.50). Initial dial
gauge reading prior to soaking of the specimen was recorded
and then final dial gauge reading after the completion of
soaking was also noted to determine the expansion ratio.
Expansion ratio is defined as the ratio of change in height of
the specimen to the original height of the specimen expressed
in percentage. To know the effect of type of reinforcement on
expansion ratio, the process was repeated by changing the
reinforcement type from geogrid to jute geotextile. Figure 3
shows the variation of expansion ratio with embedment ratio
(z/d) for both the type of reinforcements used in the
investigation.
8
7
Expansion Ratio (%)
Av. breaking strength

( kN/m)
6
5
Geogrid
Jute T extile
3
2
1
0
0
0.5
1.5
Embedment Ratio (z/d)
Fig. 3 Variation of Expansion ratio with Embedment ratio

From Figure 3 it can be observed that, in general, the
placement of a horizontal layer of reinforcement within the
soil specimen reduces the swelling. It is also noticed that
there is an optimum depth of embedment at which the
expansion ratio is minimum for a particular type of
reinforcement. In the present case, the value of embedment
ratio is 1.0 (one) for both type of reinforcement. From the
Figure 3 it can be observed that the expansion ratio for the
unreinforced case is 6.90% which decreased to 2.12% when
the reinforcement is geogrid. But when the reinforcement is
changed to jute geotextile, the expansion ratio decreased up
to 3.88%. Based on these observations it can be concluded
Improvement in CBR of the expansive soil subgrades with a single reinforcement layer
that the placement of a horizontal layer of reinforcement can

effectively control the swelling and can be explained as
follows: swelling pressure in a soil develops in all directions
and would mobilize the interfacial frictional force between
soil and reinforcement due to its normal component on the
reinforcement. This frictional force tends to counteract the
swelling pressure in a direction parallel to the reinforcement
and consequently reduces the heave. In Figure 3, it is clear
that the expansion ratio is less for the geogrid reinforcement
as compared to that of jute geotextile at any given
embedment ratio.
Figure 4 shows load-penetration curves at different
embedment ratio for both unreinforced and reinforced
specimens obtained from the CBR tests when the
reinforcement is geogrid. Figure 5 shows the loadpenetration curve when type of reinforcement is jute
geotextile.
0
0.25
0.50
Load v/s Penetration (Geogrid)
9
8
1
1.50
1.6
1.4
Geogrid
Jute T extile
1.2
1
CBR (%)
Load (kN)
1.8
cases were calculated at 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm penetrations,

respectively. It was observed from CBR calculation that for
all the cases considered in the present investigation, the CBR
value corresponding to 2.5 mm penetration was always
higher than that of 5.0 mm penetration. Therefore CBR
values reported in the present investigation are those of 2.5
mm penetration. Figure 6 presents the variation of CBR with
embedment ratio for both the types of reinforcements used in
the investigation. The CBR value of the unreinforced soil
corresponding to 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm penetration were found
to be 4.52% and 4.09% respectively.
At optimum embedment ratio (z/d =1.0) the value of CBR
increased to 7.53% at 2.5 mm penetration and 6.42% at 5.0
mm penetration, respectively when geogrid was used as
reinforcement. But when the reinforcement was changed to
jute geotextile, the CBR value increased from 4.52% to
8.03% at 2.5 mm penetration where as at 5.0 mm penetration,
the CBR value increased from 4.09% to 7.28%.
0.8
0.6
6
5
0.4
0.2
10
12.5
7.5
2.5
0.5
Penetration (mm)
3
0
Fig. 4 Load versus penetration at different embedment ratio
0.5
1.5
Fig. 6 Variation of CBR (%) with embedment ratio

0
Load v/s Penetration (Jute Geotextile)
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.50
1
12.5
10
7.5
2.5
0.5
1.50
Load (kN)
0.25
Penetration (mm)
Fig. 5 Load versus penetration at different embedment ratio

It can be observed from these figures that there is a marked
influence of a reinforcement layer within the specimen as
depicted from load-displacement response. It is noticed that
the piston load at a given penetration is higher for all cases of
reinforced specimen as compared to that of an unreinforced
specimen. The amount of increase in the piston load depends
on the embedment ratio (z/d) and type of reinforcement.
From the load- penetration curves, the CBR values for all
Improvement in CBR values due to presence of

reinforcement has been expressed by a dimensionless term
known as California bearing ratio index (CBRI). It is defined
in literature [2] as the ratio of CBR value of reinforced soil
(CBRr) to the CBR value of unreinforced soil (CBRu)[CBRI
= CBRr/CBRu]. Fig. 7 shows the variation of CBRI with
embedment ratio (z/d) for both the types of reinforcement
used in the investigation. It is observed that the maximum
improvement in CBRI also occurs when embedment ratio is
equal to 1.0 for both types of reinforcement. At z/d = 1.0,
improvement in CBRI value is 78% when the reinforcement
is jute geotextile, but in case of geogrid the extent of
improvement was lower and found to be equal to 66%.
Therefore contrary to the swelling behavior, the jute
geotextile was found to be more effective than the geogrid in
improving the strength characteristics for all the cases of the
embedment ratios considered in the investigation. Further it
can be observed that there is an optimum depth of
embedment (z=d) where the CBRI value is maximum. At
optimum depth, the reinforcement is able to do much better
load distribution below the reinforced zone and a more
adequate anchorage resistance can be mobilized under higher
Choudhary,Gill, Jha and Shukla
overburden pressure. At any depth other than embedment

depth, the improvement in the CBRI value is not significant
because of the fact that vertical stress intensity reduces either
1.9
Geogrid
1.7
Jute T extile
CBRI
1.5
1.3
1.1
0.9
0.7
0.5
0
0.5
1.5
penetration of 2.5 mm) to the penetration of 2.5 mm] was

determined from the load penetration curve. Figure 9 shows
the variation of secant modulus with embedment ratio for
both the types of reinforcement. As expected, the secant
modulus for the reinforced case is higher than that for
unreinforced case for all the embedment ratio considered in
the investigation. For example, the secant modulus for the
unreinforced soil is 124.16 MPa which increased to 206.56
MPa when the soil is reinforced with geogrid. But when
reinforcement was jute geotextile, the value of secant
modulus became 220.57 MPa. In both the cases, the
maximum value of secant modulus was obtained at an
embedment ratio equal to 1.0.
Embedment Rat io (z/d)
230
210
due to smaller overburden of the soil mass above the

reinforcement layer (z < d) or due to the applied load at the
surface as per the Boussinesque equation of distribution of
stress (z > d) and thereby interface frictional resistance is not
fully mobilized which results in a decrease of CBRI value.
The increase in strength of soil due to inclusion of
reinforcement within the specimen can also be expressed in
terms of piston load ratio (PLR). It is defined as the ratio of
maximum piston load at 12.5 mm penetration for reinforced
specimen (Lr) to the maximum piston load at the same
penetration for unreinforced specimen (Lu) [PLR = Lr / Lu].
The variation of PLR with respect to embedment ratio (z/d)
for both the types of reinforcement has been shown in Figure
8. As expected it can be observed from the Figure 8 that the
value of PLR is higher for the reinforced specimen. The
extent of increase in PLR however depends on z/d ratio for a
particular type of reinforcement and vice versa. Again it can
be observed that for a given embedment ratio, the jute
geotextile yields higher PLR as compared to that of the
geogrid and the maximum improvement in PLR for jute
geotextile is 1.56 whereas the same in case of geogrid is 1.39.
1.7
Geogrid
1.5
Jute T extile
PLR
1.3
1.1
0.9
0.7
0.5
0
0.5
1.5
190
Secant Modulus, MPa
Fig. 7 Variation of CBRI with embedment ratio
170
150
Geogrid
130
Jute T ext ile
110
90
70
50
0
0.5
1.5
Embedment Rat io (z/d)
Fig. 9 Variation of secant modulus with embedment ratio.

CONCLUSIONS
Following conclusions can be drawn from the present
investigation:
1. The insertion of a single layer of reinforcement within
the expansive soil subgrade controls the swelling
significantly. The percentage reduction in swell
potential however depends on its depth of embedment
and the type of reinforcement used.
2. The CBR value of the soil increases substantially when
a single layer of reinforcement is placed horizontally
within the soil. The extent of improvement depends on
the type of reinforcement and the embedment ratio.
3. The stress-strain behavior of expansive soil subgrade
improves considerably when the reinforcement is
provided at optimum embedment depth under static
load condition as evident from the secant modulus
values obtained for different cases.
4. The jute geotextile offers a better reinforcing efficiency
as compared to the geogrid and can be used for low cost
road projects in rural areas. But durability study is
required for long term application of the jute geotextile.
Fig. 8 Variation of PLR with embedment ratio

The modulus of elasticity is usually calculated from the
straight portion of the stress-strain curve but for most of the
soils the stress-strain curve is not linear for appreciable
distance and rather it is non-linear. Therefore in the present
investigation secant modulus [Ratio of load (in kPa at a
REFERENCES
1. Choudhary, A.K, Gill, K.S. and Jha, J.N. (2011),
Improvement in CBR values of expansive soil
subgrade using geosynthetics, Proc. Indian
Geotechnical Conference, 569-572.
2. Choudhary, A.K, Jha, J.N and Gill, K.S. (2010) A
study on CBR behavior of waste plastic reinforced
soil, Emirates Journal of Engineering Research,
15(1), 51-57.

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF RETAINING WALL WITH SINGLE SHELF

R. D. Padhye ... Lecturer, WCE Sangli (MS), rajeshpadhye1@rediffmail.com
H. N. Bhoye ... Student, M. Tech. (Civil-Structure), WCE Sangli (MS), bhoyehemant08@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: The cantilever retaining wall with shelf is one of the special types of retaining walls. This paper contents the
application of finite element method (2D) to investigate the behavior of cantilever retaining wall with single shelf located at
the centre of the wall. Models of retaining wall with single shelf of different widths are prepared in the soft-ware Staad-Pro.
The investigations are carried out some of the major factors like the displacement of stem, heel and toe, bending moments,
reactions, etc. The finite element analysis reveals that the wall and soil movements are of considerable importance in
prediction of lateral earth pressure.
INTRODUCTION
Retaining wall with pressure relief shelves is one of the
special types of retaining wall. High reinforced concrete
retaining walls may be used economically by providing
relief shelves on the back fill side of the wall. Such walls
may be termed as the retaining wall with relief shelf.
Providing one or more relief platforms or shelves,
extending them to the rupture surface have an advantage of
decreasing the overall lateral earth pressure on the wall and
increasing the overall stability of the structure. This results
in an economical design because less material goes into the
wall as compared to massive structure of cantilever or even
counterfort retaining walls without shelves[2]
The study of this type of retaining wall is therefore
important to see the performance of such wall. Whats ever
the finite element method used for this type of problem are
concerned with the backfill soil and earth pressure. In this
paper the efforts have been taken to perform the study of
such type of wall from structural point of view. The
structural analysis of such type of wall by using STAADPro V8i software is performed for the following objectives.
1. To prepare 2D finite Element model for retaining wall
with and without shelf.
2.
The study is performed for single shelf located at the
mid span of the stem because theoretically this position
of the shelf is the most optimized location for single
shelf for maximum reduction of earth pressure[4]
3. To study the pattern of deflections, bending moments,
support reactions, etc of various components of the
retaining wall.
4. To perform the comparative study with respect to
above factors between the retaining wall with and
without shelf.
DESIGN PROBLEM
Following data is assumed. Table 1 shows the constant and
variable parameters considered during design of retaining
wall with and without shelf.
Table1 Design parameters
Constant Parameters
Unit
weight of reinforced
cement concrete = 25 kN / m3
be supported (H) = 7
m
Grade of concrete: M 20 and

grade of steel: Fe 415
Unit weight of soil ()

= 20 kN / m3
Thickness of stem at top of Angle

retaining wall (T0) = 0.40 m friction
(200 mm minimum, preferably
400 mm)
Width of base slab (B) = 3.8
m (0.4 H to 0.7 H)
of
internal
= 30
Coefficient of friction
at base = 0.5
Thickness
of
stem
at Bearing Capacity of
intersection = 0.8 m (H/12 to soil (qf) = 200 kN / m2
H/8)
Projection of base slab
towards toe (0.20 B to 0.40 B)
=1m
Thickness of base slab

(Tb) = 0.8 m
Height of stem (h) = H
t b = 7.00 0.80 =
6.2 m
Variable Parameters
Height of backfill to
Figure 1 Cross section of retaining wall without shelf
RD Padhye & HN Bhoye
Figure.2 Cross Section of Retaining wall with shelf at mid

span
Whats ever the finite element method is used for this
problem are concentrated on the backfill soil and earth
pressure studies and stresses and properties in soil. In this
project the efforts have been taken to perform the study of
such type of wall from structural point of view. The
analysis of both the types of walls are made on the basis of
Rankines analysis and the obtained earth pressures are
applied to the model walls prepared in Stadd Pro software
to study the deflections, bending moments, reactions, etc in
this paper. Table 2 show the calculated loading applied to
retaining wall with shelf at centre of the wall for the stated
cases.
Table2 Loading on Retaining wall with shelf at mid span
Case 2. Earth pressure on stem above shelf
Magnitude
(kN/m2)
Factor -1,
Direction Y
20.6667
Case 3. Earth pressure on stem below shelf
20.6667
Laod case
Case 1. Self weight of retaining wall
Case 4. Earth pressure on shelf.
62
Case 5. Earth pressure on heel below shelf
62
Case 6. Earth pressure on heel
124
Case 7. Upward soil pressure on toe
122.44
Case 8. Upward soil pressure on heel
98.128
FINITE ELEMENT MODELS

For the finite element modeling, STAAD-PRO V8i
software is used. STAAD-Pro V8i is the most popular
structural engineering software product for 2D as well as
3D model generation, analysis and multi-material design. It
has an intuitive, user-friendly GUI, visualization tools,
powerful analysis and design facilities and seamless
integration to several other modeling and design software
products. The software is fully compatible with all
Windows operating systems. For static or dynamic analysis
of bridges, containment structures, embedded structures

(tunnels and culverts), pipe racks, steel, concrete, aluminum
or timber buildings, transmission towers, stadiums or any
other simple or complex structure, STAAD-Pro has been
the choice of design professionals around the world for
their specific analysis needs
The model of the cantilever reinforced concrete retaining
wall without and with shelf is generated in space structure
(which is a three-dimensional framed structure with loads
applied in any plane) and using four node plate element.
The model of the retaining wall without shelf includes 30
nodes and 14 plates and the wall with shelf includes 32
nodes and 15 plates. Node no. 1 to 6 on toe slab, node no. 5
to 10 on heel slab, node no. 5, 6, 11 to 30 on stem on node
no. 31 & 32 on shelf. Node no. 5& 6 is common for toe,
heel and stem. Plate no. 1 & 2 on toe slab; plate no. 3 & 4
on heel slab; plate no. 5 to 14 on stem on plate no. 15 on
shelf.
Figure 3 and figure 4 show the Node number and plate
number for retaining wall without and with shelf. Thickness
property is given to the plates from commands menu as per
thickness of toe, heel, stem and shelf. Fixed support is
provided to node no. 5 & 6 which are intersection of toe,
heel and stem from support page option. Toe, heel and stem
acts as cantilever member so fix support provide at their
intersection joint.
Figure.3 Finite element model of retaining wall without

shelf
Figure 4 Finite Element Model of Retaining wall with

shelf
Finite element analysis of retaining wall with single shelf
Table 3 and 4
show that the overall weight of the
retaining wall increases due to shelf provision but upward
soil pressure
and the moment at the toe reduces
considerably and due to whoich the stability of wall with
shelf increases. It also can be seen that the earth pressure on
the stem reduces due to provision of the shelf. Table 5
idicates that the bending moment in both the direction
reduces byy the provision of shelf up to plate No. 9 i. e.
above the shelf and it increases below the shelf up to plate
No. 15. It can be observed that there is considerable
reduction in the bending moment too.
COMPARISON OF CANTILEVER RETAINING
WALL WITHOUT AND WITH SHELF AT MID
SPAN OF RETAINING WALL
1. Support reactions
Table3 Comparison of Support reactions
Load
Case
Retaining Wall
without Shelf
Retaining Wall with

Shelf
Fy kN
Fz kN
Fy kN
-169
-179
-128.12
-32.034
-32.034
Case 4
-62
Case 5
-62
Case 6
-248
-124
Case 7
274
210
Case 8
142
209.0
Case 1.
Case 2
Case 3
Fz kN
deflection.
3. Bending Moments
Table5 Comparison of bending moments
Plate
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Retaining Wall
without Shelf
Mx
My
kNm/m
kNm/m
-39.221
-12.843
-157.04
-22.787
112.479
15.388
25.353
7.61
228.908
21.652
164.3
0.932
113.196
3.044
74.008
2.371
45.146
2.038
25.022
1.664
12.048
1.294
4.634
0.925
1.192
0.551
0.132
0.214
-
Retaining Wall
with Shelf
Mx
My
kNm/m
kNm/m
-25.364
-8.743
-105.949
-16.245
35.607
3.112
10.648
2.407
111.788
10.54
78.952
0.214
51.676
1.042
28.372
0.66
7.452
-0.808
25.025
2.523
12.049
1.19
4.634
0.938
1.192
0.55
0.132
0.214
17.856
6.705
2. Support moments
Table4 Comparison of support moments
Load
Case
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Retaining Wall
without Shelf
My kNm Mz kNm
0
-238.92
192.18
Retaining Wall with

Shelf
My kNm Mz kNm
0
-268.5
48.051
0
48.051
Case 4
-93
Case 5
-93
Case 6
Case 7
Case 8
0
0
0
-372
412.011
213.48
0
0
0
-186
315.03
313.56
From Table 6 it can be observed that the deflection of the

stem is reduced due to provision of the shelf by about
47.50% at top if shelf is provided. Figures 5 anf 6 shows
the pattern of the deflection of the stem of retaining wall
with and without shelf. Nodes 5 and 6 are at the junction of
stem heel and toe and at fixed support therefore show zero
Figure.5 Displacement of retaining wall without

shelf
Figure6 Displacement of retaining wall with shelf
RD Padhye & HN Bhoye
5.
Displacements
Table6 Comparison of Displacements

Retaining Wall
Retaining Wall with
Node
without Shelf
Shelf
Horizo
Horizo
Vertical
Vertical
ntal
ntal
Y mm
Z mm
Y mm
Z mm
1
0.251
0
0.169
0
2
0.251
0
0.169
0
3
0.08
0
0.055
0
4
0.08
0
0.055
0
5
0
0
0
0
6
0
0
0
0
7
-0.083
0
-0.024
0
9
-0.227
0
-0.073
0
10
-0.227
0
-0.073
0
11
-0.004
-0.12
-0.008
-0.059
12
-0.004
-0.12
-0.008
-0.059
13
-0.008
-0.44
-0.014
-0.215
14
-0.008
-0.44
-0.014
-0.215
15
-0.011
-0.891
-0.021
-0.433
16
-0.011
-0.891
-0.021
-0.433
17
-0.014
-1.431
-0.027
-0.69
18
-0.014
-1.431
-0.027
-0.69
19
-0.017
-2.026
-0.032
-0.963
20
-0.017
-2.026
-0.032
-0.963
21
-0.019
-2.652
-0.035
-1.25
22
-0.019
-2.652
-0.035
-1.25
23
-0.02
-3.295
-0.036
-1.555
24
-0.02
-3.295
-0.036
-1.555
25
-0.021
-3.945
-0.037
-1.866
26
-0.021
-3.945
-0.037
-1.866
27
-0.022
-4.596
-0.038
-2.179
28
-0.022
-4.596
-0.038
-2.179
29
-0.023
-5.248
-0.039
-2.492
30
-0.023
-5.248
-0.039
-2.492
31
0.298
-0.964
32
0.298
-0.964
CONCLUSION
The software Stadd-Pro is finite element based software
and which can be conveniently adopted for the analysis of
retaining wall with and without relief shelf. The values of
deflections, bending moments, support reactions; etc at
various components can be easily calculated by this
software.
Theoretically as well as practically the best location for the
single shelf for the maximum reduction of earth pressure is
observed to be 0.5 h. At this location of the shelf the
deflection of the stem is observed to be reduced by about
47.50% and maximum bending moment in X direction by
about 55% than the deflection and bending moment given
without shelf.
REFERENCES
1. Wayne, G. Clough, James, M. Duncan. (1971), Finite
Element Analyses of Retaining Wall Behavior Vol. 97,
No. 12, pp. 1657-1673
2.
Jumikis, A.R. (1964), Mechanics of Soils, D. Van

Nostrand Compan Inc, Princeton NJ.
3. Padhye, R.D. Ullagaddi, P.B. (2005), Retaining Walls
with Pressure Relief Shelf A Review Study, All
India Seminars on, Advances in Geotechnical
Engineering. National Institute of Technology,
Rourkela. pp 62 68
Design of
4
Padhye, R.D. (2010), Analysis and
Retaining Walls with Pressure Relief ShelvesDoctoral
Thesis, S. R. T. M. University, Nanded (MS), India.
5. Syed, M.A. Basudhar, P.K. (2008), Behaviour of
reinforced soil retaining wall under static loading
using finite element method The 12th International
Conference of International Association for Computer
Methods and Advances in Geo-mechanics (IACMAG)
1st 6th October, Goa, India. pp 3930 3938

December 13-15, 2012, Delhi (Paper No.B219)
Investigations, Design and Execution of Soil Nailing Under Varied Geotechnical Environment
S.B. Suri, Chief Consultant, AECS Engineering & Geotechnical Services Pvt. Ltd., Noida, sbsuri@aecs.co
Nakul Dev, Senior Consultant, AECS Engineering & Geotechnical Services Pvt. Ltd., Noida, enndev@aecs.co
Thomas Joseph, GM (Technical), AECS Engineering & Geotechnical Services Pvt. Ltd., Noida, thomasj@aecs.co
Sanjeev Trehan, Senior Manager, AECS Engineering & Geotechnical Services Pvt. Ltd., Noida, strehan@aecs.co
ABSTRACT: Soil Nailing Technique is gaining popularity for stabilizing insitu natural & steep cut slopes. It is increasingly being
employed in urban environment for protection of underground structures like multilevel basements, underground parking lots &
shopping malls. Soil nailing involves investigations for soil parameters, analysis of slope using geotechnical software with input
parameters determined during field & laboratory investigations to determine a factor of safety and execution of soil nailing
technique using details such as diameter, spacing & length of nails obtained in analysis. Anchoring with wire mesh and shotcreting
for facial treatment/aesthetics is also often resorted to. This paper presents case histories of 3 Nos. projects wherein AECS
Engineering & Geotechnical Services Pvt. Ltd. (AECS) was associated with investigations, design & analysis and installation of
nails in one project, while in the other twoprojects, only investigations & execution of the soil nailing system were the
responsibility of AECS. These projects were located in different regions of the country and had varied geotechnical settings in
terms of soil type, shear strength parameters and pull out strength. Detailed methodology, analysis and steps for installation of nails
have been presented for each of the presented case studies. Based on experience gained in investigations, design, analysis and
installation, points needing special attention are enumerated.
.
INTRODUCTION
Soil nailing consists of reinforcing the soil mass by introducing
a series of thin elements called Nails to resist tension, bending
and shear forces. The reinforcing elements are made of round
cross-section steel bars called Nails which are installed subhorizontally and are either driven or grouted in pre-bored holes.
Soil nailing technique has been used for stabilising both insitu
natural and steep cut slopes. In urban areas, this technique is
also used to construct temporary or permanent retaining
structures to support the ground close to neighbouring
structures that is sensitive to deform, for protection of
underground structures like multi level basements, underground
parking lots, malls and other commercial & residential high rise
buildings and has proved to be a suitable & economical option.
It is reported in the literature that this technique can save about
10% to 30 % of the cost as compared to other retaining
structures [1&2]. AECS experience supports this statement.
INVESTIGATIONS
Prerequisite for undertaking analysis of slope to be stabilized is
determination of the index & engineering properties of soil.
Besides, co-efficient of friction between nail and surrounding
soil (driven nails) or between grout and soil (grouted nails) is
required. A comprehensive soil investigations programme is
planned to obtain the required parameters and/or adopted from
available soil report. To determine the coefficient of friction,
pull out tests are performed in the slope cut to a desired angle
with the horizontal.
ANALYSIS & DESIGN

First of all, stability of an unsupported slope is checked by
evaluating the factor of safety of the unreinforced slope,
wherein a large number (of the order of 10000 slip circles) are
analysed using the Bishops simplified method. The factor of
safety value of less than 1.00 indicates that the slope is in an
unstable condition and needs to be designed for stability.
The design of the reinforced slope consists of determining the
factor of safety of the slope for various combinations of support
systems to ensure adequate factor of safety and to find an
optimized solution. The tensile capacity of the driven/grouted
nails is assumed to be adequate enough so that component
failure does not occur. The parameters for driven/grouted nails
which are variable in the design process are:
1. Spacing of the nails
2. Length of the nails
3. Inclination of the nails from the horizontal
Use of commercial software was made in the case studies
presented below for analyzing the unreinforced as well as
reinforced slopes.
INSTALLATION OF NAILS
General Arrangement of Nailing System
General arrangement for stabilization of the slope of excavation
using soil nailing technique with driven/grouted nails comprises
of:
S.B. Suri, Nakul Dev, Thomas Joseph & Sanjeev Trehan
Soil nailing normally starts from the top of the slope and
gradually proceeds towards bottom of the slope in stages.
Each stage is normally between 1.5m to 2.0 m deep.
Shotcrete (of adequate thickness) is applied on any layer
comprising of loose debris (normally removed) all along
the periphery of the area to be stabilized in case the loose
debris is to be left in place.
Face of the excavation to the designed slope is made for a
width of 10 m and a bench wide enough to accommodate
driving hammer at the bottom at each stage. On completion
of nailing of first full length of an excavated face in the
same plane, next stage is excavated and nailed. The
process is repeated till the bottom of proposed excavation
is reached. Completion process shall include nailing, fixing
of steel mesh and welding/bolting of bearing plates to each
nail.
The driven nails as per nailing scheme for stabilization of
cut slope are installed with a Pneumatic Hammer- Head
without prior boring to accommodate the nail upto desired
length. The nail is driven at an angle of 10-15 degree to the
horizontal [1].
Based on above procedure, the calculated number of top
layers of Driven Nails of given length and specified
diameter at designed spacing both in vertical & horizontal
directions as per approved design are installed.
Fixing of steel mesh of designed gauge with specified
opening size to protect the surface erosion.
Fixing bearing plates of as per design (say 200x200x6 mm)
to each nail.
Finishing with shotcrete of suitable proportions & adequate
thickness for surface protection Shotcrete provides a
continuous supporting layer over the excavated face that
can also serve to fill voids and cracks on the excavated
face [3].
CASE STUDIES OF SOIL NAILING

Case Study 1: Slope Stabilisation of Foundation Excavation
at the GYS Vision Site
Background & Project Details
M/s Dignity Buildcon Pvt. Ltd is constructing a high rise
commercial complex in Sector 62, Gurgaon. During
excavation of the foundation, a localized slope failure occurred
on the slopes of western & eastern faces. It was observed that
seepage of effluent from a close by surface sewage drain
(Nallah) running parallel to the excavated area was charging
into the sub-soil mass. This, along with high water table
condition, was causing instability of the slope.
To stabilize the affected slope surface of about 500m2 and some
similar patches of the failure on the excavated face just on the
opposite side of the slide on the nallah side, Soil Nailing
Technique was employed.
The project site is located on Golf link extension road of Sector

- 62, Gurgaon (Haryana). The proposed site was excavated with
the help of heavy duty excavating machines in stages. The
water table was encountered at about 5m depth from the
existing ground level. Since the water table was encountered at
shallow depth, numerous pumps were installed for dewatering
the entire area.
Investigations
6 Nos. pull out tests were conducted on the cut slope at
different elevations. Tests were performed in accordance with
Indian Standard Code [4]. A special Central Hole Jack in which
ram has a central hole throughout the height of the jack was
employed.
To perform these tests, suitable scaffolding
arrangements were made for installation of these nails. The test
results were used to find out apparent coefficient of friction or
actual pull out strength of the nail which was used in the design
of the soil nail system.
Design & Analysis
The design of the soil nailing system was carried out using
SLIDE software first for unreinforced section which gave a
Factor of Safety (FOS) of 0.7. Therefore, grouted nails
consisting of slotted GI pipes with a diameter of 50 mm with
suitable subsurface drainage system was considered which gave
optimum FOS of 1.26. For analysis, it is assumed that the
grouted nails will be having an effective diameter of 100 mm
(an increase in the diameter by 25 mm has been assumed due to
the grout percolating in the adjoining soil).The input parameters
adopted in design are as follows:
Unit Weight = 16.2 kN/m3, Pullout strength adhesion = 5
kN/m, Pullout strength friction angle = 30, Bond length =
100%, Shear strength model Linear.
Fig. 1 depicts simulated excavation profile. Factors of Safety
(FOS) for reinforced section are indicated in Fig. 2. Provision
of 50 mm dia. and 10.0 m long grouted nails (GI slotted pipes)
installed at an inclination of 15 from the horizontal (downward
direction) with 2.0 m c/c spacing (both in-plane and out-plane)
stabilizes the excavated cut-slope of 16.5 m height and 11.0 m
width and 1H : 1.5V slope was found to be satisfactory.
Additionally, a sub surface drainage system was also installed.
Need for diversion of Nallah water was emphasized. In this
project, investigations, design & analysis as well as execution
of the designed soil nailing system were carried out by AECS.
Investigation, Design & Execution of soil nailing under varied geotechnical environment
on field & laboratory soil testing got conducted by the client,

the use of soil nailing for stabilization of the soil was selected.
Investigations
The investigations comprised of collection & testing of soil
samples from the embankment for use in design. One borehole
upto a depth of 6.0m was drilled from the top of the
embankment. Only disturbed samples were used to ascertain
the soil strata because of difficulty in obtaining undisturbed
samples. The tested soil was classified as sand with bulk
density of fill soil as 17kN/m3 and shear strength parameters c
(cohesion intercept) as 0 kPa and angle of shearing resistance
() as 290. These parameters were adopted for design.
Fig. 1: Simulated Excavation Profile
Fig. 2: Factor of safety contours for the reinforced slope

(effective drainage system)
Case Study 2: Stabilisation of Vertical Slopes for
Construction of Road Under Bridge at West End of Old
Yamuna Bridge No. 249, Delhi Shahdara Section
Delhi PWD constructed a Bypass ring road from Salimgarh
Fort to Velodrome road as a part of Commonwealth Games
2010 works. A road under bridge (RUB) consisting of 3 RCC
boxes was proposed under a railway track. RUB was proposed
at a location where rail level (RL 214.06) is about 6.00m above
Natural Ground Level (208.46m) and the rail embankment is
contained between two long rubble stone masonry retaining
walls. The said RUB was constructed by box pushing
technique. The precast box segments were required to be
pushed in highly unstable cohesionless sandy soil strata. The
rubble masonry retaining walls on reception & exit ends of the
box were required to be dismantled which would expose earth
face of more than 8.0m height prone to collapse. This
cohesionless soil strata was required to be stabilized using
suitable techniques before starting pushing operations. Based
Besides, 6 Nos. pull out tests were conducted on 32mm &

28mm dia. driven nails of different lengths and 89mm dia.
perforated pipe nails with perforations 12mm@50mm c/c in
staggered manner to determine the apparent coefficient of
friction between insitu soil and nails both for grouted and
driven nails. Values of 9.0kN/m and 4.0kN/m were considered
for design of grouted and driven nails respectively.
Design & Analysis
Based on design of soil nail system, a system of grouted &
driven nails was considered. The input parameters considered
in design were as below:
Geometry of the Cut Slope: The batter of the soil mass-83.160
with the horizontal; the depth of overburden soil (rail top level)
above the box=1m; the height of parapet wall=0.7m.
Load Parameters: External loading (due to railway track)
including ballast-110kN/m per track as per suggestion of
railway authorities.
Fill Soil Properties: Cohesion, c=0 kN/m2, angle of shearing
resistance, =290, bulk density of fill soil=17kN/m2.
Pull out Strength: Grouted Nail=9.0kN/m, Driven
nail=4.0kN/m.
Length of driven nails varied according to their location as per
design & details of length, diameter, spacing of nails required
for stabilizing the cut face at RUB location is presented in
Table 1. It is worthwhile mentioning here that at no stage of
the nailing operations, the running of the trains on the railway
tracks above was stopped; however, the speed was reduced to
about half the normal speed. In this project, pull out tests &
execution of the soil nailing system were handled by AECS.
Table 1: Proposed Nailing Scheme of Stabilizing Cut Slope
Dia.
of
Nail
(mm)
100**
32**
Typ
e of
Nail
Gro
uted
Dri
Origi
Depth
Spacing (m)
Effective
nal
from
Length
Leng
Rail
of Nail
Vert. Hor.
th of
Top
(m)
Nail
(m)
First row of Grouted nails deleted
1.3
0.3
0.5
15
15
1.55
0.3
0.4
15
15
S.B. Suri, Nakul Dev, Thomas Joseph & Sanjeev Trehan
32*
32
28
ven
Nail
s
2.3
2.63.6
3.69.0
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.3
15
8
15
8.3
0.4
0.3
6.3
**These nails should be grouted to another side of the retaining

wall; * indicates the nail comes under box top cover. Nails
should be cut at regular intervals during box pushing.
Case Study 3: Stabilisation of Landslide on NainitalHaldwani Road, Nainital (Uttrakhand)
The landslide under consideration is located on NainitalHaldwani road (NH-35), about 3.5 Km from Nainital. It has
damaged a historic sewage disposal pipe system leading to
proposed sewage plant leading to free flow of sewage down the
slope causing erosion of slope and causing further instability
Investigations
Based on soil investigations got carried out by the client, the
soil was found to be non-plastic, poorly graded sand (SP) with
cohesion c of 0 kPa & angle of shearing resistance, as 420.
4 Nos. of pull out tests were conducted to determine field
values of coefficient of friction between proposed nail and
surrounding soil/grout [4]. The bond strength was found to vary
from 0.127 MPa to 0.286 MPa attributable primarily to the
geological condition of the drill hole, efficiency of grouting
around the anchor bar, the extent of curing cement sand slurry
& surface condition of the reinforcement bar. The indicated
values are based on 7 days curing and are expected to be 40 to
50% higher after 28 days curing. A value of 0.25 MPa or
mechanical anchorage of 2.00 Tonnes/meter at failure was
adopted for design.
Design & Analysis
During pull out tests it was observed that anchor bars failed in
bond between bars and the 1:3 cement grout. Accordingly, rich
1:1 cement grout was used and bond strength determined. The
bond strength (kg/cm2) was worked out as load taken by bar in
Kg divided by surface area of bar (cm2) in contact with grout. A
berm about 2m wide was provided at mid height of 22m slope
that helped economise the design & later accommodated subsurface drainage pipe from top half of the slope for discharge
into the sump at road level. Input parameters adopted for
design are given below:
Vertical height of slope=16m, Angle of slope with the
vertical=1, 00, =420, c=0.0 kPa, seismic coefficients h=0.15,
v=0.075, allowable soil pressure=250kN/m2 & friction
coefficient between grout & soil=0.60.
Stability analysis provided the following design features:
Horizontal & vertical spacing of nails=2.0m, length of

nail=6.5m, diameter of nail=25mm, material of nail=tor steel,
method of nailing=drilled & grouted, inclination of nail with
horizontal=100, Facial Material=shotcreting reinforced with one
layer of 3mm, 75mm c/c mesh & thickness of 100mm. About
800 sq. m area was stabilized.
Weep/drainage holes were provided through the finished slope.
Drainage holes were constructed with perforated 75mm, 5m
long GI pipes. It was stressed that there should be no leakage
from sewage containing pipes laid on the stabilised slope as the
seepage from pipes can make the slope unstable. In this
project, pull out tests & execution of the soil nailing system
were handled by AECS.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Based on the case studies presented, it can be said that:
Soil nailing is a suitable technique for stabilizing steeply
cut/natural slopes. Proper field investigations including pull
out tests on proposed nails i.e. driven or grouted need to be
carried out for determining soil parameters to be used as input.
Facial treatment comprising of chicken mesh held in position
with U bolts covered with a layer of shotcreting proves useful
and enhances aesthetics of the slope. Sub-surface drainage
system using perforated GI/PVC pipes of suitable length and
diameter filled with gravel/filter material & wrapped with
geosynthetics from outside should be provided at suitable
locations emanating through the face of stabilized slope. It is
desirable to monitor the performance of the nailed slope using
geodetic methods.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance &
cooperation of the clients of the all projects referred to in this
paper in conducting the field work.
REFERENCES
1. FHWA, 2003. Geotechnical Circular No. 7.Soil Nail
Walls,
Publication
FHWA-IF-03-017,
U.S.
Department of Transportation, Federal, Highway
Administration, Washington, D.C.
2. FHWA, 1998. Manual for Design & Construction,
Monitoring of Soil Nail Walls, FHWA-SA-96-096R.
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration, Washington,
3. Tan, Y.C. and Chow, C.M. (2004), Slope
Stabilization Using Soil Nails: Design Assumptions
and
Construction
Realities,
Malaysia-Japan
Symposium on Geohazards & Geoenvironmental
Engineering, 13-14 December, 2004, Selangor,
Malaysia.
4. IS:11309-1985 Method for Conducting Pull Out Test
on Anchor Bars and Rock Bolts

December 13-15, 2012, Delhi (Paper No. B-222)
INFLUENCE OF NYLON FIBRE ON SWELLING CHARACTERISTICS

OF EXPANSIVE SOILS
B. R. Phanikumar, Senior Professor, Dept. of Civil Engg., VIT University, phanikumar_29@yahoo.com
Ravideep Singla, Research Student, Dept. of Civil Engg., VIT University, ravi1deep@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: The paper presents swelling characteristics of fibre-reinforced expansive soils. Nylon fibre was used for
reinforcing the expansive soil specimens. One-dimensional swell- consolidation tests were conducted for determining swell
potential and swelling pressure of the fibre-reinforced clay specimens. The fibre content (fc) was varied as 0%, 0.05%, 0.10%,
0.15%, 0.20%, 0.25% and 0.30% by weight of the soil. The length (l) of the fibres was kept constant at 15mm. Swell potential
and swelling pressure decreased up to fc=0.25% but increased mildly when fc increased to 0.30%. Rate of heave of the samples
was also found to be in accordance with the above observations.
INTRODUCTION
Expansive soils pose problems for civil engineers in general
and for geotechnical engineers in particular by virtue of their
capacity for undergoing volumetric changes consequent upon
changes in moisture regime [1]. Expansive clays swell or
increase in their volume when they imbibe water and shrink
in their volume on evaporation of water [2]. These volumetric
changes cause damage to lightly loaded structures founded in
them such as foundations, retaining walls, pavements,
airports, side-walks, canal beds and linings [1]. As the lightly
loaded structures cannot counteract the swelling pressure
caused by expansive clays, they are subjected to severe
cracking. The hazards caused by expansive soils have been
recorded in countries all over the world including America,
Australia, Canada, India, Israel, Iran, Mexico and South
Africa [1].
To counteract the problems posed by expansive soils, many
innovative techniques have been developed. Belled piers [1],
granular pile-anchors [3, 4] and chemical stabilization with
lime and fly ash [1, 5, 6, 7] have been suggested for
mitigating heave problems.
Apart from the above techniques, geosynthetic inclusions as a
technique of random reinforcement have also been found
quite effective in controlling swell and shrinkage [8, 9, 10].
Discrete fibre inclusions in soils as a mode of random
reinforcement resulted in an improved strength behaviour of
soils [11, 12, 13]. Randomly distributed coir fibres were also
found to be effective in reducing swelling of expansive soils
[14]. Combination of fly ash and polypropylene fibres was
also found to have reduced swelling and shrinkage
characteristics of expansive soils [15, 16].
Consolidation settlement and swelling of fibre-reinforced
samples decreased whereas hydraulic conductivity and
shrinkage limit increased slightly by increasing fibre content
and length [17]. Swelling pressure decreased as a result of the
inclusion of expanded polystyrene geofoam placed between
an expansive soil and a rigid wall [18]. Multifilament fibre is
also promising additive for mitigating swelling potential of
bentonite [19].
Increase in the percentage of both Nylon and palmyra fibres

reduced the swelling pressure and swell potential of the
clayey soils [20]. Inclusion of fibre in both uncemented and
cement-stabilized clay resulted in an increase in unconfined
compressive strength [21].
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
One-dimensional heave tests were performed on expansive
soil specimens compacted in consolidometer mould. Heave
tests were conducted on oven-dried expansive soil specimens.
The tests were conducted on both unreinforced and fibrereinforced soil samples. The samples were compacted in 1-D
consolidometer mould (diameter 60mm and thickness
20mm). The fibre content (fc) was varied as 0%, 0.05%,
0.10%, 0.15%, 0.20%, 0.25% and 0.30% by dry weight of the
soil. The length of the fibre was fixed as 15mm.
TABLE 1 Properties of the expansive soils
Specific gravity
Liquid limit (%)
Plastic limit (%)
Sand (%)
Silt (%)
Clay (%)
Free swell index (%)
2.73
79
26
53
14
44
42
200
Remoulded expansive soil and nylon fibre were the materials

used in the experimental investigation. Expansive soil sample
was collected at a depth of 1 meter from ground level from
the town of Amlapuram, Andhra Pradesh, India. It had a free
swell index (FSI) of 200% and based on its plasticity
characteristics, it could be classified as CH. Table 1 shows
the index properties of the expansive soil used. Fibres of
1mm diameter and twisted with monofilament fibre of nylon
polymers were used. The nylon fibre was used as randomly
oriented reinforcement. The tensile strength of the fibre was
85 N/m. The diameter (d) of the fibre was 1mm. Hence, the
aspect ratio (l/d) used in the test programme was 15 for the
fibre length used as 15mm depending upon the sample
B. R. Phanikumar and Ravideep Singla
specifications. Table 2 shows the characteristics of fibre used

as supplied by the manufactures. All the specimens were
compacted at a dry unit weight of 12 kN/m and a water
content of 0%.
beyond the optimum fibre content, heave increased slightly.

The equilibrium heave values were equal to 4.186mm,
4.102mm, 4.038mm, 3.900mm, 3.454mm and 3.669mm for
fc= 0.05%, 0.10%, 0.15%, 0.20%, 0.25% and 0.30%
respectively for l=15mm fibre.
The samples, compacted in the 1-D consolidation ring in both

fibre-reinforced and unreinforced conditions, were inundated
with water and heave was continuously monitored with
digital indicator attached to the consolidometer. After
equilibrium heave was reached, the samples were subjected
to compression as per the specifications of 1-D consolidation
test. The load increment over the specimen was always the
load value previously applied over the specimen.
Figure 1 shows the rate of heave of unreinforced and fibrereinforced expansive clay specimens. The figures
respectively depict the rate of heave behaviour for fibre
contents of 0%, 0.05%, 0.10% and 0.15% and 0%, 0.20%,
0.25% and 0.30%. The data show the rate of heave for l = 15
mm in the case of fibre-reinforced specimens. The figures
show that the amount of equilibrium heave upon free
inundation was attained by the specimens in 3 days or 4320
minutes. Equilibrium heave (mm) was found to be the highest
for unreinforced specimen (fc = 0%) at 4.36 mm. However,
heave decreased when the specimens were reinforced with
nylon fibre. Heave decreased with increasing fibre content in
the specimens. The data show that heave decreased up to a
fibre content of 0.25%, but increased slightly when the fibre
content was increased to 0.30%.
Fig.1 Rate of heave curves

When expansive clay specimens are reinforced with
randomly distributed nylon fibres, heave or upward
movement of the samples would be controlled because of (i)
interlocking between the soil particles and the fibres and (ii)
friction generated between the soil and fibre as heave takes
place. It was found that, for the type of the expansive soil and
the nylon fibre used, optimum reduction in heave was
obtained at a fibre content of 0.25% for l=15 mm. Or, fc =
0.25% can be considered as the optimum fibre content for l =
15 mm. As the effect of interlocking and friction decreases
Fig.2 e-logp curves

Figure 2 shows the e-logp curves for unreinforced expansive
clay specimen (fc =0%) and fibre-reinforced expansive clay
specimens for l=15mm. To avoid cluster of data, only a few
e-logp curves are being shown for comparison. The data
shown in the figures indicate that unreinforced expansive
clay specimen attained the highest equilibrium void ratio and
that fibre-reinforced expansive clay specimens attained lesser
equilibrium void ratios upon saturation through inundation.
As fibre content in the sample increases the equilibrium void
ratio decreases and hence heave decreases. But heave
decreased up to fc=0.25% but increased slightly when fibre
content increased to fc=0.30%. Swelling pressures obtained
from the e-logp curves of unreinforced specimen (fc=0%) and
fibre-reinforced specimens (l=15mm) also follow a similar
trend. Swelling pressure was the highest for fc=0% specimen
and decreased with increasing fibre content in the specimen.
But the reduction in the swelling pressure was observed up to
fc=0.25%, whereafter when fc was increased to 0.30%,
swelling pressure increased. The increase in the heave and
swelling pressure at fc=0.30% can be attributed to the reduced
effect of interlocking and friction between expansive soil and
the reinforcing fibres. The values of swelling pressure
obtained were respectively equal to 152kPa, 146 kPa,
134kPa, 130 kPa and 151kPa for fc =0%, 0.10%, 0.20%,
0.25% and 0.30% when l=15mm. Heave and swelling
pressure of fc=0.05% and fc=0.15% also fell in the same
trend.
Swell potential (S%) is defined as the ratio of increase in
thickness (H) to the original thickness (H) of the specimen,
expressed as a percentage. It can be written as
S% =
H
*100
H
(1)
Influence of nylon fibre on swelling characteristics of expansive soils
Fig.5 Influence of fibre content on swelling pressure

Fig.3 Variation for heave with fibre content
Fig.4 Variation of S% with fibre content

Figures 3 and 4 respectively show the variation of heave
(mm) and S% with fibre content (fc%) for l=15mm. Heave
and S% decreased significantly with increase in fc up to
fc=0.25%, but increased at fc=0.30%. When fc was increased
from 0% to 0.25%, heave decreased from 4.355mm to
3.454mm. Similarly, when fc was increased from 0% to
0.25%, S% decreased from 21.775% to 17.27%.
The swelling pressure (ps) is defined as the pressure required
to bring back or compress a completely swollen expansive
clay specimen to initial void ratio (e0). The swelling pressure
is generally obtained from the e-log p curve as the pressure
corresponding to the initial void ratio e0.
Figure 5 shows variation of swelling pressure with fc% for
l=15mm. Swelling pressure decreased with increase in fc% up
to fc=0.25%, but increased at fc=0.30%. The data indicate that
at fc=0.25% increase in fibre length resulted in a significant
reduction in swelling pressure.
Swelling pressure decreased from 152kPa to 130kPa when fc

was increased from 0% to 0.25%.
CONCLUSIONS
The following are the chief conclusions drawn from the
experimental study.
1. Heave (mm) decreased with increasing fibre content (fc)
for a given fibre length (l). But, this was found to be true
up to a fibre content of 0.25%, because heave (mm)
increased when the fibre content was increased to 0.30%.
2. Swell potential (S%) and swelling pressure (ps) also
decreased with increasing fibre content (fc). This
behaviour was found to be true up to a fibre content of
only 0.25%, because S% and ps increased when the fibre
content was increased to 0.30%.
3. Hence, it may be suggested that, for the expansive soil
and the type of the reinforcing fibre used, a fibre content
of 0.25% can be considered as the optimum fibre content
for the fibre length used in the experimental
investigation.
REFERENCES
1. Chen, F. H. (1988). Foundations on expansive soils,
Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., Amsterdam.
2. Holtz, W.G. and Gibbs, H.J. (1956). Engineering
properties of expansive clays, Transactions, ASCE, Vol.
121, pp 641-677.
3. Phanikumar, B.R. (1997). A Study of Swelling
Characteristics of and Granular Pile Anchor foundation
System in Expansive Soils. PhD thesis, Jawaharlal Nehru
Technological University, Hyderabad, India.
4. Phanikumar, B. R., Sharma, R. S., Rao, A. S. and
Madhav, M. R. (2004). Granular pile-anchor foundation
(GPAF) system for improving the engineering behaviour
of expansive clay beds, Geotechnical Testing Journal,
American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. 27, No. 3,
pp 279-287.
B. R. Phanikumar and Ravideep Singla
5. Phanikumar, B. R. and Sharma, R. S. (2004). "Effect of

fly ash on engineering properties of expansive soils,
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 130, No. 7, pp 764-767.
6. Cokca, E. (2001). Use of class C fly ashes for the
stabilization of an expansive soil. Journal of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE
127 (7), 568573.
7. Hunter, D. (1988). Lime-induced heave in sulphatebearing clay soils. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,
ASCE 114 (2), 150167.
8. Vessely, M.J. and Wu, J.T.H. (2002). Feasibility of
Geosynthetic inclusions for reducing swelling of
expansive soils, Transportation Research Record, No.
1787, pp 42-51.
9. Viswanadham, B.V.S., Phanikumar, B.R. and
Mukherjee, R.V. (2009a). Swelling behavious of a
geofiber- reinforced expansive soil, Geotextiles and
Geomembranes, Vol. 27, No. 1, pp 7376.
10. Viswanadham, B. V. S., Phanikumar, B. R. and
Mukherjee, R. V. (2009b). Effect of polypropylene tape
fibre reinforcement on swelling behaviour of an
expansive soil, Geosynthetics International, Vol. 16, No.
5, pp. 393-401.
11. Maher, M.H. and Ho, Y.C., (1994). Mechanical
properties of kaolinite/fibre soil composite, Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 120, pp 13811393.
12. Al-Wahab, R.M. and El-Kedrah, M.A. (1995). Using
fibers to reduce tension cracks and shrink/swell in
compacted clay. In: Proceedings of Geoenvironment
2000.
13. Sivakumar Babu, G. L., Vasudevana, A. K. and Sayida,
M. K. (2008), Use of Coir Fibers For Improving the
Engineering Properties of Expansive Soils, Journal of
Natural Fibers, Vol. 5 (1), pp 61-75.
14. Ayyar, T.S.R., Krishnaswamy, N.R. and Viswanadham,
B.V.S., (1989). Geosynthetics for foundation on a
swelling clay, Proceedings of International workshop
on Geotextiles, Bangalore, Central Board for Irrigation
and Power, New Delhi, India, pp 176-189.
15. Punthutaecha, K., Puppala, A.J., Vanapalli, S.K. and
Inyang, H. (2006). Volume change behaviours of
expansive soils stabilized with recycled ashes and
fibers. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, ASCE 18 (2), 295306.
16. Puppala, A. and Musenda, C. (2000). Effects of fiber
reinforcement on strength and volume change in
expansive soils. Transportation Research Record 1736,
134140.
17. Abdi, M.R., Parsapajouh, A. and Arjomand, M.A.
(2008). Effects of random fiber inclusion on
consolidation,
hydraulic
conductivity,
swelling,
shrinkage limit and desiccation cracking of clays.
International Journal of Civil Engineering, Vol. 6, No. 4,
pages 284-293.
18. Ikizler, S.B., Aytekin, M. and Nas, E. (2008),
Laboratory study of expanded polystyrene (EPS)
geofoam used with expansive soils, Geotextiles and

Geomembranes, 26 (2) (2008), pp. 189195.
19. Ikizler S.B. (2009), Effect of Fibers on swelling
Characteristics of Bentonite, 2nd International
Conference on New Developments in Soil Mechanics and
Geotechnical Engineering, 28-30 may, Near East
University, Nicosia, Cyprus, pp 328-335.
20. Al-Akhras, N. M., Attom, M. F., Al-Akhras, K. M. and
Malkawi, A. I. H. (2008). Influence of fibers on
swelling properties of clayey soil. Geosynthetics
International, Vol-15, No. 4, pages 304309.
21. Estabragh, A.R., Namdar, P. and Javadi, A.A. (2012).
Behavior of cement-stabilized clay reinforced with
nylon fiber. Geosynthetics International, Volume 19,
Issue 1, pages 85 92.

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON LATERAL RESPONSE OF PILES DUE TO AN

ADJACENT EXCAVATION
S. Karthigeyan, Scientist, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee 247667, mahamaha2001@yahoo.com.
Dalip Kumar, Technical Officer, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee-247667, kumar.cbri@gmail.com.
Zamir Ahmad, Technical Officer, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee-247667.
ABSTRACT: The model test results on lateral response of piles due to an adjacent excavation in loose sandy soils are
presented in the paper. The model tests have been conducted on the aluminium pile having a 25 mm outer diameter and 1 m
long, placed at different locations behind a retaining wall supported excavation. In real field situations, the indirect loading on
the pile due to an adjacent excavation is superimposed with direct loads. In view of this, the pile model testing has been done
in two stages i.e. initially the pile was subjected to combined axial and lateral loading and excavations carried out in the second
stage. The results indicate that the effect of indirect loading is less significant for the pile located beyond at a distance of 20
times the pile diameter from excavations. The safe distances of the pile from an adjacent excavation are also discussed in the
paper.
INTRODUCTION
Pile foundations are normally designed to support direct
loads, which are applied to the pile cap from superstructure.
However, due to urbanization with developments in terms of
the increased construction activity, the piles may also be
subjected to indirect loads induced from the ground
movements due to adjacent excavations during its service
life. One of the main design constraints in this case is to
prevent or minimize damages to the pile supported buildings
due to indirect loadings. Although an excavation will cause
both vertical and lateral soil movements, lateral soil
movement is considered to be more critical, as piles are
usually designed to sustain significant vertical loads. In
contrast, lateral loads imposed on piles due to adjacent
excavations induce an additional bending moments and cause
deflection of the piles, which may lead to structural distress
and even failure in some cases. Therefore, it is essential to
enumerate the effect of indirect loading on the lateral
response of piles to evaluate the performance and integrity of
pile foundations.
An attempt have made by various researchers [1, 2] to study
the behavior of piles due to lateral soil movements using a 2d plane strain analysis. The response of piles due to an
adjacent excavation was studied in two phases [3]. In the first
phase, the soil movements due to excavations were predicted
using 2-d finite element model and in the second phase, pile
responses were analyzed using the boundary element method.
Few researchers [4, 5] have attempted to study the response
of piles due to an adjacent excavation by assuming uniform
soil movement profiles using 3-d finite element method. A
very few researchers [6] have attempted to study the lateral
response of pile due to an adjacent excavation using
experimental investigation. An attempt have also made to
study the effect of vertical load on the lateral response of both
short and long piles in sandy and clayey soils [7, 8]. The
following important gaps were identified in the subject area
of the paper. Experimental model testing has performed sofar

for the pile under pure indirect loading i.e. without applying
the direct loads on the pile. However, in real field situations,
the indirect loading on the pile due to an adjacent excavation
is superimposed with direct loads.
In the present paper, an attempt has been made to bridge the
identified gap in this area. Hence, the pile model testing has
been done in two stages i.e. initially the pile is subjected to
combined axial and lateral loading and excavations are
carried out in the second stage. The induced lateral deflection
and bending moments on the pile under indirect loading is
prime important for the designers. In view of this, the
experimental results in terms of lateral deflections and
bending moments in the pile sections with respect to both
direct and indirect loads are presented in the paper. The safe
distances of the pile from an adjacent excavation are also
discussed in the following sections.
EXPERIMENTAL TEST SETUP AND PROCEDURE
The experimental model tests have been performed in the
specially designed model pile testing facility at CSIR
CBRI, Roorkee. This facility has a steel tank of size 2.0 m
2.0 m 1.5 m and stiffened with the use of steel channel at
different levels for avoiding the chances of volume change
during filling of sand in the tank. A 48 channel data logger is
attached with the system for measuring all relevant data
during the test. Fig. 1. shows the experimental model test
setup for performing model tests. A specially designed
arrangement has been made in the facility to simulate the real
field situation i.e. application of both the direct and indirect
loading on the pile. Series of model tests have performed on
the aluminium pile having 25 mm outer diameter and 1 m
long. A separate model test was conducted by placing the pile
at different locations away from the excavation. All model
tests were conducted on the pile installed in the prepared
loose sandy soil bed in the tank. Sandy soil was collected
S.Karthigeyan, Dalip Kumar & Zamir Ahmad
from the local Solani River bed at Roorkee. Sandy soil is

friction in nature and the density of sand increase with
increase in free fall height of sand from the raining tool.
Therefore, the sand raining tool was calibrated with respect to
varying height of fall of sand and arrive the relationship of
height of fall vs relative density of sand.
thickness of steel plates in stages. The reading consists of

vertical movement and lateral movement of the pile; the
movement of retaining wall and bending strain at various
stages of loadings were recorded. Fig. 2 shows a typical
response of pile located at 25 cm away from the excavation
and at the maximum depth of excavations. It can be noted
from the figure that the influence of excavation is significant
and clearly seen the sign of soil movements in both vertical
and lateral directions behind the retaining wall. It can also be
noticed that the retaining wall is collapsed at this maximum
depth of excavation. It can be further noticed that settlement
of soils in front of the pile is more severe and pile has lost its
lateral resistance provided by soils in front of the pile.
Fig. 1 Schematic view of experimental model test setup

The model tests were performed in the following step by step
procedures. All model tests were performed for the pile
embedded in homogeneous loose sandy soil. The relative
density of sand was 35 % for corresponding to 12 cm free fall
height of sand from the raining tool. Initially, the compacted
sand bed was prepared in the tank by filling sand in layers by
adopting sand raining technique. The sand filling continued
up to the bottom of retaining wall and retaining wall was
installed in position. The depth of retaining wall from top of
the tank and thickness of aluminium retaining wall was 1.2 m
and 1.5 mm respectively. Sand filling was continued up to
tip of the pile and model pile was placed in position. Further,
continued filling of sand up to top level of the tank. Now, the
testing setup was ready to apply for both the direct and
indirect loads on the pile. The dimensions of the model
hollow aluminium pile having an internal diameter of 23 mm
and outer diameter of 25 mm. The devices such as LVDT for
measuring the vertical and lateral movement of the pile were
set in position before applying direct and indirect loads. The
instrumented pile with strain gauges for measuring bending
strains, load cell and LVDTs were connected to the data
logger. The strain gauges were calibrated to obtain the
relationship between bending moment and strain by
performing a cantilever beam under pure bending test.
Fig. 2 Response of the pile located at 25 cm away from the

excavation.
LATERAL DEFLECTION OF THE PILE
A series of separate model tests were conducted by placing
the pile at different locations away from the excavation. The
dimensions of the excavation and model test plan are shown
in Fig. 3. It can be seen from the figure that the excavation
portion along with pile location is marked in the plan. The
lateral deflection of the pile head and bending moment along
length of the piles were measured during the tests.
Tank
Retaining wall
Pile
2000
250
Now, the system was ready for application of load on the

pile. The loading on the pile was applied in three stages.
Initially, the pile was subjected to a vertical load up to 60 %
of the ultimate vertical load. In the second stage, lateral load
applied on the pile while keeping the already applied vertical
load was kept as constant. In the third stage, the indirect
loading was applied on the pile due to adjacent excavation
while keeping the combined vertical and lateral load as
constant. The indirect loading on the pile due to an adjacent
excavation was carried out by the removal of every 20 cm
250
100
150
500
Excavation
2000
All dimensions are in mm (Not to scale)
Fig.3 Experimental model test plan for simulation of
excavations adjacent to the pile.
Experimental Investigation on Lateral Response of Piles due to an Adjacent Excavation
can be noted from the figure that the bending moment of the
pile under pure excavation is less as compared to the pile
under coupled loading.
Bending Moment (N.mm)
-10000
5000
10000
15000
20000
200
400
600
BM due to excavation
Pure excavation
800
20.0
-5000
Depth (mm)
Fig.4. shows the variation of lateral deflection of the pile with

respect to the depth of excavation (He/Be) and pile locations
(Xp/D) at various distances away from excavations. It can be
seen from the figure that the lateral deflection of the pile is
increase with increase in depth of excavation. In order to
estimate the additional lateral deflection induced on the pile
under indirect load due to an excavation, the lateral deflection
of the pile under direct load also marked in the figure. In the
figure, the depth of excavation of zero (He/Be = 0) denotes the
lateral deflection of the pile prior to the application of
indirect loading. It can also seen that the effect of indirect
loading is not significant for the pile located beyond at a
distances of Xp/D = 20.0. However, the indirect loading
influence is very much significant for the pile located at a
closer distances (Xp/D = 6 to 20) from the excavation.
With combined loading
15.0
Pile Locations (Xp/D)
1200
Xp/D = 6
Xp/D = 10
Xp/D = 20
10.0
Xp/D = 30
5.0
0.0
0.0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
Depth of excavation (He/Be)
Fig. 4 Lateral deflection of the pile head with respect to the

depth of excavation and pile locations.
BENDING MOMENT OF THE PILE
It was observed from the review of literatures that due to the
complex loading on the pile, the response of pile under
indirect loading was studied sofar under uncoupled mode i.e.
the response of piles under pure indirect loading due to
excavations were studied and without coupled with direct
loading on piles. However, in real field situations, the indirect
loading on the pile due to an adjacent excavation is
superimposed with direct loads. In view of this, in the present
study, pile model tests were conducted under the coupled
loading phenomenon i.e. indirect loading due to excavations
were applied on the pile when the pile already subjected to
the combined vertical and lateral loading. In order to quantify
the influence of coupled loading mechanisms, the bending
moment variation along length of piles were plotted for both
the pile under coupled loading and uncoupled loading i.e.
under pure excavation.
Fig. 5 Variation of bending moment in the pile section under

indirect loading due to adjacent excavations
SAFE LOCATION OF THE PILE FROM AN
EXCAVATION
In the normal practices, piles are designed for vertical loads
from the superstructure and are checked for the directly
applied loads and bending moments for an allowable
deflections prescribed by the structural design codes. In view
of the same, the maximum lateral deflection and maximum
bending moment induced on the piles due to indirect loads
are measured during the testing with respect to the pile
located at different distances (XP) away from the excavation
face. Figs. 6 shows the maximum lateral deflection of the pile
under indirect loads with respect to different depth of
excavations (He/Be).
25
Maximum lateral deflection (mm)
Lateral deflection (mm)
1000
He/Be = 1.2
20
He/Be = 0.8
He/Be = 0.4
Direct load
15
10
0
5
Fig. 5 shows the variation of bending moment along length of

the pile at maximum depth of excavations and corresponding
to the pile located at 150 mm away from excavations. It can
be seen from the figure that the effect of coupled loading is
very much significant on bending moment of the pile. Also, it
10
15
20
25
30
35
Pile location (Xp/D)
Fig. 6 Maximum lateral deflection of the pile under direct and

indirect loading due to excavations.
S.Karthigeyan, Dalip Kumar & Zamir Ahmad
For the sake of understanding and to estimate the safe

distance of the pile from adjacent excavations, the maximum
lateral deflection of the piles under direct load was also
plotted in the same figure in dotted line. The interest is
mainly to investigate whether the pile designed for direct load
is safe against indirect load or not and also to arrive the safe
distances of pile from excavations. It can be noticed from the
Fig.6 that the intersection of lateral deflection curves for the
pile under indirect loads and under direct loads indicates a
clear safe location of the pile from an excavation. It can be
noticed that the safe distances of the pile is beyond at a
distance of 13D from excavations for shallow depth of
excavation (He/Be=0.4) and it is 25D for deep depth of
excavation (He/Be >0.4), where D is the outer diameter of
the pile
Similarly, the maximum bending moment induced on the pile
due to indirect loads were measured during the testing for
piles located at different distances away from the excavation.
Fig. 7 shows the variation of maximum bending moment on
the pile section due to indirect load with respect to the pile
locations at different distances away from excavations. It can
be seen from the figure that the maximum bending moment
on the pile is decrease with respect to increase in the
distances of pile locations from excavations. It shows that the
bending moment variation also similar in trend as that of the
maximum lateral deflection of the pile.
20000
Bending Moment (N.mm)
He/Be = 1.2
16000
He/Be = 0.8
He/Be = 0.4
12000
8000
4000
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Pile Location (Xp/D)
Fig. 7 Maximum bending moment of the pile under indirect

loading due to adjacent excavations.
CONCLUSIONS
Series of model tests were successfully conducted on piles
under coupled effects of loading. The lateral response of piles
under coupled direct and indirect loading due to adjacent
excavation in sandy soil has been investigated in the paper
through experimental model testing results. Based on the
results obtained, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. The lateral response of the pile is significantly influenced
by indirect loading due to adjacent excavations. However,
this influence is mainly significant with respect to the
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
direct load, depth of excavations (He/Be) and the pile

locations (Xp/D) from excavations.
The lateral deflection of the pile is found to increase with
increase in depth of excavation.
The maximum lateral deflection and bending moment on
the pile section is much higher when the pile located very
closer to the excavations. However, this trend is
significant up to the certain distances away from an
excavation and beyond which the indirect loading
influence is less significant.
The effect of indirect loading on the pile is decrease with
increase in distances of the pile located from excavations.
The effect of coupled loading is found to be significant on
the lateral response of pile under indirect loading due to
adjacent excavations. In view of this, it is essential to
investigate the response of piles under coupled loading.
It is found that the safe distances of the pile from an
adjacent excavation is 25 times the outer diameter of
piles.
The model test results as presented in the paper are mainly
for the pile slenderness ratio of 40. Therefore, further
investigation is to be carried out to confirm the response
of piles with different pile slenderness ratio by varying
length and diameters of piles.
REFERENCES
1. Stewart, D.P., Jewell, R.J. and Randolph, M.F. (1993),
Numerical modeling of piled bridge abutments on soft
ground, Jl. of Computers and Geotech, ASCE, 15(1), 2146.
2. Chen, L.F. (1994), The effect of lateral soil movements on
pile foundation. Ph.D. thesis University of Sydney,
Australia.
3. Poulos, H.G. and Chen, L.T. (1996) Pile response due to
unsupported excavation-induced lateral soil movement,
Can. Geot. Jour., 33, 670-677.
4. Pan, J.L., Goh, A.T.C., Wong, K.S. and Selby, A.R.
(2002), Three-dimensional analysis of single pile response
to lateral soil movement, Int. Jl. Numer. And Aanlyt.
Methd. on Geomech., 26, 747-757.
5. Karthigeyan, S., Ramakrishna, V.V.G.S.T. and Rajagopal,
K. (2004) 3-D Finite element analysis of single pile under
induced lateral soil movement. Int. E-conf. on Modern
Trends in Foun. Engg, IIT, Madras.
6. Leung, C.F., Chow, Y.K. and Shen, R.F. (2000),
Behaviour of pile subject to excavation-induced soil
movement, Jl. of Geotech. and Geoenv. Engineering,
ASCE, 126(11), 947-954.
7. Karthigeyan, S., Ramakrishna, V.V.G.S.T. and Rajagopal,
K. (2007) Numerical Investigation of the Effect of
Vertical Load on the Lateral Response of Piles Jl. of
Geotech. and Geoenv. Engineering ASCE, 133(5), 512521.
8. Karthigeyan, S., Ramakrishna, V.V.G.S.T. and Rajagopal, K.
(2005) Influence of vertical load on the lateral response of piles
in sand. Jl. of Computers and Geotechnics, 33, 121-131.

IMPROVEMENT OF KUTTANAD CLAY USING LIME AND FLY ASH - A COMPARATIVE

STUDY
Anupama P L, Post Graduate Student, College of Engineering, Trivandrum, anu89.rit@gmail.com
Mariamma Joseph, Professor in Civil Engineering., College of Engineering, Trivandrum, mjh_mariamma@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT: Most important problem faced by organic clay is low shear strength and high compressibility. Many structural
damages arise when foundations or roadways are built over low lying areas of Allepey district in Kerala, mainly in Kuttanad
Taluk which is soft organic clay. Modification of Kuttanad clay using admixtures like lime and Class F fly ash is being studied
in this work. It was observed that Kuttanad clay stabilized with lime gives higher strength than that with fly ash. Curing does
not show much effect in plasticity index for lime stabilized soil. Fly ash being waste product to be disposed, acts as a good
stabilizing agent.
INTRODUCTION
Most important problem encountered by geotechnical
engineers at construction site is that the properties of material
are unable to reach the required specification. These
problems are normally faced by soft soil such as organic clay.
Construction on soft organic soils can be problematic because
organic soils typically have low shear strength and are
susceptible to differential settlements. Depending on the
nature of the project, the design solution may involve option
of removal and replacement of the weak soils, ground
improvement alternatives such as stone columns, grouting,
wick drains, chemical stabilization, adoption of reinforced
earth technique etc [1]. Chemical stabilization with binders
can be undertaken rapidly and often at low cost, and therefore
chemical stabilization is becoming an important alternative.
Chemical stabilization of soft soils involves blending a binder
into the soil to increase its strength and stiffness through
chemical reactions. Addition of binder reduces water content
and binds the soil particles. Common binders include cement,
lime, fly ash, calcium salts, bituminous materials etc.
Fly ash is a fine residue collected from the burning of
pulverized coal in thermal power plants that traditionally has
been disposed in landfills [2]. Fly ash is a silt-size non
cohesive material having a relatively smaller specific gravity
than the normal soils [3]. The composition of fly ash varies
considerably depending on the nature of the coal burned and
the power plant operational characteristics [4]. Lime
stabilization refers to the stabilization of soil by the addition
of burned limestone products, either calcium oxide or
calcium hydroxide. The properties of soil-lime mixture vary
and depend upon the character of the clayey soil, time of
curing, the method and quantity of construction [5].
The use of lime as a natural stabilizing agent for clay will
produce a binder by slow chemical reactions mainly with
silicates in the clay mineral. Ca(OH)2 is formed due to
hydration process when lime (CaO) is added to soil. During
the hydration process, larger amount of pore water
evaporates. An exchange of ions between clay minerals and

lime take place. New compounds such as calcium silicate
hydrate and calcium aluminate hydrates gels are formed as a
result of pozzolanic reactions in which subsequently
crystallize to bind the structure together. The main
mechanisms that contribute to the stabilization process of
soils treated with fly ash is that strength of the soil increases
as result of the cementation produced from hydration of
tricalcium aluminate present in the fly ash [6].
Most of low lying areas of Alleypey district in Kerala, mainly
in Kuttanad Taluk, are facing the problem of low shear
strength and high compressibility. Many structural damages
arise when foundations or roadways are built over Kuttanad
clay. Modification of Kuttanad clay by using admixtures like
lime, fly ash is being studied in this work.
MATERIALS USED FOR EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
Various materials used for the study include soil (Kuttanad
clay, natural clay collected from Kidangara region in
Alappuzha district), lime and fly ash. The properties of the
soil are presented in Table 1.
Table 1 Properties of the soil
Sl
Property
No.
1
Specific Gravity
2
Liquid Limit (%)
3
Plastic Limit (%)
4
Plasticity Index (%)
5
Silt content (%)
6
Clay content (%)
7
Sand content (%)
8
9
Maximum dry density(kN/m3)
10
Unconfined compressive strength
(kPa)
Kuttanad
clay
2. 72
96
35
61
52
35
13
33
13.6
21.09
Anupama P L & Mariamma Joseph
Locally available lime was used for the study and the
properties of which are given in Table 2. The fly ash used for
the study was collected from thermal power plant, Tuticorin
and the properties are given in Table 3. The grain size
distribution curve of Kuttanad clay and fly ash is shown in
Fig. 1.
Table 2 Properties of lime
Components
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
Silica
Ferric oxide
Magnesium oxide (MgO)
Alumina
Carbon dioxide
Table 3 Properties of the fly ash
Property
Class
Specific Gravity
Silt content (%)
Clay content (%)
Sand content (%)
Amount (%)
90
1.5
0.5
1
0.2
3.0
Fly ash
F
2. 12
68
8
24
specimens are prepared and covered in plastic wraps and kept

immersed in water for required time of curing.
Unconfined Compression test
The conventional unconfined compression test was
performed in accordance to IS 2720 (Part 10) - 1973[9].
Unconfined compression tests are conducted on samples
without curing and samples kept for a curing period of 0, 7,
14, 21, 28 and 35 days. The cured specimens are prepared in
the same manner as mentioned in the above tests.
Various tests were carried out to determine the Compaction
characteristics, Liquid limit, Plastic limit and Unconfined
compressive strength of clay alone and also with different
percentage of lime or fly ash with and without curing. The
test results are as follows.
Soil Stabilized with Lime
Compaction Characteristics of Lime Stabilized Soil
The compaction characteristics of lime stabilized soil were
determined. The compaction curves of lime added samples
are shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 Compaction Curves for Lime Stabilized soil

Fig. 1 Grain size distribution curve of Kuttanad clay and Fly
ash
Compaction Tests
Compaction tests were carried out by I.S. light compaction
method as specified in IS 2720 (Part VII) 1980[7]. Each
soil sample was prepared by mixing partially air dried soil
and required quantity of lime or fly ash. Water was then
added and mixed again until the water spreads all over the
soil. Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) and Maximum Dry
Density (MDD) was determined for all the test samples.
Liquid limit and Plastic limit
Liquid limit was determined using cone penetrometer
method. Both liquid limit and plastic limit was conducted in
accordance to IS 2720 (Part 5) - 1985[8]. Liquid limit and
plastic limit tests were conducted on all test samples without
curing with a curing period of 7, 14, 21, 28 and 35 days. The
It is observed that with increase in lime content the maximum

dry density decreases and optimum moisture content
increases in the lime stabilized samples. The decrease in
maximum dry density may be due to the reduction of average
unit weight of the solids in the soil lime mixture as the lime is
lighter than soil. The increase in optimum moisture content
may be due to the water absorption of lime which it uses to
form cementitious compounds with the minerals of soil.
Liquid limit and Plastic limit of Lime Stabilized Soil
Liquid limit and Plastic limit of soil and soil added with
different percentages of lime after curing for a period of 0, 7,
14, 21, 28, 35 days were determined. The variation of
plasticity index with lime content is plotted in Fig.3.
It is observed that with increase in lime content the liquid
limit decreases and plastic limit increases. The decrease in
liquid limit and increase in plastic limit shows net reduction
Improvement of Kuttanad clay using lime and fly ash - a comparative study
in plasticity index. Thus plasticity index values of the

Kuttanad clay are substantially and immediately decreased
with increasing lime content. However, no significant effect
of curing time on these was noted.
Fig. 5 Compaction Curves for Fly ash Stabilized soil
Fig. 3 Variation of plasticity index with lime content

Unconfined Compressive Strength of Lime Stabilized Soil
The unconfined compressive strength of soil samples with
different percentages of lime after curing for a period of 0, 7,
14, 21, 28, 35 days were calculated from the load settlement
curves. The variation of UCC value with lime content for the
lime stabilised soil with curing period is shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4 Variation of UCC value with lime content

The unconfined compressive strength is observed to increase
with increase in lime content up to 6% thereafter it decreases.
This is because further addition of lime leads to decrease in
plasticity of soil and contribute to brittle failure
characteristics. 6% of lime is taken as the optimum
percentage of lime required for stabilization. Comparison of
UCC values of lime stabilised Kuttanad clay without curing
and with different days of curing shows that unconfined
compressive strength increases with curing.
Soil stabilized with Fly ash
Compaction Characteristics of Fly ash Stabilized Soil:
The compaction characteristics of fly ash stabilized soil were
determined. The compaction curves of fly ash added samples
are shown in Fig. 5.
Compaction curves of fly ash stabilized soil shows that

maximum dry density decreases with increase in fly ash
content. It is also seen that dry density increases upto fly ash
content of 15% and thereafter it decreases. Hence 15% of fly
ash can be taken as the optimum percentage of fly ash
required for stabilization of Kuttanad clay.
Liquid limit and Plastic limit of Fly ash Stabilized Soil
Liquid limit and Plastic limit of soil and soil added with
different percentages of Fly ash after curing for a period of 0,
7, 14, 21, 28, 35 days were determined. The variation of
plasticity index with fly ash content is plotted in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6 Variation of plasticity index with fly ash content

It is observed that with increase in fly ash content liquid limit
and plastic limit decreases. There is net reduction in plasticity
index values as the rate of liquid limit reduction is more.
Plastic limit increases with increase in curing period. There is
an instantaneous effect in the plasticity of soil when fly ash is
added to soil. This effect continues with curing time.
Unconfined Compressive Strength of Fly ash Stabilized Soil
The unconfined compressive strength of soil samples with
different percentages of fly ash after curing for a period of 0,
7, 14, 21, 28, 35 days were calculated from load settlement
curve. The variation of variation of UCC value against fly ash
content for fly ash stabilised soil with curing period is shown
in Fig 7.
Anupama P L & Mariamma Joseph
Fig. 7 Variation of UCC value with fly ash content
Fig. 9 Comparison of UCC values of lime and fly ash

stabilized soil with curing period
Comparison of soil stabilized with Lime and Fly ash

Liquid limit and Plastic limit of Lime and Fly ash Stabilized
Soil
Comparison of Plasticity index of optimum lime and fly ash
stabilized soil with curing period is given in Fig. 8.
Fig. 8 Comparison of Plasticity index of lime and fly ash

stabilized soil with curing period
From the graph it is seen that plasticity index of lime and fly
ash decreases with curing but effect of curing is prominent in
fly ash stabilized soil. Improvement in plasticity index is seen
in lime stabilized soil than in fly ash stabilized soil.
Unconfined Compressive Strength of Lime and Fly ash
Stabilized Soil
Comparison of UCC values of optimum lime and fly ash
stabilized soil with curing period is shown in Fig. 9. The
graph shows that higher UCC value is given by lime
stabilized soil. Fly ash also gives reasonably good results as a
stabilizing agent.
CONCLUSIONS
The effects of lime and fly ash with soil on moisture-density
relationship, atterberg limits, and unconfined compressive
strength with curing periods of 0, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35 days have
been studied. Addition of fly ash and lime on soil decreases
the plasticity index of soil but significant effect was shown

by the addition of lime. Curing period does not have much
effect on lime added soil. High UCC strength was shown by
lime stabilized soil than fly ash stabilised soil. Even though
lime stabilization gives better results fly ash can be
effectively used for stabilizing Kuttanad clay as fly ash is a
waste material whose disposal becomes a crisis.
REFERENCES
1. Arleen Reyes Rodrguez,(2007), Engineering Behavior
of Soft Clays Treated With Circulating Fluidized Bed
Combustion Fly Ash, Master Of Science, University Of
Puerto Rico, Mayagez Campus
2. Alper Sezer, Gozde Inan, RecepYlmaz, H., Kambiz
Ramyar (2006), Utilization of a very high lime fly ash for
improvement of Izmir clay, Building and Environment,
Vol. 41, pp. 150155.
3. Zhang Ji-Ru, Cao Xing, (2002), Stabilization of
Expansive Soil by Lime and Fly Ash, Journal of Wuhan
University of Technology, Vol. 17, pp 73-77.
4. Erdal Cokca, (2001), Use of class c fly ashes for the
stabilization of an expansive soil, Journal of
ASCE, pp. 568-573.
5. Ramadas, T. L., Darga Kumar, N., Yesuratnam, G.,
(2011), Geotechnical characteristics of three expansive
soils treated with lime and flyash, International Journal
of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 04, pp. 46-49.
6. Basumajumdar, A., Das, A., K., Bandyopadhyay, N.,
Maitra S.,(2005), Some studies on the reaction between
fly ash and lime, Indian Academy of Sciences, Vol. 28,
pp. 131136.
7. IS 2720 (Part 7)-1980, Determination of water content:
Dry Density relation using Light Compaction, Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi.
8. IS 2720 (Part 5)-1985, Methods of test for soil:
Determination of Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit, Bureau
of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
9. IS 2720 (Part 20)-1973, Methods of test for soil:
Laboratory determination of Unconfined Compressive
Strength, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.

EFFECT OF DENSITY OF DRAIN MATERIAL ON THE CONSOLIDATION

CHARACTERISTICS OF KUTTANAD CLAY
Bindu.J, Asst. Professor, College of Engineering Trivandrum, Email: binduj7@rediffmail.com
Aparna R Pillai, M.Tech Student, College of Engineering Trivandrum,Email:araparnalachu4@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: The conventional radial consolidation theories have been commonly employed to predict the behavior of
vertical drains in soft clay. It has been recognized that the economical design of a sand drain installation depends on a rational
assessment of the coefficient of consolidation with radial drainage. The present study considers the effect of density of drain
materials on the consolidation characteristics of Kuttanad clay. The drain materials used are sand, coir pith and fly ash. A
series of consolidation tests were conducted to study the consolidation characteristics. Samples were subjected to various
pressure intensities ranging from 10 kPa - 320 kPa. The values of coefficient of consolidation for radial drainage were
determined by log (de2/t) Vs Ur curve. It was found that as the density of drain material increases the coefficient of
consolidation and permeability decreases and a correlation for predicting cr /cv value was developed based on density of drain
material.
INTRODUCTION
Scarcity of land with good bearing capacity is one of the
major problems the world faces now. The problem of land
scarcity is assuming greater proportions day by day,
especially in the vicinity of urban areas much more compared
to the rural areas. This lack of good sites leads to the
construction of buildings on available land which may not be
good with respect to its bearing capacity. In early days, areas
having soft deposits were not preferred for construction. With
rapid industrialization along with tremendous growth in
transportation network, there is no choice but to build on soft
fine grained soils. Because of the large extent of soft clay
deposits and importance of associated problems, especially
civil engineering activities, the studies on settlement
characteristics is highly relevant to any geotechnical engineer.
For the safety of buildings it is necessary to improve the
quality of ground by adoption of some suitable ground
improvement technique. Deep foundations are a possible
solution as it may transfer the load to the adjacent competent
layer. But this alternative method is uneconomical, where the
thickness of weak deposits is very large in most of the
regions. The method of ground improvement technique
adopted depends on the soil to be treated and availability of
materials required for improving the soil and also on the cost
effectiveness. Compressible soils such as soft clayey soils,
loose silts and most organic soils maybe consolidated by
surcharging or preloading. The preload, is later completely
removed may be selected so as to achieve the required degree
of primary compression before construction of permanent
structure.
Vertical sand drains having circular cross-sections were
initially installed to accelerate the consolidation process by
shortening the drainage path from vertical to radial direction
.Nowadays sand is becoming a rare commodity. In order to
tackle that situation, sand has to be replaced by any other low
cost material. The materials used in the present study are
sand, coir pith, and fly ash. Several studies has been
conducted on the consolidation using radial drainage.
Sridharan et al [1] studied the consolidation behavior of
clayey soil under radial drainage. The theoretical and
experimental behaviors of soils under consolidation with
radial drainage was studied and compared on the same plot.
Comparative study of coefficient of consolidation and
coefficient of permeability between the cases of radial and
vertical drainage has been done. Mandal et al [2] used geocomposite (made of natural filter extracted from jute and
coir) as vertical drains for accelerating the consolidation
process in soft soils. In their study, it was found that the
drain is flexible, resistant to clogging, resistant to ultraviolet rays, relatively more permeable, strong in tension,
sufficiently durable, economical and environmental
superior over those made of geo-synthetics. Shroff et al [3]
conducted experimental study on radial drainage. In their
study, they found that the horizontal coefficient of
consolidation is considerably higher as compared to the
vertical coefficient of consolidation of soil. This behavior
also depends upon the depth of soil strata, spacing of the
drains and size of the drains. Jun-chun Chai et al [4]
studied the factors affecting the vertical drain behavior.
They found that the discharge capacity of the drain is one of
the main influencing factors in the vertical drain
behavior. They suggested that, the laboratory value of
hydraulic conductivity can be used for the design by
considering the possible reduction of hydraulic conductivity
in the field due to non uniformity of the sand and the partial
saturation in the field. Indrarethna et al [5] studied radial
consolidation of clay by using compressibility indices and
varying horizontal permeability. The influence of the Cc/Ck
(or Cr/Ck) ratio and the preloading increment ratio on the
consolidation process was presented. The analytical
predictions are compared with the experimental results using
a large scale consolidation chamber, and these predictions
J. Bindu & Aparna R Pillai
show good agreement with the measured data. Kumara, et al Table 2 Properties of materials used in the study
[6] studied the advantages of using coir dust in vertical drains
Property
Sand
Coir pith
Fly ash
for the improvement of soft clay. The permeability and
Specific Gravity
2.60
0.50
2.12
consolidation characteristics of mixed materials of coir dust
and sea sand and sea sand alone are analyzed. The vertical
0.21mm
0.12mm
0.002mm
Effective
drain filled with mixture of coir dust and sea sand gave
Particle size
higher consolidation when compared with the clay without
(D10)
drain. Stalin et al [7] studied the improvement of soft clay
Maximum
1.98g/cc
0.13g/cc
1.17g/cc
using concrete waste as column material in the place of stone
density
aggregate. Consolidation and load test were conducted with
Minimum
1.50g/cc
0.11g/cc
1.08g/cc
and without different number of stone and concrete waste
density
columns for L/d ratio of 6.4. They found that concrete waste
4.4 10-2 1.44 10-2 0.4 10-5
Coefficient
can be effectively used instead of stone columns. The
of permeability
previous studies show that consolidation of clayey soil using
(cm/s)
preloading technique is an effective method for ground
improvement. Kuttanad region which is a unique agricultural
land in Kerala has got one of the problematic soils in the Method
world. However, consolidation of Kuttanad clay using sand, A series of consolidation test were conducted with vertical as
well as radial drainage using fixed ring oedometers. Central
coir pith and fly ash hasnt been much studied.
drainage was provided by inserting vertical drains of different
drain materials. Radial drainage alone is ensured by inserting
MATERIALS AND METHOD
polythene sheet at top and bottom of the ring, with central
holes having diameter equal to the diameter of the drain.
Materials
The soil used for the study was Kuttanad clay collected from Central holes in the soil mass were made using thin plastic
Alappuzha district, Kerala. Representative samples were tubes of outside diameter equal to the required diameter of the
collected from a depth of 1m. The natural properties of the drain. In the study 12mm diameter drain which corresponds to
soil and the particle size distribution curve are as shown in drain spacing ratio (diameter of the cell/diameter of the drain),
Table.1 and Fig.2 respectively. The properties of materials n = 5 was taken. The central hole is then filled with the drain
material. The consolidation cell was then placed in the loading
used in the present study are as shown in Table 2.
unit. Pressure was applied at various pressure intensities, 10,
20, 40, 80, 160 and 320 kPa. Effect of different drain materials
Table 1: Properties of Kuttanad clay
on the consolidation characteristics was studied. Sand passing
Value
Properties
through 425-m sieve and retained on 75- m IS sieve, coir
Natural Moisture Content
90%
pith passing through 1.18mm and retained on 425-m and fly
Specific Gravity
2.02
ash passing through 75- m sieve are used in the present
Clay fraction
38%
study. In order to study the variation of density of drain
Silt fraction
52%
materials, all drain materials where filled at three different
Sand fraction
10%
densities. Sand drains was filled at various densities of
Liquid limit
100%
1.98g/cc, 1.74g/cc,1.5g/cc, coir pith drains was filled at
Plastic limit
36%
0.13g/cc,0.12g/cc,0.11g/cc and fly ash drains was filled at
Shrinkage limit
25%
1.17g/cc, 1.12g/cc,1.08g/cc. The values of coefficient of
Plasticity Index
64%
consolidation using vertical drainage, cv and coefficient of
Optimum Moisture Content
33%
consolidation using radial drainage, cr is determined by using
Maximum Dry density
1.36g/cc
log (H2/t) Vs Uv curve [8] and log (de2/t) Vs Ur curve [1]
respectively, where de is the diameter of influence. The
coefficient of vertical permeability, kv, coefficient of radial
permeability, kr, were calculated from the corresponding
values of coefficient of consolidation using the relation

(1)
and
(2)
where
Fig.1 Particle Size Distribution Curve for Kuttanad clay
(3)
and
Effect of density of drain materials on the consolidation characteristics of clayey soil
(4)

Effect of Different Drain Materials on Coefficient of
Consolidation of Kuttanad Clay
The effect of coefficient of consolidation by varying the
density is studied. The values of cv and cr corresponding to
different stress increments was determined. The cr /cv value (cr
is the coefficient of consolidation using radial drainage, cv is
the coefficient of consolidation using vertical drainage) is also
determined. The drain material was filled at different densities
in order to study the effect of density of drain material on the
consolidation characteristics. The maximum value of cr/cv
[cr/cv (max)] obtained by using different drain material for
different densities is as shown in Fig 2.
(b)
(c)
Fig.3 cr/cv (avg) values for (a) sand drain, (b) coir pith
drain (c) fly ash drain at various densities
Fig.2 cr/cv (max) values for sand, coir pith and fly ash
drains
For various densities the average of cr/cv value [cr/cv (avg)] is
calculated. The cr/cv (avg) for different densities is as shown in
Fig 3(a), Fig 3(b), Fig 3(c) for sand drain, coir pith drain and
fly ash drain respectively. It was found that the cr /cv value
decreases linearly with the increase in the density of drain
material and it was possible to develop correlation for
predicting values of cr /cv for different densities of drain
materials with very good correlation coefficients.
Effect of Different Drain Materials on Compression Index

of Kuttanad Clay
The compression index, Cc values are found out by plotting e
log p curves. The e log p curves for vertical as well as radial
drainage were plotted. From the graph it can be seen that
compression index has not much effect on the type of
drainage, whether it is vertical or radial drainage and it is also
independent on the density of drain materials. e log p
behavior of Kuttanad clay for sand, coir pith and fly ash drain
at its minimum density is as shown in Fig 4.
Fig.4 e log p behavior of Kuttanad clay for sand, coir

pith and fly ash drain for minimum density
(a)
Effect of Different Drain Materials on Coefficient of
Permeability of Kuttanad Clay
The effect of coefficient of permeability by varying the
density was studied. The kr/kv value is calculated. The kr/kv
J. Bindu & Aparna R Pillai
value for sand drain is high when compared to coir pith drain
and fly ash drain. The maximum value of kr/kv obtained [kr/kv
(max)] for different drain is as shown in Fig 4.
7.
8.
Fig.4 kr/kv( max) values for sand, coir pith and fly
ash drains
CONCLUSION
From the various test conducted it can be seen that the rate of
consolidation and permeability is more for sand drain when
compared with fly ash drain and coir pith drain. This may be
due to the higher permeability of sand comparing with coir
pith and fly ash. Coir pith drain shows higher rate of
consolidation and permeability when compared with fly ash
drains.. The compression index has not much effect on the
type of drain material. It remains almost constant.
Correlations with very high values of correlation coefficients
were obtained linearly between cr /cv ratio and different
density of drain materials.
REFERENCES
1. Sridharan., Prakash, K., Asha, S.R., (1996),
Consolidation behaviour of clayey soils under radial
drainage, Geotecnical testing journal., Vol 19, No:4,
pp.421-431
2. Mandal., J.N., Kanagi, V.S., (1997), Design of a new
geocomposite vertical drains for ground improvement.
Proceedings of Indian Geotecnical Conference,
Vadodara, pp.305-306.
3. Shroff., A.V., Patel, S.M., (1997), Experimental
study on radial drainage using vertical drains,
Proceedings of geotechnical conference, Vadodara,
pp.323-324.
4. Jun-chun
Chai.,
Norihiko
Miura.,
(1999),
Investigation of factores affecting vertical drain
behavior,
Journal
of
geotechnical
and
geoenvironmental engineering, pp 216-225
5. Indraratna,B., .Rujikiatkamjorn,C., Sathananthan,I.,
(2005), Radial consolidation of clay using
compressibility indices and varying horizontal
permeability, canadian geotechnical journal, pp 1-39
6. Kumara., G.H.A.J.J., Dilrukshi,A.L.A., Suasinghe,N.N.,
(2008) Study on advantages of using coir dust in vertical
drains for the improvement of soft clay., Proceedings
from international conference on building education
and research Feb 2008.,pp 1343-1357
Stalin
V.K,
Palaniappan
KE.A
(2009).,
Improvement of problematic clay using concrete waste
material.,International J, of Engg. Research & Indu.
Appls (IJERIA). ISSN. Vol.1, No.VII,(2008),pp 61-69
Sridharan., Prakash, K., Asha, S.R., (1996),
Consolidation behaviour of clayey soils under radial
drainage, Geotecnical testing journal., Vol 18, No:4,
pp.58-68

PARAMETERS INFLUENCING ELECTRO-OSMOTIC CONSOLIDATION OF PEAT AND

ORGANIC SOILS
Shenbaga R. Kaniraj, Professor, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia, rkjshenbaga@feng.umimas.my
ABSTRACT: The paper explains experimental studies undertaken to assess the effectiveness of electro-osmosis in peat and
organic soils of North Sarawak. Test beds were prepared in rectangular glass tanks of inner dimensions 250 x 110 x 250 mm.
Prefabricated electric vertical drains were used as electrodes. The influence of the method of drainage, voltage gradient,
pumping interval, and polarity reversal on electro-osmotic consolidation was investigated. Results showed that electro-osmosis
was effective in peat and organic soils. The paper presents the details of the peat and organic soils studied; experimental set up;
parameters investigated; and salient results.
INTRODUCTION
Malaysia is comprised of non-contiguous land masses. The
Peninsular Malaysia on the west and the two states of
Sarawak and Sabah on the Borneo Island in the east are
separated by more than 600 km by the South China Sea. The
problems of soft alluvial and marine soil deposits are,
however, common to both parts of Malaysia. Peat swamps
too are a problematic ground condition in East and West
Malaysia. There are about 2.7 million hectares of peat swamp
in Malaysia. Of this, about 63% or about 1.7 million hectares
are in the Sarawak state. The soft alluvial, marine, and peat
deposits pose problems of stability and settlement of
structures built on such deposits. Preloading with
prefabricated vertical drains is the common method of ground
improvement employed in Sarawak. This requires importing
of preload material to the site and removing the same after
the treatment. Long time periods are also required for ground
treatment by preloading. Electro-osmotic consolidation is an
effective ground improvement technique in fine grained soils.
However, there are not many studies reported on the
effectiveness of electro-osmotic consolidation in peat and
organic soils.
and slightly organic materials. Figures 1a,b,c show the

scanning electron micrographs of (magnification factor 200)
the peats and organic soil. The size of individual peat
particles was in the range of of 200-300 m and thickness in
the range of 40-50 m. The individual particles of the organic
soil were generally smaller than 150 m in size and their
thickness was of the order of 40-50 m. Table 1 shows more
properties of the peats and the organic soil.
AIM
Laboratory experiments were carried out with the aim to
investigate the effectiveness of the electro-osmosis technique
in strengthening of peat and soft organic soils. The specific
objectives included the evaluation of influence of selected
parameters on the electro-osmosis phenomenon in peat and
organic soils. The paper explains the experiments carried out
on two peats and an organic soil. More details of the study
are available in [1-5].
MATERIALS
One peat sample was taken from a location along the MiriMarudi road, about 35 km from Miri. Another peat sample
was collected from Similajau, about 160 km south-west of
Miri. The organic soil was taken from Sibu in the central
region of Sarawak. A clayey silt sample with low organic
content also was used as a reference material to compare the
electro-osmotic consolidation phenomenon in highly organic
Table 1 Geotechnical properties of the peats and soils [1, 2]

Sibu
MiriClayey
Similajau
organic
Property
Marudi
silt
peat
soil
peat
Natural water
content, wn (%)
552
643
87
Organic
content, N (%)
97
96
49
11
Von Post
classification
H8
H8
Specific
gravity, G
1,47
2.56
Liquid limit, wl
413
323
245
62
Plastic limit,
wp
257
244
155
43
Plasticity
index, PI
156
79
90
19
A commercially available prefabricated band-shaped electric

vertical drain (EVD) was used to apply voltage gradient
across the test beds. It consisted of a conductive polyethylene
core profiled with rows of ribs along its length and wrapped
in a filter material. The core encapsulated a 90mm wide
copper foil and was perforated at intervals to secure bond.
APPARATUS
Tests beds were prepared inside glass tanks of inner
dimensions 250 x 110 x 250mm. Experiments were carried
out under anode closed cathode open condition. Figures 2
Shenbaga R. Kaniraj
flowed out continuously during the experiment. The ejector

well used in the field was simulated in the experiments on
Sibu organic soil. Figure 3b shows the arrangement for this
inside the test tank. The elevation is same as Fig. 2, but with
no bottom drainage holes. The pore water drained into
vertical perforated plastic pipes sheathed in geotextile filter
and was pumped out at predetermined time intervals.
(a)
Fig. 2 Test tank with drainage at the bottom of the test bed
(b)
(c)
Fig. 1 Scanning electron micrographs of: (a) Miri-Marudi
peat, (b) Similajau peat, and (c) Sibu organic soil [1, 2]
Fig. 3 Plan of test tank showing the 2anodes-1cathode

configuration of electrodes: (a) Drainage at bottom of test bed
(b) Drainage through drainage pipe [2]
and 3a show the details of test tank used in the experiments

on peats [1]. The pore water was removed from the test bed
through flexible tubes connected to a hole located close to the
floor of the test tank in the two end walls. The pore water
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The experimental procedure, in general, involved the
following sequence of steps: a) preparation of test material
peat or soil and the EVD, b) preparation of test beds, and
Parameters influencing electro-osmotic consolidation of peat and organic soils
c) carrying out self-weight and electro-osmotic consolidation

tests simultaneously. The details of the measurements for
a) initial and final undrained strength, b) initial and final
water content distribution, c) deformation of the surface of
the test bed, d) volume of drained water, and other details are
explained in [1-2].
EXPERMENTAL PROGRAMME
The experimental programme consisted of a series of tests on
test beds in which the influence of several parameters on
electro-osmotic consolidation was studied. Table 2 provides a
summary of the parameters and their ranges or variations.
A total volume of 1293ml of water drained out during the 6

days of treatment. But, only 93ml of water flowed out from a
similar test bed during 8 days of consolidation due to selfweight. Both the test beds had nearly the same initial
moisture content of about 304%.
Figure 5 shows the volume of water that flowed out of the
Sibu organic soil test beds under self-weight consolidation
and under 80V/m voltage gradient. Both test beds had an
initial water content of 239%.
Table 2 Parameters and their range of values

Parameters
Range or variation
Voltage gradient
Configuration of EVD
Roots
Polarity reversal
0a 180 V/m
Full widthb, 1-1c, & 2-1d
Present, Absente
No polarity reversal, & 8 24hf
Pumping interval
3 12hg
0 V/m refers to self-weight consolidation tests in which no
voltage gradient was applied. bThe EVD nearly covered the
full width of the test bed at the anode and cathode ends. cOne
15mm wide EVD strip was used at both anode and cathode
ends. dTwo 15mm wide EVD strips were used at the anode
and one 15mm wide EVD strip was used at the cathode (Fig.
3b). eLong roots present in the peat samples were removed
before preparing the test bed. fThe polarity of the electrodes
were reversed at the specified intervals (in hours) of time. gIn
tests with plastic drainage pipes in the test beds (Fig. 3b).
a
RESULTS
Effectiveness of Electro-osmotic Consolidation
Figure 4 shows the surface profile of Miri-Marudi Road peat
test bed without roots consolidated under 80V/m voltage
gradient.
Fig. 5 Variation of volume of water drained from Sibu

organic soil test beds with time [2]
Figures 4 and 5 are typical representations of the
effectiveness of electro-osmotic consolidation in peats and
organic soil. These and other results showed the effectiveness
of electro-osmotic consolidation in peats and organic soils.
Effect of Voltage Gradient
Table 3 shows typical results of the influence of voltage
gradient on the outcomes of electro-osmotic consolidation of
Similajau peat.
Table 3 Influence of voltage gradient on electro-osmotic
consolidation of Similajau peat [1]
Voltage gradient, V/m
Property
80
100
120
140
Initial water
content (%)
554
555
552
554
Total volume of
water drained, ml
1160
1340
1610
1466
Sui, kPa
2.25
1.32
0.92
1.32
Suf, kPa
11.4718.80
10.8924.42
15.3434.04
8.7728.69
Fig. 4 Variation of surface profile of Miri-Marudi Road peat

bed with time at 80V/m voltage gradient [1]
Maximum
increase in Su,
736
1750
3600
2073
(%)
a
Duration of each test was 8 days and 2anodes-1cathode
configuration was used in all tests. bInitial undrained
strength. bFinal undrained strength (increases from cathode
to anode).
Shenbaga R. Kaniraj
From the results shown in Table 3 and from other tests it can
be inferred that the voltage gradient had a significant effect
on the outcome of electro-osmotic consolidation. The volume
of water drained from the test beds and the undrained
strength generally increased as the voltage gradient increased.
The maximum voltage gradient for optimum results appeared
to be in the region 120V/m.
Effect of Pumping Interval
Figure 6 shows the results of water drained from three Sibu
organic soil test beds with initial water content in the range of
219-221%. In the self-weight consolidation test bed (12 hours
pumping interval), 138ml of water flowed out. Under a
voltage gradient of 80V/m and 3h and 6h pumping intervals,
1014 ml and 991ml of water drained out, respectively.
Fig. 6 Influence of pumping interval on the volume of water

drained from Sibu organic soil test beds
Effect of Polarity Reversal
Figure 7 shows the comparison of water drained from four
Sibu organic soil test beds. The voltage gradient was 80 V/m
and the pumping interval was 3h in all the test beds. The
initial water content of the test bed in which there was no
polarity reversal was 221%. In the other 3 beds where
polarity was reversed at 8h, 12h, and 24h intervals the initial
water content was in the range of 249-254%
Fig. 7 Influence of polarity reversal on the volume of water

drained from Sibu organic soil test beds [1]
As Fig. 7 shows, polarity reversal resulted in significantly

lesser electro-osmotic flow. The volume of water drained
from test beds with no polarity reversal, and with polarity
reversal at 8h, 12h, and 24h intervals were 1014ml, 608ml,
607ml, and 623ml, respectively.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results of the series of electro-osmotic
consolidation experiments on peat and organic soil test beds,
the following conclusions are made.
1. Electro-osmotic consolidation improved the undrained
strength of peats and the organic soil very effectively.
2. The voltage gradient had a significant influence on the
results of electro-osmotic consolidation. The electroosmotic flow and undrained strength generally increased
as the voltage gradient increased. The maximum voltage
gradient for optimum results appeared to be in the region
120V/m.
3. Shorter pumping interval resulted in more and faster
electro-osmotic consolidation.
4. Polarity reversal resulted in significantly lesser electroosmotic flow.
REFERENCES
1. Kaniraj, S.R. and Yee, J.H.S. (2011). Electro-osmotic
consolidation experiments on an organic soil,
Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, 29(4), 505518.
2. Kaniraj, S.R., Huong, H.L. and Yee, J.H.S. (2011).
Electro-osmotic consolidation studies on peat and clayey
silt using electric vertical drain, Geotechnical and
Geological Engineering, 29(3), 277-295.
3. Yee, J.H.S. and Kaniraj, S.R. (2010). Performance of
drainage well in electro-osmotic consolidation
experiment, Indian Geotechnical Conference 2010,
Mumbai, India.
4. Kaniraj, S.R. and Huong, H.L. (2009). Electro-osmotic
consolidation studies on peat of North Sarawak, Indian
Geotechnical Conference 2009, Guntur, India, 455-458.
5. Kaniraj, S.R. and Huong, H.L. (2008). Electro-osmotic
consolidation experiments on North Sarawak peat,
Indian Geotechnical Conference 2008, Bangalore, India,
70-73.
Acknowledgement
The research grant from the Ministry of Science, Technology
and Innovation, Malaysia, to the research project Electroosmosis and Electro-stabilization Experiments on Soft Soils
of North Sarawak at Curtin University, Miri, is
acknowledged. Mr. R.S. Douglas, Emas Kiara Industries
Bhd., Selangor, Malaysia, provided the EVD. Mr H.L. Huong
and Ms J.H.S. Yee assisted in conducting the experiments.
The conference support from the Universiti Malaysia
Sarawak, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, is also acknowledged
with thanks.

A STUDY ON THE EFFECTS OF NON POZZOLANIC AND POZZOLANIC ADMIXTURES ON THE

ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOFT CLAY
M.N. Sandeep, Assistant Professor, IES College of Engineering, Thrissur, sandheepmn@gmail.com
Sherin Sidharthan, Post graduate student, IES College of Engineering, Thrissur, sherinsreenath17@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: An experimental program is undertaken to study the effects of pozzolanic and non pozzolanic inclusions on the
geotechnical characteristics of soft clay. In this paper, the test results such as index properties, Proctors compaction, and
unconfined compression strength obtained on soft clay mixed with different proportions of fly ash and stone dust are presented
and discussed. Admixtures are added to the soil at ranges of 218% at an increment of 4 %. From the results, it is observed that at
optimum percentages, i.e., 6% stone dust and 14% fly ash, there is a marked improvement in the strength of the base soil.
INTRODUCTION
Scarcity of land with good bearing capacity is one of the
major problems the world faces now. This leads to the
construction of buildings on available land which may not be
good with respect to its bearing capacity. For the safety of
buildings it is necessary to improve the quality of ground by
adoption of some suitable ground improvement technique.
The method of ground improvement technique adopted
depends on the soil to be treated and availability of materials
required for improving the soil and also on the cost
effectiveness. Effort of geotechnical engineers is to develop
technically viable and economically feasible methods to
improve the properties of soil to suit the requirements of
engineering structure.
Soft clays represent a well known category of problematic
soils. The fact that soft clay deposits are widespread and
often cause problems to structures in the form of foundation
failures, detailed study of effectiveness of various ground
improvement techniques suitable for these soils is of prime
importance. Studying the behavior of soft clays especially
requires a thorough determination of their geotechnical
parameters. They tend to have low shear strengths and to lose
shear strength further upon wetting or other physical
disturbances [1]. They can be plastic and compressible and
they expand when wetted and shrink when dried. They
develop large lateral pressures. They tend to have low
resilient modulus values. For these reasons, soft clays are
generally poor materials for foundations [2].
Usually when a strong bearing stratum is found only at large
depths beyond 15m, foundation expenses can become very
high and they may not commensurate with the cost of the
superstructure. This is particularly so in the case of small
scale structures and low-rise buildings subject to low to
moderate loads. On compressible soils, construction
problems arise during construction of embankments (railways
and highways). Therefore, an economical solution is often
looked at to improve the engineering properties of the
underlying soil rather than the use of deep foundations.
Civil engineering projects located in areas with soft or weak

soils have traditionally incorporated improvement of soil
properties by using additives. Soil stabilization technique is
well established and used in various applications like
improvement of shear strength, load bearing capacity, soil
stabilization, filter, drainage system, etc. Chemical
modification by adding lime and lime-pozzolana mixes has
been practiced very effectively. It consists of bonding the soil
particles with a cementing agent that is produced by chemical
reaction within the soil. There are a number of additives,
which may be utilised for ground modification. The most
commonly used additives for soil modification are ordinary
Portland cement, lime, fly ash and lime flyash, among
which fly ash is the cheapest one. Fly ash is defined as the
mineral matter extracted from the flue gases of a furnace
fired with coal. Fly ash consists of often hollow spheres of
silicon, aluminium and iron oxides, and unoxidized carbon.
Fly ash can be regarded as nonplastic fine silt by the Unified
Soil Classification System. Flyash is a waste by product from
thermal power plants, which uses coal as fuel. It is estimated
that about 120 million tones of flyash is being produced from
different thermal power plants in India consuming several
thousand hectares of precious land for its disposal causing
severe health and environmental hazards. In order to utilize
flyash in bulk quantities, ways and means are being explored
all over the world to use it for the construction of
embankments and roads. In spite of continuous efforts made
and incentives offered by the government, hardly 5- 10% of
the product ash is being used for construction purposes like
brick making, cement manufacture, soil stabilization and as
fill material[3]
Use of fly ash as a ground improvement soil admixture, when
found viable, will be effective in terms of cost and a good
approach to the environment to preserve and minimize
accumulation of industrial waste. This study is performed to
obtain its application in the stabilization of soft soil. The
strength characteristics of flyash stabilized clays are
measured by means of unconfined compressive strength.
M.N.Sandeep & Sherin Sidharthan

The composition of fly ash varies considerably depending on
the nature of the coal burned and the power plant operational
characteristics [4]. In the recent past some of the researchers
have brought out interesting notes on utilization of stone dust
and flyash for soil stabilization. The plasticity index, activity
and swelling potential of the samples decreased with
increasing percent stabilizer and curing time and the optimum
content of flyash in decreasing the swell potential was found
to be 20% [5]. The increase in flyash content reduces
plasticity characteristics and the FSI was reduced by about
50% by the addition of 20% fly ash [6]. The addition of fly
ash to black cotton (BC) soil increases the CBR of the mix up
to the first optimum level due to the frictional resistance from
fly ash in addition to the cohesion from BC soil. Further
addition of fly ash beyond the optimum level causes a
decrease up to 60% and then up to the second optimum level
there is an increase [7].
In Kerala, large numbers of crusher units are available, which
produces huge quantity of stone dust. Due to the high demand
for rubble and aggregates for construction purposes rubble
quarries and aggregate crushers are very common. The
annual production of quarry dust is roughly around 200
million tonnes [8].The disposal of which creates a lot of
geoenvironmental problems. Out of the different quarry
wastes, quarry dust is one, which is produced in abundance.
About 20-25% of the total production in each crusher unit is
left out as the waste material - stone dust. Stone dust not only
pollutes water, air or land but also their disposal is a great
problem. In the recent past some of the researchers have
brought out interesting notes on utilization of stone dust and
flyash for soil stabilization.
A limited research is available regarding the utilisation of this
waste for stabilization of soft clay. A study on the
stabilization of black cotton soil using crusher dust a waste
product from Bundelkhand region, India was conducted and
optimal percentage of crusher dust was found to be 40% [9].
The CBR of stone dust was found to be maximum value
among fly ash, coarse sand, stone dust, and river bed
material, but its behavior under dynamic load in triaxial tests
was inferior to that of the other materials. Fly ash has low
CBR, but better stress-strain behavior than stone dust [10].
The expansive soil was stabilized using quarry dust and lime
and studied the stabilization effects with improvement in
unconfined compressive strength (UCS), soaked California
bearing ratio (CBR) and reduction in swelling pressure etc.
[11]. The combined effects of stone dust (quarry dust) and fly
ash (equal proportion of stone dust and fly ash) on swell and
strength properties of an expansive soil along with other
properties were studied. It was found that there was a
maximum improvement in strength properties for the
combination of fly ash and stone dust as compared to fly ash
or stone dust, added separately [12].
The main objective of this work is to study the effect of
chemical reaction on the addition of pozzolanic (fly ash)
admixtures to the soft clay as compared to the addition of

nonpozzolanic (stone dust) admixture.
MATERIALS AND TESTING PROGRAM
Soil
The soil used in this investigation is collected from a depth of
1.5 m below the ground level in Tiruvannamalai District,
Tamil Nadu, and India. The properties of the soil are
presented in Table 1.
Table 1 properties of Base soil
Properties
Specific gravity
Liquid limit (%)
Plastic limit (%)
Shrinkage limit (%)
Maximum dry density(kN/m3)
Unconfined compressive
strength(kPa)
Values
2.58
65
33
14
32
15.4
22
88.2
Stone Dust
The stone dust used in the experiment is brought from a
crusher unit situated in Thrissur District, Kerala, India. Stone
Dust passing through 75 IS Sieve was used for the tests.
The specific Gravity of Stone dust is 2.5.
FlyAsh
The FlyAsh used for the experimental study is collected from
Neyveli Thermal power plant of Neyveli Lignite
Corporation (NLC), located at Neyveli, Tamil Nadu, and
India. Class C Fly Ash, used for the study was collected from
Thermal Station 2 of NLC. The Specific Gravity of Fly Ash
was found to be 2.54.
Admixture Proportions and Tests Conducted
The specific gravity of clay, stone dust and fly ash are
determined by density bottle method according to IS:
1720(part-III/sec-I)1980. The proportions of stone dust and
flyash used along with the soil in the study ranges between
2-18%, with an increment of 4%.The following tests were
conducted on the soil samples mixed at different proportions
of flyash and stone dust. The liquid limit test were conducted
as per IS: 2720(Part 5)-1985. Standard proctor test was
carried out according to IS: 2720 (Part 7)-1980. Unconfined
compressive strength (UCS) tests were conducted at optimum
moisture content (OMC) and Maximum dry density (MDD)
as per IS: 2720(Part 10)-1991.
Liquid limit test, IS light compaction, Unconfined
compressive strength tests were conducted with different
percentages of stone dust(R.D.)/flyash(F.A.) as admixtures in
soft clay for finding optimum percentage of additives.
A study on the effects of non pozzolanic and pozzolanic admixtures on the engineering properties of soft clay
Effect of fly ash and stone dust on OMC and MDD
The variations of compaction characteristics such as OMC
and MDD for the clay treated with stone dust and fly ash are
presented in Figures 1 & 2. From the figures, it can be seen
that there is a decrease in OMC and increase in MDD value
with increase in percentage of stone dust/ flyash. It is also
observed that the clay sample when replaced with 6% of
stone dust yielded maximum dry density of 15.99kN/m3 at
optimum moisture content of 19.67% and addition of 14%
flyash yielded maximum dry density of 16.7 kN/m3 at
optimum moisture content of 13.09%. The percentage
increase in the MDD at optimum levels of stone dust and
flyash additions to the clay are 4% and 9% respectively.
Fig.3 Influence of Stone Dust and Fly Ash on Liquid Limit
Effect of fly ash and stone dust on stress strain behaviour
The variations of stress-strain characteristics for the soft clay
treated with stone dust and fly ash are presented in Figures 4
& 5. From the figures, it can be seen that maximum stress
will be obtained with the addition of 14 % fly ash and 6%
stone dust. Stress is increasing till the optimum percentages
of admixtures reached. And further addition, have no effect
on the stress strain behaviour.
Fig.1 Influence of Stone Dust and Fly Ash on MDD
Fig.4 Influence of Fly Ash on stress strain behaviour
Fig.2 Influence of Stone Dust and Fly Ash on OMC

Effect of fly ash and stone dust on Liquid Limit
The variation of liquid limit with the addition of stone dust
and fly ash is as shown in figure 3. From the figure, it is
observed that as the percentage of stone dust /flyash
increases, there is a marked reduction in liquid limit of clay
tested. From this, it can be deduced that the flow
characteristics of the soil sample are gradually decreasing
with increase in the percentage of stone dust/flyash. This
reduced flow characteristics of clay is very much required to
avoid the failure patterns in the road construction over such
sub grade soils. For the same soil tested with flyash and
stone dust, it is observed that the flow characteristics of soil
are low in case of soil treated with fly ash as compared to
stone dust.
Fig.5 Influence of Stone Dust on stress strain behaviour
M.N.Sandeep & Sherin Sidharthan

Effect of fly ash and stone dust on unconfined
compressive strength
The variations of UCS for all samples are presented in Figure
6. It can be seen that the UCS of the clay sample have
increased with the percentage of stone dust/flyash. The
maximum values of UCS are achieved at 14% ad of flyash
and 6 % of stone dust to the clay. As compared to the
untreated soil, the percentage increase in UCS at optimum
percentages of stone dust and fly ash are 8% and 48%
respectively. For the same soil tested with flyash and stone
dust, it is observed that the UCS of soil is high for soil treated
with fly ash as compared to stone dust. The higher strength is
attributed to the presence of cementation bonds in fly ash
treated specimens.
Fig.6 Influence of Stone Dust and fly ash on unconfined

compressive strength
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the experimental study of the soil stabilized using
fly ash and stone dust, the following conclusions can be
drawn:
The addition of flyash and stone dust to the base soil
decreases the liquid limit, optimum moisture content
(OMC) and increases maximum dry density (MDD) at
optimum contents.
The optimum percentages of fly ash and stone dust are
found to be 14 % and 6 % respectively for improving the
properties of clay.
An increase of 4% and 9% in MDD can be obtained at
optimum percentages of stone dust and fly ash
respectively.
The addition of Fly ash and stone dust has considerable
effect on the stress strain behaviour of soft clay.
The improvement in unconfined compression strength due
to the addition of stone dust and fly ash is found to be
8% and 48% respectively at optimum contents.
It is observed from the study that the performance of
Class C fly as is much more effective as an additive when
compared to stone dust. This may be due to the
cementitious property of fly ash and the pozzolanic
reactions between calcium oxide, aluminous and siliceous
materials in the fly ash and the base soil.
REFERENCES
1. Mitchell, J.K.,(1986), Practical Problems from surprising
soil Behavior, Journal of Geotechnical Geoenvironmental Engg, Vol. 112, No. 3, pp 255-289
2. Liu, C., and Evett, J.(2008), Soils and Foundations,
Pearson-Prentice Hall, Seventh Edition, Upper Saddle
River, New Jersey
3. Bhoominadhan. A. and Hari, S. (1999), Behavior of
flyash under static and cyclic loading, Proceedings of
Indian Geotechnical Conference, Calcutta, 324-326
4. Cabrera, J. G., and Woolley, G. R. (1994), Fly ash
utilization in civil engineering. Environmental aspects of
construction with waste materials, studies in
environmental
science,
Vol.
60,
Elsevier
Science,Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 345356
5. Cokca, E. (2001), Use Of class C fly ashes for the
Stabilization of an expansive soil, Journal of Geotech
and Geoenvironmental Engg, Vol. 127, 568-573
6. Phanikumar, B.R. and Sharma, R.S. (2004), Effect of
flyash on engineering properties of expansive soil,
Engineering Vol. 130(7), 764-767
7. Pandian,N.S.,Krishna,K.C.& Leelavathamma B., (2002),
Effect of Fly Ash on the CBR Behaviour of Soils,
Indian Geotechnical Conference, Allahabad, Vol.1,
pp.183-186.
8. T.G. Soosan, A, Sridharan, B .T Jose and B.M. Abraham,
(2005), Utilization of quarry dust to improve the
geotechnical properties of soils in Highway
Construction,
Geotechnical
testing
Journal
,
Vol.28(4),pp.391-400.
9. A.K. Gupta, A.K. Sachan, A.K. Sahu and S.
Kumar,(2002),Stabilization of black cotton soil using
crusher dust A waste product of Bundelkhand region,
Proceedings of Indian Geotechnical Conference,
Allahabad, pp. 308-311.
10. Praveen Kumar, Satish Chandra, and Vishal, R. (2006).
Comparative study of different sub base materials,
Journal of Mat. in Civil Engineering Vol.18(4), 576-580.
11. A.K.Sabat, S.K.Das,(2009)Design of low volume rural
roads using lime stabilized expansive soil-quarry dust
mixes subgrade,Indian Highways,Vol 37(9) pp21-27,
12. M. S. Ali, and S. S. Korranne,(2011) Performance
analysis of expansive soil treated with stone dust and fly
ash, Electronics Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,
Vol.16 Bund. I, pp. 973-982.

THE EFFECT OF DEPLOYMENT OF JACK-UP DRILLING UNITS ON CLAYEY SOILS AT

OFFSHORE LOCATIONS- CASE STUDIES
Rupam Mahanta, Chief Engineer (Civil), IEOT, ONGC, rupam.mahanta@gmail.com
S. C. Sharma, Chief Engineer (Civil), IEOT, ONGC, scsharmatrey@gmail.com
A. Ajit, Chief Engineer (Civil), IEOT, ONGC, ajit_ap@hotmail.com
R. K. Ghanekar, Deputy General Manager (Civil), IEOT, ONGC, rkghanekar@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Jack-up drilling units are regularly used in the offshore locations primarily to drill wells for exploration and
production of hydrocarbons. Majority of the jack-up units currently being used in offshore have independent foundations at the
bottom of their legs. In clays of soft to firm consistency, penetration of foundation of the jack-up units into the seabed and
subsequent withdrawal of it cause large movement and remoulding of the soil surrounding the foundation. Disturbance of soil
affects the existing foundations of nearby structures. Installation of new structures near to such footprints is also affected by
such disturbed zones of soil. The effect of deployment of jack-up units in soft to firm soil is discussed in the paper.
INTRODUCTION
Jack-up rigs are mobile drilling units used in offshore for
hydrocarbon exploration and production activities. During
exploratory activities no structure exists near its position.
However, during production phase, they are deployed
adjacent to well head platforms initially for drilling and many
times later for work-over operations. In areas where jack-up
rigs are deployed, the soil disturbance is a matter of
considerable interest for proper design of foundations nearby
as well as for the redeployment of jack-up units in future at
the site. While deploying a jack-up rig, its legs having large
foundations at their bottom (called spudcans) are pushed into
the seabed for safety and stability during its operation. In
soils of soft to firm consistency, the legs penetrate up to
significant depths below the seafloor. Such penetrations
followed by withdrawal of the spudcans after the operation
cause large movement of soil in all directions and at the same
time reducing the strength of soil due to remoulding in a zone
in and around the path of penetration. In-situ measurements
of such cases of soil disturbance in actual sites are rarely
carried out as the cost of offshore operations is very high.
Normally, estimates of such disturbed zone and the reduction
of strength are approximated with available knowledge on the
subject. Two cases of jack-up rig deployment in western
offshore of India, are discussed, where the investigations
were made before and after deployment of rigs using
Geotechnical Vessel of ONGC Samudra Sarvekshak. The
result of investigations re-establishes some of the existing
knowledge and provides new information adding further
confidence to the geotechnical engineers.
international practice [1] giving due consideration to the local

experience in the area. During installation, the average
vertical stress below the spudcans for commonly deployed
jack-up units are in the range of 200 to 400 KN/m2 or more
[2] with preloads. The penetration of the legs continues
downward as long as the bearing stress below the spudcan is
more than the bearing capacity of the soil.
JACK-UP SPUDCAN PENETRATION

For assessment of penetration of jack-up spudcans, bearing
capacity analysis is carried out taking into account the
geometry of the spudcans, preload (extra loading to place the
foundation with a safety margin against combined loads
during operation) to be applied and the soil condition at the
site. The bearing capacity analysis is based on the
The rig in this case was a three-legged unit. The equivalent

spudcan (foundation) diameter for the case 1 was 16.2 m. The
shape of spudcan is conical at bottom and inside of the
spudcan remains filled with water during penetration into
soil. The average penetration of the legs in this case was
about 9.0 m. After the withdrawal of the rig from the site, soil
investigation was carried out at the three footprints of
CASE 1
The water depth at the site was 60.0 m. The soil condition is
presented in Table 1. These soil parameters were established
before the deployment of rig through detailed investigation
by carrying out CPTU (cone penetration test with pore
pressure measurement) and detailed laboratory tests on
recovered soil samples. Table 1 presents relevant parameters
required for assessment of spudcan penetration.
The soil profile comprises of clay up to a depth of 30.0 m.
The soil up to 7.8 m from the seabed is in very soft to soft
condition. Below 7.8 m, the profile shows firm to stiff clay.
Below the depth of 22.1 m, the soil is very stiff.
Table 1 Soil properties at site of case 1
Depth of
Soil
Su
Effective
'
layer below
type
(KN/m2) (degree)
Unit wt.
mudline (m)
(KN/m3)
0.0 to 7.8
Clay
4-20
5.5
7.8 to 22.1
Clay
40-90
8.0
Note: Su Undrained shear strength, ' drained angle of
internal friction
Rupam Mahanta, S. C. Sharma, A. Ajit & R. K. Ghanekar

spudcans of the rig to ascertain the soil condition again. The
investigation consisted of in-situ test - CPTU along with
sampling and laboratory testing. However, undisturbed
sampling was not possible in the initial 8.0 m below the
mudline due to very soft nature of the soil. Changes in the
soil condition in the depth of penetration of the jack-up leg
are as follows.
Depression
It was found from the investigation that soil has flown back
into the footprints leaving depressions of 2.5 m to 3.5 m (in
the three footprints) below the general seabed.
Reduction of Strength of the Soil
Reduction of undrained strength was evaluated for the top 8.0
m soil. The CPTU cone resistance is a very good measure of
the undrained shear strength of the clayey soil [3]. As
mentioned already, CPTU was carried out twice before and
after the jack-up rig deployment. Therefore, cone resistance
before and after deployment of rig was considered for
evaluation of the undrained shear strength. Strength ratios of
original to disturbed conditions at different depths were
evaluated after adjusting for the depth of the depression in the
footprint area. The result is shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Strength reduction of soil in Case 1 site
Strength
Strength
Strength
Depth below
ratio
ratio
ratio
seabed
at leg 1
at leg 2
at leg 3
(metre)
position
position
position
1.0
5.6
1.4
2.2
2.0
2.8
1.7
2.1
3.0
3.4
3.0
2.2
4.0
6.0
2.8
4.7
5.0
4.7
2.4
3.8
6.0
3.7
3.5
2.4
7.0
5.6
2.2
2.0
8.0
7.0
2.6
Note: Strength ratio is undrained shear strength of original
soil/undrained strength of disturbed soil at the same depth
Average ratio of reduction was 3.4. Ignoring the outlier
values from the data, the average strength ratio for the soil
was found to be 3.2. The value of the ratio is found to be
close to the upper limit of recommended values of
sensitivity (2 to 3) used for analysis of foundation installed
in the area, although the term sensitivity does not apply for
the case in the true sense of the term due to variation in
moisture content and time effect. It may be mentioned that
the cone factor applied for evaluating the strength ratio is
considered to be the same for both the conditions of soil.
CASE 2
The site in case 2 was at a water depth of 82.1 m. The soil
was investigated before deployment of rig by carrying out
CPTU and detailed laboratory tests. In this case there was
sand of 2.0 m thickness at the seabed overlying clay in very
soft condition from 2.0 m to 8.8 m. Below the depth of 8.8 m,
the soil is sand and strong enough to prevent penetration of

jack-up legs.
Table 2 Soil properties at the site of case 2
Depth of
Soil
Su
Effective
'
layer below
type
(KN/m2) (degree)
Unit wt.
mudline (m)
(KN/m3)
0.0 to 2.0
Sand
20
8.0
2.0 to 8.8
Clay
3-10
5.0
8.8 to 12.0
Sand
25
9.0
12.0 to 22.5
Sand
35
10.0
For the site in case 2, the actual penetration of spudcans was
9.2 m.
The jack-up was again a three-legged unit with equivalent
spudcan diameter of 16.2 m. After removal of the jack-up rig,
Case 2 required, in addition to geotechnical investigation,
geophysical investigation with survey equipment viz. multibeam eco-sounder, side scan sonar and pipeliner for planning
and analysis to ensure the safety during installation of a fixed
jacket type platform planned to be positioned near the
footprints.
Fig. 1 shows the result of mapping of the area, where the
footprints are clearly visible. The plan of boreholes for soil
investigation is presented in Fig. 2. It was planned to carry
out the in-situ/lab tests at several positions to find out the
extent of the disturbance of the soil in the area.
Fig. 1 Footprints or pugmarks in the seabed due to

deployment of jackup unit at Case 2 site
At the center of the jack-up footprints, the soil was found to
be completely remoulded and very soft. CPTU tests were
very effective in determining the condition of the soil in the
area along with some index tests like torvane on recovered
samples.
The effect of deployment of jack up drilling units in clayey soils at offshore locations- case studies
soil profile disappeared as a layer. Possibly, it was mixed
with the soft soil during the process of penetration of the
spudcans and subsequent withdrawal. The properties of the
soft soil in the footprint positions show a lot of variation with
respect to the values of water content, liquid limit and content
of fines. Fig. 3 shows the comparison of CPTU cone
resistance for the original and disturbed conditions. The ratio
of undrained shear strengths of original to disturbed soil was
found to be 1.5 to 2.0.
Fig. 2 Plan of boreholes for soil investigation after

deployment of rig in case 2.
Reduction of Strength of the Soil
In the site for Case 2, after deployment and withdrawal of
spudcans the top layer of loose sand present in the original
Cone Resistance, qc (MN/sq.m)

0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Cone resistance vs. depth
Depth Below Mudline (m)
Data of original Borehole

Data at footprint 2
Data at footprint 1
Data of intermediate borehole
outside fotprints 1 and 2
Extent of disturbed zone

The diameters of the footprints were found to be in the range
of 1.6 times to 2 times of the spudcan diameter. The
depressions in the three footprints were in the range of 1.8 m
to 3.5 m. Most disturbed soil conditions were found at the
center of the footprints (where the spudcan actually
penetrated). Disturbance reduced with the distance away
from the penetration areas and at the periphery of the
footprint, the disturbance was found to be negligible. In the
intermediate position between two footprints (Fig. 2), the soil
was about the same as original; however, the loose sand layer
at the seabed (as per the original investigation) inexplicably
was not found in the new investigation after deployment of
jack-up rig.
Installations near Disturbed Zones
On-bottom stability before installation of piles is a very
important consideration for any piled jacket structure. Piled
offshore platforms are fabricated with mat foundations below
the jacket frame, called mudmats, for temporarily supporting
the jacket structure during installation before the piles are
driven to secure the jacket permanently. At case 2 site, a large
mat foundation was designed for this purpose. Also the site
had constraint for positioning the new platform far away from
the disturbed zone due to presence of an existing structure
nearby. Analysis was carried out to find the minimum safe
distance of the edge of the mudmat from the edge of the
disturbed zones.
Fig. 3 Comparison of resistance from cone penetration test

Note: The CPTU in Fig.3 is not continuous and limited to
maximum continuous stroke of 3.0 m.
Fig. 4 Result of loading a mat foundation for the offshore

platform near the disturbed zone
The result of the 2D finite element analysis [4] is shown in
Fig. 4. The effect of the disturbed zone is obvious on the
foundation, if the structure is placed too close to the
footprints. If placed too close to the footprint area, the
Rupam Mahanta, S. C. Sharma, A. Ajit & R. K. Ghanekar

bearing capacity of the foundation reduces and the jacket
structure is likely to tilt. More rigorous analysis was carried
out to assess minimum safe distance from the footprint for
positioning the platform structure and finally the structure
was installed safely.
2.
Maximum depression in the seabed that remained after

the withdrawal of the jack up rig was in the range of 1.8
to 3.5 m in footprints where the spudcan penetrated
through very soft and soft clays occurring near the
seabed. Depth of depression works out in the range of
11% to 22% of the spudcan diameter.
3.
The ratio of undrained shear of original soil to that of

disturbed soil for the clays at both the sites was in the
range of 1.5 to 3.0. Values are close to applied values of
sensitivity of clays in the areas for design and analysis.
4.
For new foundations the disturbance of the original soil

in the footprints may affect in different ways -
OTHER APPLICATIONS
Deployment of jack-up and its subsequent withdrawal cause a
lot of local variation of strength and nature of the soil and its
effects need to be accounted for in the design and analysis of
foundations for installation of other structures in the area.
Some other related issues are discussed below.
Multiple Rig Deployment at the Sites
Geometry of jack-up units particularly size and spacing of
their spudcans often differs among different units. When
jack-up rigs are deployed at a site with soft to firm clay near
seabed, where earlier deployment of a different unit had
taken place, spudcans of the newly deployed jack-up rig tend
to slide towards the footprints already existing at the site.
Depending on the amount of overlap of spudcan and existing
footprint, spudcan size, stiffness of the legs of the jack-up rig
and the soil conditions such tendency and possibility of leg
damage vary. Possibility of jack up hitting the jacket and
damaging it can also not be ruled out. Therefore, a new
deployment at a site where there has been previous
deployment needs careful consideration. Knowledge of the
extent of disturbed zone and the changes in soil condition can
be of great use in this regard.
Design and Analysis of Piles of a Fixed Jacket Platform:
Fixed jacket type platforms in the offshore are mostly
supported by driven steel pipe piles. During their design the
stresses and displacement in response to loads are
determined. The soil near the seabed plays an important role
in the load-displacement behaviour of the piles, especially the
lateral load-displacement. Piles close to jack up deployment
area, where soils experience large movement and reduced
strength, are subjected to higher stresses and displacements
due to the relatively poor soil support surrounding the pile
[2]. Quantification of such effect is addressed in somewhat
conservatively at present in Indian offshore. Information
about the reduction of strength and the extent of disturbed
zone are required for analysis of such piles and needs further
research to establish more accurate guidelines.
CONCLUSION
The cases provided an insight into what happens when a large
footing is penetrated into the seabed. It is found from the
measurement that 1.
Maximum remoulding / remixing of soil occurred at the

center of the footprint and the remoulding reduced
towards the periphery of the disturbed zone. The
diameter of footprints was in the range of 1.6 to 2.0
times the spudcan diameter in soft to firm clays.
a.
Spudcan-footprint interaction and uncontrolled

movement and possible damage to jackup and
adjoining structure while deploying rigs at the site
with existing footprints.
b.
Additional stresses, deflection and reduction of

capacity in piles through the disturbed zone.
c.
Tendency of instability/tilting of structures like

fixed jacket platform while supported on mudmats
during installation.
There is a lot of scope for further research on all these aspects

through field measurements, laboratory testing, model testing
and analytical techniques. Given the cost of offshore
structures and concern for safety of them, without accurate
information on the effects of such disturbed zones of soil, it is
advisable to be a little conservative while taking into account
its effects in the design and installation of foundations at or
near the zone of such disturbed soil.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors are highly grateful to the management of ONGC for
granting permission to publish the paper and share the
knowledge among the geotechnical community. Authors also
gratefully acknowledge the contributions of various agencies
involved in the field work. Offshore Engineering service, Rig
move cell and Marine survey department of ONGC, Mumbai,
contributed by sharing the field data related to the cases and
the authors gratefully acknowledge the same.
REFERENCES
1. The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers,
(2002), Guidelines for Site Specific Assessment of Mobile
Jack-Up Units, Technical & Research Bulletin 5-5A.
2. Pierre Le T., Christian P. (1993), Stability and operation
of jackups, Editions Technip, Paris.
3. Lunne, T., Robertson, P.K. and Powell, J. J. M. (1997),
Cone Penetration Testing in Geotechnical Practice,
Blackie Academic and Professional, An imprint of
Chapman & Hall, U.K.
4. PLAXIS, (1998), Finite Element Code for Soil and Rock
Analyses, PLAXIS B.V., The Netherlands.

BEHAVIOR OF PILE DUE TO LATERAL SOIL MOVEMENT UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF

SURCHARGE LOAD
B.Jegatheeswaran, PG Student, National Institute of Technology-Trichy, jegatheesb@gmail.com
K.Muthkkumaran, Associate Professor, National Institute of Technology-Trichy, kmk@nitt.edu
ABSTRACT: Piles are mainly used to transfer the heavy axial load from the super structure to the ground. In the cases of piles
are installed into slopes, earth retaining structures or to support open excavations, the primary function of pile is to transfer the
lateral loads to ground and the most important lateral load to the pile is lateral soil movement. So the behaviour of pile
foundations subject to lateral soil movement is of considerable importance in geotechnical practice. The surcharge load is an
important factor to create the lateral soil movement on the grounds. So the study of effect of surcharge load to the pile is an
important and in this paper was made by keeping the surcharge load at two different locations. One is nearer to the Pile (with
an interaction of active wedge) and another one is away from the pile (without an interaction of active wedge). So in this study,
the influence of surcharge load with the active wedge formation is also to be considered. The behaviour, deformations of the
pile for these loading conditions are observed in this paper. This study was made on perfectly horizontal ground. The sandy
soils with varying relative densities (30%, 45% and 70%) are also considered.
Keyword: Horizontal Ground, Surcharge load, varying relative density (30%, 45% and 70%) and FE Model
INTRODUCTION
Pile foundations are often necessary to support large
structures when the surface soil conditions are not strong
enough to support the structure with shallow foundations.
Pile foundation can be founded in dense sand layers at
deeper, and also provide additional frictional support along
their length to resist vertical loads. Piles subjected to
horizontal load due to wind pressure, water pressure, earth
pressure, earthquake, wave and current forces on offshore
structures are termed as laterally loaded piles and the most
important causes for lateral load is lateral soil movement. So
the performance of pile foundations subject to lateral soil
movement is of considerable importance in geotechnical
practice. Lee et al. (1995) presented a simplified approach for
the study of a row of Piles used for slope stabilization in both
homogeneous and non-homogeneous soil profiles.
Muthukkumaran et al. (2004) conducted the experimental
study on aluminium Pile in the sloped sandy soil surface with
varying density. Karthigeyan et al. (2007) used 3-dimensional
finite element program GEOFEM3D, to analyse the
combined loading on Pile in both sand and clayey soil.
Muthukkumaran et.al (2008) conducted the experimented
study on behaviour of pile due to the varying surcharge load
on sloped surface and this study was made in soil have
different relative densities (30%,45% & 70%).
Pile-Soil Details
Plate elements in the two-dimensional finite element model
are composed of beam elements (line elements) with three
degrees of freedom per node: two translational degrees of
freedom and one rotational degree of freedom. The pile is
represented by a five nodded beam-column element
(Winklers theory). This theory allows for beam deflection
due to shearing as well as bending. In addition, the element
can change length when an axial force is applied. Bending
(flexural rigidity) stiffness EI and axial stiffness EA are the
input values. The analyses are conducted with homogenous

sand, represented by Mohr-Coulomb model. The properties
considered for the soil is taken from the Almas (2010) as
shown in Table.1 and the Table.2 represents the properties of
pile.
Table.1 Soil Details
2
Undrained
cohesion (C )
0.1 kN/m
Friction angle
()
29.5
Dilation angle
()
1.5
30 Mpa
50 Mpa
78 Mpa
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.1 kN/m
0.1 kN/m
Youngs
modulus (E )
31.5
38
Poissons
Ratio ( )
s
Unit weight
( )
16 kN/m
16.6 kN/m
17.6 kN/m
30 %
45 %
70 %
Relative
Density (%)
JEGATHEESWARAN.B & MUTHUKKUMARAN.K
Table.2 Pile Details

Normal Stiffness (EA)
2.83 X 107 kN
Flexural Rigidity (EI)
2.54 X 106 kNm2
Diameter of Pile
1.2m
Length of Pile
18m
Type of Pile
Concrete
Grade of concrete
M25
Poisson's ratio
0.15
Relative densities (30%, 45% and 70%) and pile is created on

horizontal ground. Interface is created around the pile.
Boundary conditions are assigned to the model. Standard
fixity is provided to the model. Material properties given in
Table 1 and Table 2 are assigned to the model. Then mesh is
generated. Region around the pile is refined for mesh
generation. In this case, water table is at the ground. Initial
water pressure and initial effective stress are generated. Then
analysis is done. Now, plastic calculation is done and the pile
is activated. This type of problems is generally simulated
using a plane strain model.
Validation
Karthigeyan et al. (2007) performed a series of 3D finiteelement analyses on a single free-headed pile in homogenous
sandy soils. The response of the piles under pure lateral load
was analyzed. For this purpose the case of lateral load alone
acting on the pile was considered. The analysis in the lateral
direction was performed using displacement control (rather
than load control) so that the lateral loads developed at
various lateral displacement levels could be evaluated as a
percentage of the pile size. The reaction forces developed at
the nodes were used to calculate the lateral load
corresponding to the applied lateral displacements. Fig.1
shows the comparison between present FEM and literature
results. From the Figure it is clearly seen that the present FE
model is very well matching with literature results.
Parametric studies
A series of 2D finite-element analyses were performed on a
single free-headed pile in homogenous sandy soil created on
horizontal ground. The soil properties and the dimensions of
the pile considered in these analyses are reported in Table 1
and Table 2. The responses of the piles under varying
surcharge load condition were analyzed on perfectly
horizontal ground. The analysis in the lateral direction was
performed using load control so that the lateral displacements
developed at various lateral load levels could be evaluated as
a percentage of pile size. The maximum lateral deflection in
case of constant diameter pile was limited to 120mm (i.e.,
0.1D as per Karthigeyan et al. 2007).
Results and Discussion
A pile of length 18m, surcharge loading at different position
A and B was observed. The sand profile was taken as
homogenous sandy soil with varying densities was
considered (RD 30%, 45% and 70%). The surface profile was
taken as perfectly horizontal ground. A surcharge load
varying from 50kN/m to 200kN/m was taken at different
loading position such that the effect of surcharge load
(pressure bulb) on the pile was varied. For the case of
interaction of surcharge load with the active wedge, the
loading was taken such that it starts at the tip of active wedge
for a span of 5m. For the case of surcharge load not to
interact with the active wedge, the loading was taken such
that it starts at a distance of 10m (double the span of
surcharge load) far from the tip of active wedge.
Calculation of Length of Active wedge formation
The table.3 represents the calculation of length of
active wedge formation as per the Indian Standard 2911.
Table.3 Calculation of Length of Active wedge formation
(As per IS 2911)
Relative Density
Modulus of
Distance of
(%)
Subgrade
Active Wedge
Reaction n
h
(kg/cm )
Fig.1 Comparison between present FEM and Literature

results
from the Pile

head (X)
Loose Sand
0.26
1.89 m
Medium Sand
0.775
1.46 m
Dense Sand
2.075
1.05 m
Behavior of Pile due to Lateral Soil Movement under the influence of Surcharge Load
Fig.2 represents the behavior of pile due to the surcharge load

at A and B. the distance between the pile and loading point A
and the both locations surcharge loads are varied from
50kN/m to 200kN/m. The increasing surcharge load is
increases the lateral soil movement. The surcharge load at A
is nearer to the pile and the surcharge load at B is far away
from the pile. The effect of surcharge load at A is relocating
the pile (translation) and the effect of surcharge load at B is
rotating the pile about a particular point. It is because; the
surcharge load at A is nearby to the pile and it will make an
effect on along the length of the pile. The surcharge load at B
is far away to the pile and it will make an effect on particular
depth of the pile.
Surcharge Load 200kN/m
Fig.4 Pressure distribution of surcharge load for 200 kN/m at

loading position A
Fig. 2 Behavior of Pile due to surcharge load at different

location
Effect of varying Surcharge Loading at Position A on
Horizontal Ground
Fig.3 and Fig.4 represents the pressure distribution of
surcharge loads of 50kN/m and 200kN/m of sandy soil
having the relative density of 70% (Dense sandy soil) and the
corresponding soil reactions. From the Fig.5 represents the
translation of pile due to increasing surcharge load (from
50kN/m to 200kN/m). The magnitude of the generated soil
reaction is depends on the existing surcharge load. From the
Fig.4 it seems, the magnitude of the resistance offered by the
soil is directly proportional to the magnitude of existing
surcharge loads.
Fig.3 Pressure distribution of surcharge load for 50 kN/m at

loading position A
Fig.5 Translation of Pile due to surcharge load 50 kN/m to

200 kN/m at loading position A
Effect of Varying Surcharge Loading at Position B on
Horizontal Ground
For the variation of surcharge loading at position B,
the behavior of pile is as shown in Fig.6 and Fig.7.It can be
observed that, the soil movement due to the surcharge load is
far from the pile. The pressure distribution due to surcharge
load is affecting the bottom portion of the pile and hence
creating negative bending moment to the pile. The same
effect in a larger scenario is occurring for the larger surcharge
loads. From the Fig.8 represents the rotation of pile due to
increasing surcharge load (from 50kN/m to 200kN/m). The
overburden pressure is higher in the soil around at pile toe
than the soil around the pile top. So the top soil cant offer
more reactive force for the loading at B. So due to the loading
at B, the pile will starts to rotate with respect to particular
point. The magnitude of surcharge load increases, the base
displacement of pile also gets increases. So higher magnitude
of surcharge load creates higher rotation to the pile.
JEGATHEESWARAN.B & MUTHUKKUMARAN.K
3. The sandy soil having relative density of 70% offers

more resistance to a pile compared to the sandy soil
having relative density of 30%.
Fig.6 Pressure distribution of surcharge load for 50kN/m at

loading position B.
Fig. 7 Pressure distribution of surcharge load for 200 kN/m at

loading position B
Fig.8 Rotation of Pile due to surcharge load 50 kN/m to 200

kN/m at loading position B
CONCLUSIONS
The behaviour of pile subjected surcharge loading in
homogenous sandy soil with varied relative densities (30%,
45% and 70%) was observed on horizontal ground. The
following conclusions can be made
1. Surcharge load at A creates the effect of translation
to the pile from its position.
2. Surcharge load at B creates the effect of rotation to
the pile.
REFERENCES
1. ALMAS BEGUM, N. (2010). Soil Structure Interaction
of Laterally Loaded Pile and Pile Group on Sloping.
National Institute of Technology, Trichy.
2. Begam, N.A and Muthukkumaran, K. (2009).
Experimental Investigation on Single Model Pile in
Sloping Under Lateral Load. International journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, 3: (133-146).
3. Jasim M Abbas (2008). Single Pile Simulation and
Analysis Subjected to Lateral Load. Electronic Journal
of Geotechnical Engineering, Vol.13, pp. 1-15
4. Judi.A and Khadem Rabe (2009). Three Dimensional
Analysis of Soil Concrete Piles in Clayey Soils under
Lateral Loading. 2nd International Conference on New
Developments in Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
Engineering, Near East University, Nicosia, North
Cyprus
5. Karthigeyan, S., Ramakrishna, V.V.G.S.T., and
Rajagopal, K. (2006). Numerical Investigation of the
Effect of Vertical Load on the Lateral Response of Pile.
Engineering, ASCE, Vol.133, No.5, pp.512-521.
6. Muthukkumaran, K. and Begum, N.A. (2011). Finite
Element analysis of laterally loaded Piles on Sloping.
Indian Geotechnical Journal, 41(3), 2011, 155-161.
7. Poulos, H.G. (1971) Behaviour of Laterally Loaded
Piles: I-Single Piles. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., ASCE,
Vol. 97, No. SM 5, pp. 711-731.
8. Poulos, H.G. and Davis, E. H. (1980). Pile Foundation
Analysis and Design. John Wiley & Sons, New York..

IMPROVING THE CLAYEY SOIL COLLECTED FROM THE COLEROON

RIVER BASIN BY LIME STABILISATION
N.Sugantha
PG Student, Div of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Anna University, Chennai,
suganthanarasimhan@yahoo.co.in
M.Muttharam
Associate Professor, Div of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Anna University, Chennai
muttharam@annauniv.edu
ABSTRACT: The clay near the coastal belt or near the river basins are very soft and characterized by poor strength
and high compressibility. In such cases, usually deep foundations are preferred. Sometimes cost considerations and
feasibility rule out deep foundation. Then shallow foundation is made viable by employing suitable ground improvement
techniques to enhance the engineering properties of the original soil. There are numerous techniques like lime
stabilization, preloading, band drains, thermal heating and freezing, electro-osmosis, stone column to improve the poor
characteristics of the soft clay. The present study focuses on improving the top soil for the foundation of Retaining wall
of bridge across the river Coleroon. The proposed bridge connects Muttam in Cuddalore district with Manalmedu in
Nagapatinam District in Tamil Nadu. The bridge falls under the jurisdiction of the Tamil Nadu Highways Department.
Although extensive research has been carried out on soft clay obtained from various places, as there is a specific need
to improve the top soft clay in the Coleroon basin the present study has been taken up.The main objective is to compare
the improvement to the index properties and strength when the soft clay from the Coleroon river basin is stabilized by
lime stabilisation. The present study is done by forming lime piles using lime slurry and tests are conducted on
samples extracted from the lime stabilized clay bed and the improvement to the properties are observed.
INTRODUCTION
The clay located in river beds or of marine origin in
general are characterized by poor strength and high
compressibility. The foundation of any structure found in
this soil pose problem of high settlement and low bearing
capacity. Hence it becomes essential to adopt suitable
ground improvement method to improve the engineering
characteristics of such soil.The designer should be
judicious in deciding the technique relevant to his
problem. In other words the ground improvement
technique is more site specific rather than general.
clay. The liquid limit of the soil is 61%, plastic limit is

28.8% and the plasticity index is 32.2%. As per the Indian
soil classification system the soil is classified as clay of
high plasticity (CH). The soil exhibited differential free
swell index of 60%.
.
Soil Stabilizer Used
For the installation of lime column, quick lime of lab
grade with CaO content of 97% was used. The quick lime
is mixed with water to attain lime slurry in two different
lime concentrations viz. 33% and 50%.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS
TEST PROGRAMME
Materials
The clay sample obtained from the site was air dried and
pulverized to pass through 4.75mm sieve. Then the
required quantity of soil is prepared with water contents of
46% (Ic = 0.45) and 41.4% (Ic = 0.6) to prepare laboratory
model clay bed. In this work, it is proposed to conduct the
tests by varying the consistency, lime concentration and
the arrangement of the lime piles. In the first series of
experiments, the clay bed is prepared at 0.45 consistency
and in the second series at 0.6. Under the first series the
tests are varied for different concentration of lime that
constitute the lime slurry (33% and 50% by weight of
water) and the arrangement of lime piles [single pile
arrangement (SPA) and triangular pile arrangement
(TPA)]. The clay bed is thus stabilized by forming lime
piles using lime slurry and then the samples are extracted
and tested for index properties and strength.
Formation of Lime Piles

The prepared soft clay is filled in tanks of different sizes
using kneading compaction technique as per the required
arrangement of piles. Enough care is taken to avoid
entrapped air while preparing the clay. The holes are then
filled with the lime slurry to form the lime piles taking
care not to disturb the area between lime piles. Gentle
stirring is done in order to maintain uniform
concentration. During the addition of water to the lime,
generation of heat is observed. The quick lime reacts with
water to form hydrated lime. In the clay beds thin tubes of
external diameter of tube samplers were driven up to the
bottom of the bed and clay contained in the tube removed.
This hydrated lime slurry is poured in the holes and the
lime slurry permeate through the clay bed. The clay bed
is covered using moist gunny bags during the entire curing
period to avoid moisture loss due to evaporation. The
lime piles are formed in two different arrangements as a
The soil is composed of 5% fine sand, 22 % silt and 70 %
N.Sugantha & M.Muttharam
single pile as shown in figure 1 and in triangular

arrangement as shown in figure 2.
Fig. 1 Single Lime pile Arrangement. (SPA)
7, 14 and 21 days for the different lime concentration and

consistency for the single pile arrangement and triangular
arrangement of piles. In general when lime is added to a
clayey soil, cation exchange and flocculation occurs more
or less instantaneously (Lambe, 1952) resulting in the
specific surface of the soil leading to decrease in liquid
limit. This behaviour is noticed in the present study as
well. The liquid limit decreases for both the lime
concentrations and consistencies of clay bed but is more
pronounced for higher concentration of lime and
consistency of clay bed. This is attributed to the fact that,
as far as higher concentration of lime slurry is concerned,
more lime is available for permeation, which leads to
more soil lime reactions and thus considerable reduction
in liquid limit. The decrease in mainly achieved within the
7 day curing period and there is only a marginal decrease
for further curing periods of 14 and 21 day curing
periods. The change in liquid limit with curing period is
plotted in fig 5a for single pile arrangement and in fig 5b
for Triangular arrangement.
65
Liquid limit in %
60
Fig.. 2Top View of Claybed with the Triangular

Arrangement of piles (TPA)
55
50
45
40
35
30
0
7 days
14 days
21 days
curing period in days

33% lime
50% lime
33% lime
50% lime
conc and 0.45 consistency

Fig. 4a Variation Liquid limit with curing period for

SPA
67
62
Liquid limit in %
Sample Extraction Procedure

The objective of the proposed study is to understand the
performance of the lime pile stabilized bed due to curing
under different conditions of consistency, concentration
and arrangement. The sample is extracted at a distance of
2.5D radially in the case of single pile arrangement. In
the case of the triangular arrangement, the samples are
extracted from the centre of the triangle formed by the
lime piles i.e at a distance 2.5 D from the pile as shown in
the figure 3
57
52
47
42
37
32
27
0
7 days
33% lime
50% lime
33% lime
50% lime
14 days
21 days
curing period
Fig. 4b Variation Liquid limit with curing period for TPA

Fig. 3 Top View of Stabilised Clay bed showing sample
extraction location.
Soil samples were extracted to study the index properties,
pH, particle size distribution and strength. The tests were
conducted for the curing periods of 7, 14 and 21 days.
Figure 4 to 7 summarize the Index properties of natural or
untreated soil and lime treated soils with curing period of
The plastic limit decreases with curing period for different

consistency of clay bed and concentration of lime slurry.
Though, in many of the literature, it is reported that the
plastic limit generally increases with lime treatment, few
literature mention that Atterberg limits of lime treated
soils may increase or decrease, but ultimately the
plasticity index, i.e the range of water content in which the
soil behaves as a plastic material is reduced.
30
33
28
plastic limit in %
26
28
Plasticity
Index
24
22
20
18
23
18
16
14
13
12
10
0
7 days
14 days
21 days
7 days
curing period i n days
33% lime
50% lime
33% lime
50% lime
Fig. 5a Variation of Plastic limit with curing period for

SPA
21 days
conc and 0.45

conc and 0.45
conc and 0.60
conc and 0.60
consistency
consistency
consistency
consistency
Fig. 6b Variation of Plasticity Index with curing period

for TPA
Shrinkage limit indicates about the swelling nature of the
soil. Generally as the shrinkage limit increases the
swelling nature of the soil decreases. The soil with
flocculated structure shrinks less than that of the soil with
dispersed structure. The soil assumes flocculated structure
upon addition of lime and this is the reason for increased
shrinkage limit. it is observed that the increase in
shrinkage limit is only marginal.
29
27
25
23
21
19
17
15
0
7 days
14 days
curing period
21 days
33% lime conc and 0.45 consistency

14
Fig. 5b Variation of Plastic limit with curing period for

TPA
shrinkage limit
plastic limit in %
14 days
curing period

12
10
A marked reduction in plasticity index is observed for

the specimen extracted after 7 days of curing when
compared to the untreated soil. For further increase in
curing period the decrease in plasticity index is marginal.
The reduction is more with higher concentration and
higher consistency.
8
0
7 days
14 days
21 days
curing period
Fig. 7a Variation of Shrinkage limit with curing period for

SPA
35
30
17
shrinkage limit
Index
Plasticity
19
25
20
15
15
13
11
9
10
0
7 days
14 days
21 days

33% lime
50% lime
33% lime
50% lime
conc
conc
conc
conc
and 0.45
and 0.45
and 0.60
and 0.60
consistency
consistency
consistency
consistency
7 days
14 days
21 days
33% lime
50% lime
33% lime
50% lime
conc
conc
conc
conc
and 0.45
and 0.45
and 0.60
and 0.60
consistency
consistency
consistency
consistency
Fig. 6a Variation of Plasticity with curing period for SPA

Fig. 7b Variation of Shrinkage limit with curing period
for TPA
N.Sugantha & M.Muttharam
The change in pH value occurs between 15 to 30 days of

curing period. This is due to the formation of various
cementation products thereby improving the size of the
particle and denotes the increase in Ca ions. It is observed
that the pH of the treated specimen increases from the
initial value of 6.8 to 9.1.
The particle size distribution of the sample extracted after
21 days of curing period for the lime concentration of 50
% and consistency of 0.60 is studied using hydrometer
analysis. It is observed that the clay sized fractions are
significantly reduced when compared with the natural soil
sample. This may be attributed to the flocculation of the
particles when lime slurry permeates the clay bed.
The shear strength shows an increasing trend as the curing
period increases irrespective of consistency and
concentration. This increase in strength indicates the
effectiveness of lime slurry to permeate and improve the
soil. It is observed from figure 8a and 8bthat the increase
in the concentration of lime slightly alters the stress
strain response around the maximum stress and the initial
portion is almost comparable for single pile arrangement.
The increase in lime concentration alters the shape of
stress strain curve in the case of triangular pattern of
arrangement. The slope of initial portion is steeper for
higher concentration of lime. This implies that lime
stabilization alters the soil fabric and makes it more
flocculated.
40
STRESS
kN/sq m
35
30
1. The Liquid Limit of the lime stabilized clay decreases

irrespective of the pile arrangement, consistency and
lime concentration.
2. The plasticity index of the lime stabilized soil decreases
during the 7 day curing period. The reduction is about
50 to 55% for higher lime concentration for the single
pile arrangement.
3. The shrinkage limit of the lime stabilized soil increases
to about 70% its initial value when tested after the 7 day
curing period for the single pile arrangement. For the
triangular arrangement the increase is about 45% for
higher lime concentration.
4. In the 7 day period the increase in pH is in the order of
20 to 30% for both the type of pile arrangement. For
the 21 day period the increase is about 45% for the
triangular pile arrangement and 33% for the single pile
arrangement.
5. Based on the particle size distribution it is observed that
the % clay decreases for both type of pile arrangement.
6. The shear strength shows an increase during the entire
curing period. In case of triangular arrangement the
increase in strength observed after 21days is noted to be
about 6 to 7 times the initial strength. Thus in this
aspect the triangular configuration gives higher
strength.
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
STRAIN
33% lime conc
and consistency 0.60
50% lime conc and consistency 0.60
0.06
Fig. 8a Stress strain response for SPA

50
45
STRESS x 100 KN/SQ M
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the experimental investigation carried out in the
laboratory the following conclusions are arrived .
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
REFERENCES
1.
Alex Wilkinson , Asadul Haque, Jayantha
Kodikara, John Adamson, David Christia (2010)
Improvement of Problematic Soils by Lime
slurry Pressure injection : Case Study, Journal of
Geotechnical
and
Geo
Environmental
Engineering 136 , pp 1459, 2010.
2.
Lambe , T.W. (1962) ,Soil Stabilisation , a
chapter in foundation Engineering., ( Ed. By G.A.
Leonards), McGraw Hill Book Co.
3.
Mitchell J.K. (1993) , Fundamental of Soil
Behaviour, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
4.
Rajasekaran, G., and
Narasimha Rao, S.,
(2002) , Compression behaviour of Lime treated
Marine clay. Ocean Engineering 29(2002) pp
545-559.
5.
Thyagaraj T and Sudhakar Rao, M., (2003),
Lime slurry stabilization of expansive soil,
Geotechnical Engineering GE3, pp 139-146.
5
0
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
STRAIN
Fig. 8b Stress strain response for TPA
6.
Venkata Swamy, B. and Sudhakar Rao, M.,

(2000) , Stabilisation of Black Cotton Soils by
Lime Piles, Ground Improvement Journal,
Volume 6, issue 2 Jan 2002.

December 13-15, 2012, Delhi (Paper No.B 246)
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL OF STABILIZED FLYASH SUBBASES

Dr.M. Anjan Kumar, Principal, BVC College of Engg., Rajajmundry,A.P., anjan_mantri@yahoo.com
Dr. D.S.V.Prasad, Principal, B.V.C.Engg.college,Odalarevu,A.P., dsvp9@yahoo.com
Dr.G.V.R. Prasada Raju, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, JNTU, Kakinada, A.P., gvrp_raju@yahoo.com
G.Radhakrishnan, Asst. Professor, I I T, Kakinada, A.P, radhakrishnan.gunupudi@gmail.com
D.Venkateswarlu, Assoc. Professor, GIET, Rajahmundry, A.P, dumpa.venkateswarlu@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Expansive soils are inclined to harmful volumetric changes with changes in moisture content. The road
surfaces have been originated to crack badly, where the subgrade is liable to swelling, commonly leads to a poor pavement
performance. Stabilization technique condenses the swelling and increases the stability. Flyash, an industrial byproduct of
power production produced from burning coal is the most considered waste material. Disposal of large quantities of flyash,
causes a major biological problem. It is estimated that about 100 million tons of flyash is being produced from different
thermal power plants in India consuming several thousand hectares of precious land for its clearance causing severe health and
environmental hazards. Flyash in large quantities can be utilized in the construction of embankments and roads. Laboratory
model flexible pavements were set up by using 60cm diameter mild steel tank on expansive soil subgrade with the alternatives
viz; alternative-1 Flyash subbase and alternative-2 Lime stabilized flyash subbase. Cyclic load tests and heave measurements
were carried out for all the model flexible pavements laid on expansive soil sub grade. The study revealed that stabilized
combination could be a possible alternative.
INTRODUCTION
Flyash is a waste derivative from thermal power plants,
which use coal as fuel. It is estimated that more than 100
million tons of flyash is being produced from different
thermal power plants in India consuming several thousand
hectares of precious land for its clearance causing severe
health and environmental hazards (Singh and Murthy,
1998[1]) In spite of incessant efforts made and
encouragements offered by the government, like exemption
of custom duty and excise duty, hardly 5-10% of the
produced ash is being used for gainful purposes like brick
making, cement manufacture, soil stabilization and as fill
material (Envis News letter, 2006 [2]).
In order to utilize flyash in bulk quantities, ways and means
are being discoverd all over the world to use it for the
construction of embankments and roads (Singh et al., 1996
[3]) Vittal and Murthy, 1998 [4]), as flyash satisfies major
design requirements of strength and compressibility except
for its susceptibility to erosion and possible liquefaction
under extreme conditions (Vittal and Murthy, 1998 [4]).
However when it is used as subbase in flexible pavements, it
is completely confined and also the thickness of such layer is
relatively small, where by the above problems can be
eliminated. Flyash settles less than 1% during the
construction period and not afterwards (Smith, 2005 [5]). Its
low density makes it suitable for high embankments (Smith,
2005 [5]). Flyash has a tendency to react with lime to form
different lime bearing silicates/aluminates hydrates due to its
pozzolanic properties. These hydrates possess cementitious
properties and are responsible for the development of
strength in flyash-lime compacts which are used as structural

products (Maitra et al., 2005 [6]).
In the present work an attempt is made to use flyash, lime
stabilized flyash as subbase course in flexible pavement
system and compare their performance with flyash subbase.
Model flexible pavements are constructed in the laboratory
with different alternatives on expansive soil subgrade and
heave measurements are carried out immediately after the
wet season. It is observed that the stabilized flyash model
flexible pavements have shown better performance,
compared to untreated flyash subbase model flexible
pavement.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
Materials Used
Expansive soil
Expansive Soil: Expansive Soil collected from Godilanka,
near Amalapurama is used for this investigation as a
subgrade material. The soil properties are sp.gr =2.70, Grainsize distribution is sand=4%, Silt = 34% clay = 62%,
MDD=15.69%, OMC=23%, Soaked CBR = 2%,
Permeability = 1.5 X 10-7 cm/sec, IS classification: CH
Flyash: Flyash collected from Vijayawada thermal power
station, Vijayawada is used as subbase course.
The
properties are MDD=13.21 KN/m3, OMC=24%, WL=27%,
Soaked CBR=8%.
Dr.M. Anjan Kumar, Dr. D.S.V.Prasad, Dr.G.V.R. Prasada Raju, G.Radhakrishnan,

D.Venkateswarlu
2
LABORATORY EXPERIMENTATION
DISCUSSION ON TEST RESULTS
Construction of Model Flexible Pavements
Load Test Results
In this investigation two model flexible pavements are
prepared in the laboratory by using 60cm diameter mild steel
tank with different alternatives viz., Flyash, Lime Stabilized
Flyash, respectively. Soil is used as subgrade material for all
the tests. Above all the four alternative subbases, WBM-III
base course is laid uniformly. Sand bed of 1.0cm thickness is
placed before laying the subgrade in the tank. The soil
collected from Godilanka near Amalapuram is allowed to dry
and then pulverized with wooden rammers and sieved
through 4.75mm sieve. Sand drains are provided by means of
3 vertical sand columns of 4.0cm diameter from bottom to
top of the subgrade for saturation. Then it is compacted to
2.0cm thickness in 10 layers to a total thickness of 20cm to
its optimum moisture content and maximum dry density in
mild steel test tank. On the prepared subgrade, flyash mixed
with water at OMC is laid in two layers each of 2.5cm
compacted thickness to a total thickness of 5.0cm. The
subbase layer is compacted corresponding to MDD and
OMC. For the other subbase, flyash is treated with 8% lime
(obtained from laboratory CBR test results) is added and
compacted corresponding to maximum dry density at
optimum moisture content of flyash.. All these layers are
compacted to optimum moisture content and maximum dry
density. On the prepared subbase, two layers of WBM-III
each of 2.5cm compacted thickness are laid to a total
thickness of 5.0cm.
Cyclic Load Testing
These tests are carried out on model flexible pavements
systems in a circular steel tank of diameter 60cm. The
loading is done through a circular metal Plate of 10cm
diameter laid on the model pavement system. The steel tank
is placed on the pedestal of the compression testing machine.
A 50 KN capacity proving ring is connected to the loading
frame and the extension rod welded to the circular plate is
brought in contact with proving ring. Two dial gauges of
least count 0.01mm are placed on the metal flats welded to
the vertical rod to measure the vertical displacements of the
loading plate. The load is applied in increments
corresponding to tyre pressures of 500, 560, 630, 700 and
1000 kPa and so on and for each pressure increment is
applied, cyclically, until there is insignificant increase in the
settlement of the plate between successive cycles. The testing
is further continued till the occurrences of failure to record
the ultimate loads. For tests in saturated condition, the soil is
allowed to absorb water by providing a thin sand layer
(10mm thick) at the bottom and also through vertical sand
drains. Two inlet valves are welded on opposite sides of the
tank through which water is supplied. The dial gauge
readings are recorded until maximum heave is obtained and
during this process, proving ring is disconnected. Cyclic load
tests are also carriedout in saturated state exactly in the same
manner as for those at OMC. These tests are carriedout at
OMC and in saturated states for all the model flexible
pavements.
It is found out from pressuretotal deformation curves as

shown in Fig 1 on Expansive soil subgrade for different
subbases that the load carrying capacity has substantially
increased for lime stabilized flyash subbase stretch when
compared to flyash subbase stretch. The improvement in the
load carrying capacity could be attributed to the improved
load dispersion through stabilized subbase on to the
subgrade. This in turn results in lesser intensity of stresses
getting transferred on to the subgrade thus leading to lesser
subgrade distress.
Fig. 1 Pressure-Total Deformation Curves for Different alternatives

of Flexible Pavement laid on Expansive soil Subgrade
Heave Studies
The reduced levels of top surface of test stretches
are
measured by using leveling instrument. It is observed that
the maximum reduction in heave is of the order of 70% for
a lime stabilized flyash sub base stretch compared to other
stretch on Expansive soil subgrade.
CONCLUSIONS
The load carrying capacity of the model flexible pavement
system is significantly increased for lime stabilized flyash
subbase model flexible pavement stretch with respect to the
flyash subbase stretch on Expansive soil subgrade. Maximum
reduction in heave values are attained for the lime stabilized
flyash subbase stretch compared to other stretche on
Expansive soil subgrade. Heaving of the soil considerably
decreased the load carrying capacity of flexible pavement
system.
REFERENCES
1. Singh, D.V and Murty, A.V.S.R., (1998). Flyash in
India-Problems and Possibilities, Proc. of Experience sharing
Meet on Use of Flyash in Roads and Embankments, CRRINew Delhi, 1-9.
Performance appraisal of stabilized flyash subbases
2. Envis News Letter-November-05-January-06-Vol-3,NO1, supported by a ENVIS, Ministry of Environment&Forests,

Govt. of India.
3. Singh Veerendra, Narendra Kumar and Devendra
Mohan, 1996. Use of Flyash in soil stabilization for Roads,
Proc. of IGC-96, Madras, 411-414..
4. Vittal, U.K.G and Murty, A.V.S.R., (1998). Role of
Flyash in Road Development Scenario, Proc. of Experience
sharing Meet on Use of Flyash in Roads and Embankments,
CRRI-New Delhi, 24-32.
5. Smith.I (May, 2005), Land Uses of Coal Flyash-Benefits
and Barriers, Proc. of IEA Clean Coal Centre, PP-30.
6. Maitra S, S Das, A K Das and A Basumajumdar, Effect
of Heat Treatment on Properties of Steam Cured Flyash-Lime
Compacts, Proc. of Bull. Mater. Sci., Vol. 28, No. 7,
December 2005, PP 697-702. Indian Academy of Sciences.
and M

December 13-15,2012, Delhi (Paper No.B-247)
A STUDY ON SYNTHETIC FIBRE REINFORCED SEA SAND

G. Sireesha, Associate Professor & Research Scholar, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Andhra University, gsireesha4@yahoo.com
K. Rohit Kumar,Postgraduate student, Dept. of Civil Engg, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, robert_wells555@yahoo.com
C.N.V. Satyanarayana Reddy, Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Andhra University, cnvsnreddy@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT: An experimental program was undertaken to study the engineering properties of sea sand reinforced with
synthetic fibres. Polyester fibre was chosen as the reinforcing material. Sea sand was mixed with 0, 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 percent of
polyester fibres by dry weight. The compaction characteristics, shear parameters and permeability of synthetic fibre reinforced
sea sand have been determined from extensive laboratory testing. The shear parameters and permeability of fibre reinforced
sea sand have been determined by testing specimens prepared at respective optimum moisture content (OMC) and maximum
dry density (MDD). The addition of polyester fibre resulted in decrease in maximum dry density values. Fibre reinforcement in
sand specimens resulted in substantial increase in the friction angle values up to 1.5 percent fibre content for both 6mm and
12mm length fibre in dry and saturated condition. Increase in permeability was observed with increase in fibre content and
aspect ratio. The soaked California Bearing Ratio (CBR) values of fibre reinforced sea sand increased up to 0.5 percent and
then decreased.
INTRODUCTION
With the advent of geosynthetics, the soil improvement by
reinforcing materials such as fibres, strips, bars, meshes and
fabrics has gained popularity in various civil engineering
constructions over the last three decades. Even in the earlier
days, natural materials such as roots of plants, straw, paper,
bamboo strips, wood etc. were used as reinforcement in soils.
The geotextile fabrics serve as reinforcement due to their
membrane action whereas geogrids serve as reinforcing
material due to their stiffness. The fibre reinforcement has
different interaction with soil compared to geotextiles and
geogrids. The fibre mixed soil is strengthened by frictional
resistance of fibre and stiffness of fibre if fibre has higher
aspect ratio. Inclusions of discrete short fibers placed
randomly or in definite layers impart additional resistance to
loads by way of cohesion and friction, but these are not
included in Vidals concept of reinforced earth [1]. Some of
the common types of synthetic fibre available commercially
are polyester, polyethylene, polypropylene and nylon. The
effect of randomly oriented fibre reinforcement of sands and
clays has been studied by researchers. But, studies on fibre
reinforced sea sand are not available.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Henri Vidal published his investigation on soil reinforcement
in 1968. Gray and Ohasi [2] and Ranjan et al. [3] conducted
experiments on fibre reinforced sand. The studies indicated
increase in shear strength. Maher and Ho [4] reported that the
increase in strength and toughness of Kaolinite was a
function of fibre length, fibre content and water content.
Ranjan [5] found that the soaked CBR value of sand
increased by 2.18 times its unreinforced value with addition
of 2 percent polypropylene fibres by weight. Ranjan et.al [6]
conducted a series of triaxial tests to study stress strain
behavior of soft clay samples with sand fibre core. This
reinforcement modified the stress - strain behavior and an
increase in shear strength was observed. Tingle [7] reported

that Geofibre stabilization of medium sand improved the
CBR by about 6 times over unstabilized sand. Kameshwar
Rao et al. [8] conducted laboratory investigation on black
cotton soil reinforced with randomly mixed monofilament
and nylon threads. They studied the variation in CBR, shear
parameters and swell pressure due to randomly distributed
fibres. The results indicated improvement in CBR and
reduction in swell pressure with the addition of fibre.
Further, it is also reported that there was a decrease in value
of cohesion and increase in value of internal friction with
addition of fibres in black cotton soil. So far studies on fibre
reinforced sea sand are not available in literature.
Sea sand is abundantly available along the long sea coast of
India. But, it is not preferred in constructions even as fill
material due to its fine grained character and low frictional
characteristics. The sea sand exerts large lateral pressure on
retaining structures due to its lower angle of internal friction.
Hence, in the present study an attempt has been made to
explore the potential of synthetic fibre reinforced sea sand as
construction material in different civil engineering works.
The present investigation has been taken up to assess
compaction characteristics, strength parameters and
permeability of sea sand reinforced with randomly oriented
polyester fibre of 6mm and 12mm length.
MATERIALS USED IN THE STUDY
Sea sand
The sea sand has been collected from Ramakrishna Beach,
Visakhapatnam. Laboratory tests are conducted to determine
the Engineering properties as per IS 2720 [9]. The
engineering properties of sea sand are presented in Table 1.
The grain size distribution curve of sea sand is presented in
Fig. 1. The sea sand mainly consisted of fine sand and is
G.Sireesha, K.Rohit Kumar & C.N.V. Satyanarayana Reddy
classified as poorly graded sand (SP) as per Indian Standard

Soil Classification System.
abrasion and resistance to high temperatures. The aspect ratio

of 6mm varies from 150 to 200 whereas the aspect ratio of
12mm fibre varies from 300 to 400.
Table 2 Properties of fibre
S.No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Fig. 1. Grain size distribution of sea sand
S. No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Table 1 Engineering properties of sea sand

Engineering Property
Value
Specific Gravity
2.65
Grain Size Distribution
0
a) Gravel (%)
99
b) Sand (%)
1
c) Fines (%)
20.0
d) Uniformity coefficient
0.45
e) Coefficient of curvature
Plasticity Characteristics
a) Liquid Limit (%)
NP
b) Plastic Limit (%)
NP
IS Classification Symbol
SP
Compaction Characteristics
a) Optimum Moisture Content (%)
9.0
b) Maximum Dry Density (g/cc)
1.69
c) Dry density in loose state(g/cc)
1.49
Shear Parameters
a) Cohesion (kN/m2)
0
b) Angle of Internal Friction
280
Permeability(cm/s)
1.26x10-2
Soaked CBR Value (%)
3.8
Polyester Fibre
Synthetic Polyester fibres are used in the present
investigation. They are procured from Reliance Industries
limited, Hyderabad. Fibres of 6mm and 12mm length are
used in the investigation. The fibre characteristics are
presented in Table 2. The fibres have high tensile strength
and softening point. As the fibres base polymer is polyester,
they have better resistance to alkalis, good resistance to
Property
Cross- Section
Fiber Type
Fiber Length (mm)
Fiber Diameter (micron)
Color
Moisture Flat (%)
Tensile strength (M pa)
Youngs Modulus (M Pa)
Specific Gravity
Softening Point (0C)
Elongation (%)
Value
Triangular
Polyester
6 & 12
30-40
colorless
<1
750-1200
16000-20000
1.34 1.4
220
>100
The laboratory tests are carried out on sea sand reinforced
with fibre content of 0.5%, 1% and 1.5% by dry weight to
study compaction, strength and permeability characteristics.
The fibres are mixed in sea sand by hand till uniform mixing
is obtained. The compaction characteristics are determined
from IS heavy compaction tests (IS 2720: Part 8 -1983). The
strength characteristics are determined in terms of shear
parameters and C.B.R. values. The shear parameters are
determined from shear box tests as per IS 2720: Part 13-1986.
The permeability of fibre reinforced sea sand was determined
from constant head permeability tests (IS 2720: Part 361987). All the specimens for direct shear, permeability and
C.B.R tests were prepared at their respective OMC and MDD
values. The C.B.R test was conducted as per IS 2720 : Part 16
-1987 on specimens soaked for 96 hours.
Compaction Characteristics of Fibre Reinforced Sea Sand
IS Heavy compaction tests are carried out on unreinforced
and reinforced sea sand with varying fibre content to study
variation in Optimum moisture content and Maximum dry
density. The results of compaction tests conducted on fibre
reinforced sea sand are presented in Table 3. The fibres did
not show any significant effect on optimum moisture content
of fibre mixed sand. The results show that the MDD
decreases gradually with increase in fibre content.
Table 3 Compaction characteristics of fibre reinforced
sea sand.
Fibre
OMC
MDD
Fibre
Length
%
(g/cc)
(%)
(mm)
0
9
1.69
0.5
6
8.6
1.64
1
6
8.8
1.63
1.5
6
8.7
1.62
0.5
12
8.8
1.67
1
12
8.7
1.66
1.5
12
8.5
1.64
A study on synthetic fibre reinforced sea sand
Shear Parameters of Fibre Reinforced Sea Sand

Direct shear tests are conducted on specimens of size 60mm
x 60mm x 25 mm. The fibre reinforced sea sand specimens
are prepared in the shear box at their respective OMCs and
MDDs and also in saturated condition. The specimens are
sheared at a strain rate of 1.25 mm/min. Table 4 shows the
shear parameters of fibre reinforced sea sand.
Table 4 Angle of internal friction of fibre reinforced
sea sand.
Angle of Internal friction
Fibre
OMC & MDD
Saturated Condition
(%)
Condition
6mm
12mm
6mm
12mm
0
28
28
25
25
0.5
33
34
29
31
1.0
35
37
33
33
1.5
37
38
35
35
From Table 4, It can be observed that the friction angle for
sea sand increases with increase in fibre content. As aspect
ratio increases, the friction angle also increases. The
maximum increase in friction angle for reinforced specimen
is about 34% compared to unreinforced specimen, at 1.5
percent addition of fibre.
C.B.R of Fibre Reinforced Sea Sand
C.B.R tests are conducted on unreinforced and reinforced sea
sand. C.B.R values with varying fibre length and fibre
content are given in Table 6. From the results, it can be
observed that C.B.R values increased with increase in fibre
content in sea sand up to 0.5% for both 6mm and 12mm
fibres and thereafter decreased. The decreased CBR values at
fibre content above 0.5 percent can be attributed to more fibre
material in sand and due to its compressible character. At a
given fibre content, the CBR is less for 6mm fibre compared
to 12mm fibre. Maximum C.B.R is obtained as 8 percent for
for 12mm fibre at 0.5 percent fibre content.
Table 6 C.B.R of unreinforced and reinforced sea sand
Fibre (%)
Fibre Length (mm)
C.B.R (%)
0
3.8
0.5
6
5.9
1
6
3.9
1.5
6
2.8
0.5
12
8.0
1
12
6.5
1.5
12
5.9
Permeability of Fibre Reinforced Sea Sand
Constant head permeability tests are conducted on sea sand
mixed with 0.5%, 1% and 1.5% fibre of 6mm and 12mm
length. The specimens are compacted in the permeameter to
the required dry density. Table 5 shows the permeability of
sea sand reinforced with fibres. The results indicate increase
in permeability of sea sand with increase in fibre percentage.
The permeability is more pronounced for sea sand reinforced
with 12mm length fibres compared to sea sand reinforced
with 6mm length fibres. Hence, permeability is a function of

fibre content as well as fibre length.
Table 5 Permeability of fibre reinforced sea sand
Coefficient of Permeability (k) in cm/s
Fiber (%)
6mm fibre
12mm fibre
0
1.26x10-2
1.26x10-2
0.5
1.37x10-2
1.41x10-2
-2
1.0
1.43x10
1.79x10-2
-2
1.5
1.58x10
1.84x10-2
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results of investigations on polyester fibre
reinforced sea sand presented in this study, the following
conclusions are made.
1.
There is no significant influence of fibres on the OMC of

sea sand. However, a gradual decrease in MDD is
observed with increase in fibre percentage.
2.
The angle of internal friction increases with increase in

fibre content for sea sand in OMC & MDD compacted
state and in saturated state.
3.
Due to fibre reinforcement, there is an increase in shear

strength.
4.
Permeability increases with increase in percentage of

fibres. Further, the permeability increases with size of
fibre (i.e., aspect ratio) at a given percentage of fibre
addition.
5.
At a given percentage of fibre addition, the soaked CBR

value of sea sand is more for fibre of higher length.
6.
The CBR values of fibre reinforced sea sand increased

up to 0.5 percent addition of fibre and decreased
thereafter. The maximum increase for fibre reinforced
sea (with 12mm fibre) sand is 2.1 times that of
unreinforced specimen.
7.
The angle of internal friction of fibre reinforced sea sand

improved up to 330 in saturated condition and also the
permeability improved by about 10 percent with addition
of 1 percent fibre by weight. Hence, fibre (1% by
weight) reinforced sand may be used as backfill behind
the retaining structures.
8.
The Soaked CBR values of fibre reinforced sea sand

with 0.5 percent addition of fibre for 6mm and 12mm
length are 5.9 percent and 8 percent respectively. Hence,
fibre (0.5% by weight) reinforced sea sand may be used
in preparation of improved subgrades where high plastic
clays are present.
G.Sireesha, K.Rohit Kumar & C.N.V. Satyanarayana Reddy
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors thank Reliance Industries Limited, Hyderabad
for providing the required amount polyester fibre for carrying
out the present study.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Vidal,H (1978), The development and future of

reinforced Earth, Key Note Address, Symposium on
Earth Reinforcement, ASCE Convention, Pittsburgh,
1-61.
Gray D.H., Ohashi H., (1983), Mechanics of fibre
reinforcement in sand, Journal of Geotechnical
Ranjan, G., Vasan, R.M., and Charan, H.D (1994),
Behaviour of plastic fibre reinforced sand, J. Geotextile
and Geomembrane, Vol. 13,535565.
Maher, M.H. and Ho, Y.C (1994), Mechanical properties
of kaolinitie / fibre soil composite, Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE120(8),13811393.
Ranjan, G. (1995), Recent trend in subgrade
improvement for highway pavements, Proceedings
ICORT 95, Roorkee, 704-724.
Ranjan, G., Singh, B. and Charan, H.D (1999),
Experimental study of soft clay reinforced with sandfiber core, Indian Geotechnical Journal, 29(4),281291.
Tingle, S.J., Santoni, R.L., and Webster, S.L (2002), Full
scale field tests of discrete fiber reinforced sand, Journal
of Transportation Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 128, 916.
Kameshwar Rao T, Anil Kumar Sharma and Tarulata
Meshram (2009), Laboratory investigation of use of
Synthetic Fibers to minimize swell in expansive
subgrades, Proceedings of Indian Geotechnical
Conference, Vol-2 Guntur, 157-161.
IS 2720: Methods of Test for Soils Relevant parts,
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.

GGBS STABILIZED SOIL CUSHIONS WITH AND WITHOUT LIME IN PAVEMENTS

G. Sridevi, Asso. Professor in Civil Engg., C.V. Raman Colg. of Engg. Bhubaneswar, Odisha, gudasridevi@yahoo.co.in
A. Sreerama Rao, Principal, V.S. Lakshmi Engg. Colg. for Women, Kakinada-533003, A.P., srajjarapu@yahoo.com
M. Rama Rao, Prof. of Civil Engg., R.V.R. & J.C. Engg. College, Guntur, A.P. , ramarao.muvvala@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Expansive clays suffer volume change due to changes in moisture content, which causes heaving, cracking and
the break up of the road pavement. The main properties of the expansive soil that are to be improved are strength, volume
stability and durability. Stabilisation of a clayey sub-grade is necessary to improve its volume stability, increase its unconfined
compressive strength and its soaked CBR, in order to improve the overall pavement performance. The use of industrial byproducts for stabilizing expansive soils has been gaining importance, because of the ecological and economic benefits derived
there from. In the present study, expansive soil, stabilized with Ground Granulated Blast furnace Slag (GGBS), with and
without lime was used as cushioning material above an expansive clay sub-grade to study its performance in improving the
properties of the sub-grade. The investigations show that the GGBS-stabilized expansive soil, with and without lime, as a
cushioning material is effective in improving the soaked CBR of the underlying clay sub-grade apart from increasing the
unconfined compressive strength of the soil, GGBS mix. system. The studies also indicate that the cushioning material
possesses all the properties needed for use as sub-base material. So, the cushion also serves as a sub-base layer in the pavement
structure. The use of GGBS-stabilized soil alone, or in combination with lime, has significant effect in improving the
properties of potentially swelling clays.
INTRODUCTION
A well connected road network is essential for the
development of agriculture, commerce and industry.
Expansive clay soils undergo heave and shrinkage due to
seasonal moisture changes. Roads constructed on expansive
clay sub-grades are adversely affected by the behaviour of the
clay. It is established that the major problems on account of
expansive sub-grades to the pavements are detrimental heave
and severe cracking (Snethen et al, 1979). Pavements may
crack due to uneven heave during wetting and shrinkage of
the sub-grade during drying.
Different methods are used to improve the geotechnical
properties of expansive soils, such as strength and the
stiffness, by treating them in situ. The methods that are
commonly employed to improve problematic soils include
densification such as compaction, preloading, pore water
pressure reduction techniques such as dewatering and electroosmosis, bonding of soil particles by ground freezing,
grouting, chemical stabilization and use of reinforcing
elements such as geotextiles and stone columns (Rao et. al.,
2008). Chemical stabilization (Holtz and Gibbs, 1956;
Prakash and Sridharan 1989; Rajasekharan et al., 1997) of
fine-grained and expansive soils has been proved to be
effective in many of the geotechnical engineering
applications such as pavement structures, building
foundations to avoid damage due to settlement or the
swelling of expansive soils. However, some of these
techniques suffer from a few limitations such as pulverization
and mixing problems in case of lime stabilization
(Holtz,1969; Ramana Murty,1998). In CNS technique,
developed by Katti (1979), about 1m of the expansive soil is
removed and replaced with a cohesive non-swelling soil
(CNS) layer beneath the foundations in order to prevent
heave and the subsequent cracking of canal beds and linings
and foundations of residential buildings placed or built over

it. But, the specifications for the soil to be considered for use
as CNS material (Katti, 1979) are hard to meet. CNS cushion
provided over expansive soil has been found to be effective
only during the first cycle and becomes less and less effective
subsequently, as was observed from the studies carried out by
Subba Rao (2000). In the present study, expansive soil,
blended with GGBS-stabilized with lime and without lime is
placed as a cushion above the expansive clay bed in order to
overcome the drawbacks of CNS technique to study its
efficacy in arresting swelling, improving the CBR and the
unconfined compressive strength.
MATERIALS
Soil
The soil used in the study was collected from Chuttugunta,
Guntur Dist., in Andhra Pradesh. While collecting the soil, it
was ensured that it did not contain any organic matter. The
various properties of the soil are presented in Table-1. The
liquid limit is 73 % and plasticity Index is 45 %, which are
high and show that the soil has a high swelling potential. A
free swell index (IS: 2720, part XL, 1977) of 150 % indicates
that the soil has a high degree of expansiveness. (I.S: 1498,
2002).
Ground Granulated Blast furnace slag
The slag was procured from the Visakhapatnam Steel plant,
Visakhapatnam.
Lime
The lime in the present study is procured from Birla cements.
(The use of lime for soil stabilization is either in the form of
quicklime (CaO) or hydrated lime Ca(OH)2).
STUDIES CONDUCTED
G.Sridevi, A.Sreerama Rao, M. Rama Rao

Compaction studies were performed on the GGBS-stabilized
soil sample with and without lime as per the Bureau of Indian
Standard (BIS) specifications (IS: 2720- part VII, 1980).
GGBS was added to the soil in different proportions, namely,
5%, 10%, 15% and 20% by weight and their respective OMC
and MDD were determined. Similarly, lime content of 2%
was added to the GGBS first and mixed thoroughly and then
mixed with the soil in dry, in order to determine their MDDs
and OMCs.
Soaked CBR
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test was performed on the
soil sample as per the Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS)
specifications (IS: 2720-part: 16), in soaked condition. In the
experimental study, CBR samples were prepared for different
ratios of the thickness of GGBS-stabilized soil cushion (tc)
with and without lime, to that of the expansive clay bed (ts).
Both the soil bed and GGBS-stabilized soil cushion with and
without lime were compacted to their respective MDDs at
OMC values. While placing the GGBS-stabilized soil
cushion with lime, lime was added to GGBS in dry and was
thoroughly mixed and then mixed with the soil in dry. Then
water corresponding to the optimum moisture content was
added and compacted to its MDD. Three CBR tests were
conducted on each specimen and the average of the three was
reported.
Unconfined Compressive Strength
Test specimens were prepared in a static compaction mould
of length 76.2 mm and diameter 38.1 mm to MDD by adding
moisture content corresponding to its OMC. The compacted
samples were cured in desiccators at 100% humidity.
Unconfined compressive strength tests were conducted for
the GGBS-stabilized expansive soil mixes by varying the
GGBS content from 5% to 20% in increments of 5% after
curing them for one day in desiccators at 100% humidity.
Similarly, Unconfined compressive strength tests were
conducted on lime-GGBS-stabilized expansive soil mixes
with 2% lime content, by varying the GGBS content from 5%
to 20% in increments of 5%, after curing them for one day
and 28 days in desiccators at 100% humidity.
Compaction
Characteristics
of
GGBS-Stabilized
Expansive Soil and Lime-GGBS-Stabilized Expansive Soil
The compaction characteristics of GGBS-stabilized
expansive soil with and without lime are studied. It is found
that there is a slight decrease in MDD of the mix on
increasing the GGBS content. Small increase in the OMC is
observed which may be due to the increase in the specific
surface that is to be lubricated. Soil-GGBS mixtures require
more moisture to achieve their maximum dry density than
untreated soils. The small decreases in the MDD
corresponding to additions of GGBS is likely to be associated
with the replacement of soil particles by the glassy angular
shaped GGBS particles in a given volume; they partially fill
the voids between these particles, prevent them from coming
into a closer state of packing and leave larger volume of

voids. The OMC of the GGBS-stabilized expansive soil has
increased from 25.5% to 28.7% and MDD has decreased
from 15.6 kN/m3 to 15.3 kN/m3.
In the case of lime-GGBS-soil mixtures, the increase of lime
content causes a slight reduction in the MDD. The OMC of
the GGBS-stabilized expansive soil has increased from
25.5% to 30.2% and the MDD has decreased from 15.6
kN/m3 to 15.1 kN/m3. Addition of lime improves the
workability and also causes flocculation of soil particles. The
bigger clay particles form more voids, thus a slight reduction
in the dry density is caused.
EFFECT OF GGBS-STABILIZED EXPANSIVE SOIL
CUSHION (WITH AND WITHOUT LIME) ON
SOAKED CBR OF CUSHION-EXPANSIVE SOIL
SYSTEM
Cushion comprising GGBS-stabilized expansive soil was
placed on the expansive clay bed and the soaked CBR of the
cushion-expansive clay system was determined. Strength gain
using GGBS activated by lime has been investigated by many
investigators. The variation of soaked CBR with the GGBS
content in the expansive soil is presented in Fig. 1. From the
figure, it can be seen that, the increase in the soaked CBR
was more pronounced when the GGBS content in the soil
was between 10% and 15%. Upon increasing the GGBS
content further in the soil, there was little increase in the
soaked CBR. For a GGBS content of 5% in the expansive
soil, corresponding to a thickness ratio of tc/ts = 0.25, the
soaked CBR was found to be 1.99% and has increased to
4.5% when GGBS content was increased to 20%. On
increasing the thickness ratio (tc/ts) to 1.0, for a GGBS
content of 5%, the soaked CBR was 3.5% and has increased
to 7.6% on increasing the GGBS content to 20%. The
increase may be because of the characteristics of the natural
soil. Wild et al. (1999) suggested that GGBS could be
activated in some cases by some components in natural soils.
They observed an increase in the UCS of the Kimmeridge
clay with addition of GGBS only. When GGBS is exposed to
water a Si-Al-O rich layer forms on the GGBS particle
surfaces. This layer may absorb H+ from water, resulting in
an increase in OH- concentration and then the pH of the
solution also increases to values close to the pH of a saturated
lime solution (Caijun and Day, 1993). At these high values of
pH, Si-o and Al-O bonds are broken and then semicrystalline C-A-S-H, crystalline calcium aluminate hydrate
and C-A-S-H (Calcium aluminosilicate hydrate) are formed.
The addition of 2% lime to the GGBS-stabilized expansive
clay resulted in a remarkable improvement in the soaked
CBR of Lime-GGBS-Stabilized expansive soil cushionexpansive soil system. In clay-GGBS-lime systems, the
primary cementing agent is C-A-S-H gel. Due to the high
alumina content of GGBS, some alumina is expected to
replace silica and C-S-A-H gel is also formed. In chemical
soil stabilisation processes, using lime or GGBS activated by
lime, it has been established that new cementitious materials
GGBS stabilized soil cushions with and without lime in pavements

are formed and alter the particle-to-particle forces through the
cementitious effects of the reaction products. Due to the
formation of these cementitious materials, the pore fluid and
pore pressure, will then be decreased, thus reducing the
swelling pressure and the swelling potential and leading to
volume stability (Kinuthia, 1997).
Curing of the samples has resulted in further incraese in

soaked CBR. All the samples with tc/ts = 1.0 were cured for
28 days and the soaked CBR values were determined. At tc/ts
= 1.0, for a GGBS content of 20%, the soaked CBR increased
from 21.4% to 27.2% and at the same thickness ratio, for a
GGBS content of 5%, the soaked CBR increased from 3.5%
to 6.2% with an increase in the curing period to 28 days,
keeping all the others conditions constant.
EFFECT OF GGBS-STABILIZED EXPANSIVE SOIL
(WITH AND WITHOUT LIME) ON UCS
Fig. 1 Variation of soaked CBR with the GGBS content in

expansive soil for expansive soil - GGBS-stabilized soil
cushion system for different tc/ts ratios
Fig. 2 shows the variation of soaked CBR with the ratio of
lime-GGBS-soil cushion - expansive clay bed system. From
the figure, it is evident that the soaked CBR increases with an
increase in the thickness of lime- GGBS-soil cushion. It can
also be seen that as the GGBS content is increased, an
increase in the soaked CBR is observed which is due to the
pozzolanic reaction between the silica present in the GGBS
and the lime. As the thickness of the cushion is increased,
very high soaked CBR values were reported because of the
higher content of lime-GGBS and soil which leads to more
cementitious bonds. From Fig. 2. , it can be seen that for a
lime content of 2%, at tc/ts = 0.25, at a GGBS content of 5%,
the soaked CBR is 2.3% which has increased to 7.2% for a
GGBS content of 20% at the same thickness ratio. The
soaked CBR was further increased upon increasing the
cushion thickness. At a GGBS content of 5%, for tc/ts = 1.0,
the soaked CBR was found to be 4.9%, which has further
increased to 21.4% when GGBS content was increased to
20%.
Fig. 2 Variation of soaked CBR with the GGBS content in

expansive soil for lime-GGBS-soil cushion-expansive soil
system for different tc/ts ratios
The effect of GGBS with and without lime on the strength

characteristics of the expansive soil was studied. Two series
of UCS tests were performed to assess the strength
development of the expansive soil with varying GGBS
content. The first series was meant to investigate the effect of
the addition of GGBS alone on the UCS of the expansive soil
on samples which were cured for 1 day and 28 days. The
second series was meant to study the effect of GGBS
activated by lime on the UCS of the expansive soil. Two
curing periods were employed 1 day and 28 days.
The UCS increases gradually with an increase in GGBS and
also with an increase in curing period of 28 days. A slight
increase in the UCS was observed when GGBS-stabilized
soil mix was cured for 28 days. At a GGBS content of 5%,
the UCS was found to be 124.5 kN/m2 and upon increasing
the GGBS content to 20%, the UCS has increased to 207.5
kN/m2. Upon curing the sample for 28 days, for a GGBS
content of 20%, the UCS has increased to 219 kN/m2.
Significant increase in the UCS was observed for limeGGBS-soil mixes. The rate of increase in the UCS increases
with an increase in the GGBS content.
Curing has
considerable effect on GGBS activated by lime on the UCS
of the expansive soil. The variation of UCS with GGBS
content is given in Fig. 3. At a GGBS content of 5% the
UCS of lime-GGBS-soil was found to be 194 kN/m2 and
upon increasing the GGBS content to 20%, the UCS has
increased to 306 kN/m2. Upon curing the sample for 28 days,
for a GGBS content of 20%, the UCS has increased to 427
kN/m2.
The strength gain using GGBS activated by lime has been
investigated by many authors. Gupta and Seehra (1989)
studied the effect of lime-GGBS on the strength of soil. They
found that lime- GGBS soil stabilised mixes with and without
addition of gypsum, or containing partial replacement of
GGBS by fly ash produced high unconfined compressive
strength (UCS) and California Bearing Ratio (CBR) in
comparison to plain soil. GGBS is a hydraulic material and
therefore requires no additives for hydration and hardening to
take place other than water if hydrated at an elevated
temperature and for a long time (Song et al., 2000). Higgins
(1998) observed that GGBS on its own has only mild
cementitious properties and in conventional concrete it is
used in combination with Portland cement whose alkalinity
G.Sridevi, A.Sreerama Rao, M. Rama Rao

provides the catalyst to activate the cementitious properties of
the GGBS.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Fig. 3 Variation of UCS with GGBS content in expansive soil
of GGBS - stabilized expansive soil
CONCLUSIONS
1. GGBS-stabilized expansive soil and lime+GGBSstabilized expansive soil cushions have shown a
significant improvement in the performance of expansive
soil.
2. Marginal increase in OMC and small decrease in MDD
was observed in both GGBS-stabilized expansive soil
and lime+GGBS-stabilized expansive soil mixes.
3. Significant improvement in soaked CBR was observed
both in the case of GGBS-stabilized expansive soil and
lime+GGBS-stabilized expansive soil when used as a
cushion over expansive soil. With increase in the cushion
thickness and also with the increase in GGBS content in
the cushioning material there is a marked increase in
soaked CBR.
4. The UCS increased with the increase in GGBS content.
At a GGBS content of 5%, the UCS was found to be
124.5 kN/m2 and upon increasing the GGBS content to
20%, the UCS has increased to 207.5 kN/m2. Marked
increase in UCS was observed in lime+GGBS-stabilized
expansive soil. At a GGBS content of 5% the UCS of
lime-GGBS-soil was found to be 194 kN/m2 and upon
increasing the GGBS content to 20%, the UCS has
increased to 306 kN/m2. Further curing of the sample for
28 days, for a GGBS content of 20%, the UCS has
increased to 427 kN/m2.
REFERENCES
1. Caijun, S and Day, R. L (1993). "Chemical Activation of
Blended Cements Made with Lime and Natural
Pozzolans", Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 23, pp.
1389-1396.
2. Gupta, S, and Seehra, S. S. (1989). "Studies on LimeGranulated Blast Furnace Slag as an Alternative Binder
to Cement", Highways Research Board, Bulletin, No. 38,
pp. 81-97.
3. Higgins, D. D, Kinuthia, J. M, and Wild, S. (1998). "
Soil Stabilization Using Lime-Activated GGBS",
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18.
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fume, Slag, and Natural Pozzolans in Concrete,
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Holtz, W.G. and Gibbs, H.J. (1956). Engineering
Properties of Expansive Clays, Transaction of ASCE,
Vol. 121, pp. 641-647.
Holtz, W.G. (1969). Volume Change in Expansive Clay
Soils and Control by Lime Treatment, Proc. of 2nd Int.
Research and Engg. Conf. on Expansive Clay Soils,
Texas A&M Press, Texas, pp. 157-174.
Jones, D.E. and Holtz, W.G. (1973). Expansive Soils
the Hidden Disaster, Civil Engg., Vol.3, No. 8.
Katti, R. K. (1979). Search for Solutions to Problems in
Black Cotton Soils, First IGS Annual Lecture, IGJ,
Vol. 9, pp. 1-80.
Kinuthia, J. M (1997). "Property Changes and
Mechanism in Lime-Stabilised Kaolinite in the Presence
of Metal Sulphate", Unpublished Ph. D thesis, School of
the Built Environment, University of Glamorgan, U. K.
Nelson, D.J. and Miller, J.D. (1992). Expansive soils:
Problems and practice in foundation and pavement
engineering. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Prakash K. & Sridharan A. (1989): Lime stabilization
and curing effects on the index and compaction
characteristics of a montmorillonitic soil. Journal of
Southeast Asian Geotechnical Society, Vol. 20, No. 1,
pp. 39-47.
Rajasekaran G., Murali K., & Srinivasarghavan R.
(1997): Fabric and mineralogical studies on lime treated
marine clays. Ocean Engineering, Vol. 24, No. 3, pp.
227-234.
Ramana Murty, V. (1998). Study on Swell Pressure
and the Method of Controlling Swell of Expansive
Soil, Ph.D. Thesis, Kakatiya University, REC,
Warangal.
Rao A.S., Phani Kumar, B.R., Suresh, K., 2008. Field
behavior of granular pile-anchors in expansive soils.
Ground Improvement. 161 (G14), 199-206.
Snethen, D.R. (1979). An evaluation of methodology
for prediction and minimization of detrimental volume
change of Expansive Soils in highway subgrades,
Research report Vol.1, Federal Highway Administration,
Washington, D.C.
Song, S, Sohn, D, Jennings, H. M and Mason, TO
(2000). "Hydration of alkali-activated Ground
Granulated Blastfurnace Slag", Journal of Materials
Sciences, No. 35, pp. 249-257.
Steinberg, M.L. (1977). Ponding an Expansive Clay
Cut: Evaluations and Zones of Activity, TRR-641,
TRB, pp. 61-66.
Subba Rao, K.S. (2000). Swellshrink behavior of
expansive soils geotechnical challenges. Indian
Geotechnical Journal, 27 (3): 1-69.
Wild, S, and Tasong, W. A (1999). "Influence of Ground
Granulated Blastfurnace Slag on the Sulphate Resistance
of Lime- Stabilised Kaolinite", Magazine of Concrete
Research, 51, No. 4, pp. 247-254.

December 13-15,2012, Delhi (Paper No.B-250)
STRENGTH BEHAVIOUR OF ALKALIS TREATED LATERITIC SOIL CONTAMINATED WITH

ACIDS
S.D.Venkataraja Mohan, Professor, Dr.Ambedkar Institute of Technology, Bangalore-560056, sdvclassical@yahoo.com

H.N. Ramesh, Professor, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Bangalore University, Bangalore-560056, rheddur @yahoo.com
ABSTRACT: The unintentionally modified soil properties can lead to detrimental effect on performance of soils which received
the attention less than it deserves. Strength characteristics of alkalis treated Shedi soil contaminated with acids has been reported.
Results infer that strength properties were improved due to CaCO3 and MgCO3 at their optimum percentages. The unconfined
compressive strength (UCS) increases with increase in curing and percentage alkalis up to 15%. The MgCO3 is more effective in
improving the strength of Shedi soil. CaCO3 were less effective in strength increase. Contamination of alkalis treated Shedi soil
by acids drastically decreased the UCS at all curing periods. The study infers that the 15% optimum percentage of alkalis
increases the UCS with increased curing period. The reasons for this behavior of soil are addressed.
INTRODUCTION
The major sources of subsurface and surface contamination
are land disposal of industrial, mining, agricultural wastes
and accidental spillage of chemicals during the series of
industrial operations. In recent years much attention has been
paid to acidification of soil due to acid rain, which is one of
the environmental factors which will affect properties of soil.
Soil pollutants interaction changes soil behavior and also can
lead to partial or total immobilization of contaminants.
Severe damage occurred to the interconnecting piping of a
phosphoric acid storage tank in particular and also to the
adjacent buildings due to differential movements between
pump and acid tank foundations of a fertilizer plant in
Calgory, was reported [1]. The effect of contamination with
six contaminants on the engineering behaviour of Shedi soil
was reported [2, 3]. The cohesion parameter for Shedi soil
has decreased from 186.39 KN/m2 at 0 N contamination by
phosphoric acid (H3PO4) to 147.15 KN/m2 at 10 N
contamination (decrease about 20 percent) and was attributed
to more satisfied electron imbalance and aggregation growth.
The angle of internal friction also increased with increase in
percentage of contamination was reported [4].
This paper presents results of laboratory investigations
conducted to study the effect of acids and alkalis on strength
properties of Shedi soil.
LATERITIC SOIL
Laterites are the ferruginous deposit of vesicular unstratified
structure, occurring not far below the surface and have long
been known in India where they occupy large areas of
Deccan Peninsula. They are the products of intense sub aerial

rock weathering whose Fe and /or Al content is higher and Si
content is lower than in many kaolinised parent rocks. They
consist predominantly of mineral assemblage of goethite,
aluminum hydroxide, kaolinite minerals and quartz. Their
upper stratum can be converted into laterite soils by soils
forming process. A laterite formation in general consists of
top hardened vesicular layer followed by Lithomargic clay
layer over the weathered residual soil and parent rock.
SHEDI SOIL
The top layers of the laterite formations are highly porous but
hard and strong. In between the top hardened layer and
bottom residual or parent deposit, there lies the lithormargic
shedi soil having size distribution between JEDI (clay) and
GODI (silt) soils. The Lithormargic shedi horizon ranges in
thickness from few meters to about 20 meters. This shedi soil
is soft and occasionally consists of pieces of thin impersistant
bands of cherry and iron rich haematite material. They exhibit
variegated colors: cream, red, purple and yellow being most
common. Some of the important properties of shedi soil
studied in this investigation have been presented in Table 1
and 2.
MATERIALS USED
The Shedi soil used for the present study has been obtained
from shedi gudda from a depth of 2 meter below natural
ground level, Mangalore, Karnataka state, India. It was dried
and sieved through a sieve of 4.75 mm to eliminate gravel
fraction if any.
H.N. Ramesh and S.D.Venkataraja Mohan
Chemicals used in the study are Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3),

Magnesium Carbonate (MgCO3), Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and
Orthophosporic acid (H3PO4).These chemicals have been
obtained from Qualigens Fine Chemicals and Sd Fine
Chemicals
Pvt. Limited, Mumbai India. The Calcium
Carbonate and Magnesium Carbonate are in white powder
form and insoluble in water but reacts with constituents of any
soil. The strength of the acids was reduced to one normal
solution. Properties of CaCO3 and MgCO3 are listed in table 3.
Table 1 Physical properties of Shedi soil
Color
Specific gravity
Values
observed
Light Pink
2.43
Gravel fraction (%)
0.00
Properties
Sand fraction (%)
85.00
Silt and Clay fraction (%)
15.00
Liquid Limit (%)
26.5
Plastic Limit (%)
16.7
Shrinkage Limit (%)

Optimum Moisture content (%)
Maximum Dry Density (KN/cum)
Free swell Index (cc/g)
Co-efficient Permeability (mm/s)
Coefficient
of Consolidation Cv
(mm2 /s)
Compression Index Cc (mm2 /s)
Unconfined Compressive Strength
(kPa)
21.19
14.5
17.7
0.00
3.652X10-6
70.8 X10-3
1.69 X10-3
220.78
Table 3 Properties of Chemicals used

Properties
Molecular
Weight
CaCO3
MgCO3
100.1
84.3
Color
White
White
Crystal
Symmetry
Rhombic
Trigonal
Refractive
Index nD
1.681
1.51
2.71g/cc
2T.05g/cc
Density
Melting Point
Solubility
in
100
parts
solvent
Assay
825 C
990C
0.013g/100ml
@
0.01g/100ml@
20C,soluble
in acids
85%
20C,soluble in
acids
95%
Strength properties were determined as per IS 2720 (part X)
1973.Various percentages of CaCO3 and MgCO3 additives are
mixed to Shedi soil individually and acidification is done with
one normal Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and Orthophosphoric acid
(H3PO4) for the optimum combination of Shedi soil and
Carbonates individually. Importance has been accorded to
qualitative magnitude of impact of contamination rather than to
study the mechanism due to which this happens in this study.
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
Table 2 Chemical Analysis of Shedi soil

Chemical Parameters
pH
Calcium (%)
Sodium (%)
Potassium (%)
Chloride (%)
Sulphate
Sulphate
as SO4
as SO3
Percentage %
5.42
0.002
0.039
0.000
0.008
0.004
0.003
Effect of Calcium Carbonate on non expansive Shedi soil

The unconfined compressive strength of Shedi soil
alone is
220.78 kPa. On addition of 5%, 10% and 15% CaCO3 the
unconfined strength increases on immediate mixing except for
10%. Further, with the addition of 20%CaCO3 unconfined
strength decreases. However with addition of 5 to 15% CaCO3
the strength increases from 7 days but decreases for 30 days of
curing at 5% and for remaining %CaCO3 the strength increase
was more with 15% CaCO3 for 90 days and then decreases
for180days of curing.
However with 20% CaCO3 the strength increase is less
compare to 15% addition. The maximum increase in strength
observed was 607.34kPa at 240 days of curing for 15%CaCO3
addition as shown in figure 1.
Strength behaviour alkalis treated Lateritic soil contaminated with acids
Fig.1 Variation of UCS of Shedi Soil with CaCO3 and acids

under different curing periods
Fig.2 Variation of UCS of Shedi Soil with MgCO3 and

acids under different curing periods
Effect of Magnesium Carbonate on Shedi soil

With the addition of 5% to 20% of MgCO3, the unconfined
strength of Shedi soil increases with immediate mixing. After
Curing for 7, 30, 90,180 and 240 days the unconfined strength
is progressively increased to its maximum strength
of
989.32kPa at 240 days curing for 15% MgCO3 which is more
than CaCO3 treated Shedi soil at same curing period. Addition of
alkalis beyond 15% decreases the strength as shown in figures 1
and 2.
However with curing the unconfined compressive strength

progressively decreases at all curing periods i.e. from 7, 30,
90, 180 and 240 days for CaCO3 and MgCO3 treated Shedi
soil contaminated with acids. The decrease in strength is due
to the formation of swelling type of compounds and new type
of minerals which destroys cohesion and hence the soil loses
its strength as shown in figure 1 and 2.
Effect of 1N Sulphuric Acid on Shedi soil

The unconfined compressive strength of Shedi soil alone and
with optimum15% of CaCO3 is 220.78 kPa and 458.59 kPa
respectively.
On addition of 1N H2SO4 the unconfined
compressive strength is decreased to 421.71 kPa for 15% CaCO3,
on immediate mixing, whereas for MgCO3 treated Shedi soil the
unconfined compressive strength decreases to 585.29 kPa from
767.27 on immediate mixing as shown in figure 1 and 2.
However, with curing, the unconfined compressive strength first
decreases for 7 days and then increases marginally for 30 days
and then decreases upto 240 days for CaCO3 and MgCO3 treated
shedi soil as shown in the figure 1 and 2.
Effect of 1N Orthophosphoric Acid on Shedi soil
On addition of 1N H3PO4 to the optimum percentage of MgCO3
and Shedi soil mixture the unconfined compressive strength
decreases to from 767.27 kPa to 728.56 kPa and for shedi soil
treated with 15% CaCO3 and 1N H3PO4 the unconfined
compressive strength decreases marginally for immediate mixing.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Unconfined Compressive Strength increases with increase
in percentage increase in MgCO3 upto 15% optimum at all
curing period. The maximum unconfined compressive
strength observed was 989.32 kPa. However, beyond
optimum percentage of alkalis, the strength decrease for the
further addition of alkali were marginal, due to decrease in
diffused double layer thickness.
2. Alkalis having lime content in different forms improves the
strength properties upto six months while acidification
destroys cohesion and the strength. The increase in strength
is attributed to flocculation due to soil and alkali interaction.
Strength decrease is attributed to deflocculation due to
interaction between Alkalis treated soils and Acids. Further
addition of acids resulted in formation of compounds such as
Calcium sulphate, Magnesium phosphate which destroys the
cohesion between the particle mixtures and hence decreases
the strength irrespective of addition of various percentages of
alkalis against various curing periods.
3. Acidification of optimum % of CaCO3 and MgCO3 treated
soils have shown drastic decrease in unconfined compressive
strength with 1N H2SO4 compared to marginal decrease in
strength with 1N H3PO4 at all curing period.
H.N. Ramesh and S.D.Venkataraja Mohan
REFERENCES
1. Joshi R.C., Pan X and Lohita P. (1994), Volume changes
in calcareous soils due to Phosphoric acid contamination,
Proceedings of the XIII ICSMFE, New Delhi, Vol.4,
1569-1574.
2. Yaji,R.K and Ramkrishnegowda.C.(1995), Effect of
contamination by chemicals on the engineering behaviour
of shedi soil, Proceedings of IGC-1995, Bangalore,241244.
3. Yaji,R.K, Ramkrishnegowda. C and Sandeep Ranjan Jha.
(1996), Influence of contaminants on the engineering
behaviour of shedi soil, .Proceedings of IGC-1996,
Madras.
4. Yaji,R.K and Girish.K (2004), An Experimental study on
impact of chemical contamination on the engineering
behaviour of Shedi soil, M.Tech thesis, July 2004,
National Institute of Technology, Surakthal, Mangalore,
India
5. http:/www.Gaea.ca
ACKNOWLEDEMENTS
The authors acknowledge the support given by their parent
institutes Dr.Ambedkar Institute of Technology and University
Visweswaraya College of Engineering, Bangalore-560056.for
carrying out this research work successfully.

December 13-15,2012, Delhi (Paper No B 251)
FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON GENERATION AND DISSIPATION OF PORE PRESSURE

DURING LIME-CEMENT STABILIZATION OF A LAYERED COASTAL CLAY DEPOSIT
V. Thakur, Adjunct Associate Professor at Aalesund University College, and Senior Geotechnical Principal at Norwegian
Directorate of Roads, Norway vikas.thakur@vegvesen.no
ABSTRACT: Lime cement stabilisation using a dry mixing technique is often practiced for costal slopes as the soils generally
have high water content. The pore pressure increase during the stabilisation process also increases the stress condition in the
soil mass towards the failure state. In other words, stability of already marginally stable slopes can be at risk if the pore
pressure is increased to a very high level for a longer period. This paper present field results of pore pressure measurements,
during the stabilisation phase, taken from seven different locations of a stabilisation project in the west-coast of Norway where
150 x 120 m area was stabilised to an average depth of 10-12 m. The presented data is original, rarely recorded in practice, and
thought to be a useful resource for the engineers dealing with such type of stabilisation projects.
A dry mixing technique is often used for costal slopes as the

soils generally have high initial water content. Usually the
stability of costal slopes is marginal due to poor undrained
shear strength. When such slopes need to be stabilised, an air
pressure of 3-4 bar is commonly used in the dry mixing
process which builds extremely high pore pressure. Hence,
this will further decrease the stability of the slope in the short
duration until the slope gets the benefit of the stabilization
and result in higher soil strength. The pore pressure increase
at constant total stress will also increase the stress ratio in the
soil mass towards the failure state. In other words, stability of
already marginally stable slopes can be at risk if the pore
pressure is increased to a very high level for a longer period.
Therefore, it becomes important to monitor pore pressure
generation and dissipation during the stabilisation period.
This paper presents field results of pore pressure
measurements, during the stabilisation phase, taken from
several locations. The field data is taken from a stabilisation
project in the west-coast of Norway where 150 x 100 m area
was stabilised to an average 10-12 m depth, see Figure 1.
More information about the project as well as numerical
studies can be found in NPRA (2010a).
THE HIGHWAY PROJECT

The project site Hoegset is located in the west-coast of
Norway. The coastal terrain is sloping about 1:10 towards the
main land whereas the terrain is inclined to 1:20 as it
approaches towards the sea. This coastal area mainly consists
of sand and soft marine clay layers to a depth up to 12 m. A
new road section was constructed in 2011 on this area. The
road fill was between 2.5 to 5.0 m high above the ground. In
addition, a bridge and a subway were also constructed. Lime
cement stabilisation of the area prior to these constructions
was recommended to achieve the required factor of safety.
Sea
Coastaldeposit
Areastabilized with limecement ribs
Fig. 1 Areal view of the construction site Hoegset

0
5m
Embankment
Totalsounding
5
10
Depth[m]
INTRODUCTION
The use of lime-cement piles is one of the most applicable
stabilisation methods in soft and sensitive clays (CEN, 2000).
There are sites that stabilization components have the most
impact because lime reacts more with clay than sand, gravel,
silt or peat. The chemical reaction creates a hardening
process that creates a much higher strength than the original
soil. Curing process depends on ground material to be built
in, the choice of binder, binder amount, how well it blends in
and the temperature of the area. On one hand, lime-cement
stabilisation guarantees significant increase in the shear
strength of the stabilised material; on the other hand, the
stabilisation process itself is very critical. Great care needs to
be exercised while choosing mixing techniques, procedures
and ground conditions of the area to be stabilized.
20
Resistance (kN)
Peat
Sensitiveclay
Sand
Moraine
Fig. 2 Coastal deposition and the road fill (NPRA 2010a)
V Thakur/ Field observation on pore pressure measurement during Lime-cement stabilization of coastal clay deposit
GEOTECHNICAL SITE CHARACTERIZATION
The quaternary geological maps show marine deposition on
the area. The area was subjected to landslide in the past. The
intensive field investigation showed that the area was covered
with 1 m thick peat and organic top soil. Underneath, layered
sediment dominated by marine clay and silt in some depth
intervals until 10-12 m was found. The marine clay/silt
deposits are layered by three thin sand layers. Underneath is
the moraine layer until the depth of 20 m. Figure 2 shows a
sketch of layered coastal deposits underneath the road
embankment. Based on laboratory data, soils are
characterized by index parameters as shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Site characterization
Layer thickness [m]
0-1
Properties
Peat
3
Density, , [kN/m ]
Water content, w,
[%]
Undrained shear
strength, cu, [kPa]
Sensitivity, St, [-]
Clay fraction , [%]
Plasticity index, IP,
[%]
S1
19
66-97
stabilization on the project site. The zones, S1-S4, mentioned

in this paper are in the order at which the stabilization work
was carried-out. There were total ten zones that were
stabilized, however in this paper we provide information
from only four zones (S1-S4). Table 2 gives an overview of
stabilization activities in each zone.
S1
S2
5-70
7-115
5-25
8-12
0-5
-
S2
C
120m
Piezometers
150m
Piezometer
0.6m
0.6m
3m
0.6m
1.1m
3m
Fig. 3 Upper: placement of piezometers in different

stabilization zones (S1-S4). Lower: a schematic presentation
of location of piezometer between the ribs (left) and sketch of
single and double lime-cement piles (NPRA 2010a)
S3
S4
Roadlevel
0m
S4
1-12
Sensitive
Sand
clay
20
21.5
20-60
10-30
S3
Bridge
Embankment
5m
5m
Road
M1
10m
M4
M3
M2
Embankment
M5
M6
M7
15m
10m
Peat
Sensitiveclay
Sand
Moraine
15m
35m
Fig. 4 Longitudinal section (C-C). The locations of the piezometers (M1-M7) are also shown in this figure
INSTALLATION OF LIME-CEMENT COLUMNS
Based on the geotechnical investigation the lime-cement
stabilization was selected as the measure to improve the
overall stability of the area. As per the NPRA guidelines
(NPRA, 2010b), the factor of safety of the costal slope was
needed to improve from 1.0 to 1.6 under both undrained and
drained conditions. The 150 x 120 m area was stabilised to an
average 10-12 m depth. Dry mixing technique was used for
the stabilization process. Stabilization was done using 60 cm
diameter Lime-cement piles installed in the single and double
ribs systems. The 25 to 31 kg lime-cement binders, in 50-50
ratio, were used to stabilize per cubic meter of soil mass.
Figure 3 and 4 shows location and the pattern of lime-cement
Table 2 An overview of lime-cement stabilization work

Zones Pattern*
Total piles
Time to complete
length [m]
[days]
S1
SR
4970
8
S2
SR
5584
5
S3
DR-L+SR-T
40326
35
21200
25
S4
DR-L
*SR: single ribs system; DR: double ribs system, L:
longitudinal direction and T: cross-section along the road. In
double ribs system two single ribs were placed together with
an overlap of 10 cm in between. A rib was constructed by
placing 60 cm dia. lime-cement piles in a row (see Figure 3)
with 10 cm overlap in between the piles.
PORE PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
An air pressure of 3-4 bars is commonly used in the dry
mixing process which builds extremely high pore pressure.
The pore pressure increase at constant total stress will also
increase the stress condition in the soil mass towards the
failure state. In other words, stability of already marginally
stable slopes can be at risk if the pore pressure is increased to
a very high level for a longer period. Therefore, it becomes
important to monitor pore pressure generation and dissipation
during the stabilization period. Figure 4 and Table 3 shows
the details about the locations of the piezometers. The
piezometers were placed between the Lime-cement ribs. The
ribs were placed at 3 m c/c spacing. The distances between
nearest rib and piezometer were 1.2 m in case of single rib
systems in zone S1 and S2, and only 0.9 m in case of double
rib systems in zone S3 and S4.
Table 3 Piezometers location
Zones Piezometers
Depth
Distance between
locations
[m]
piezometers* [m]
S1
M1
6
0
S2
M2
10
15
S3
M3
8.5
25
S3
M4
5
35
S4
M5
4
70
S4
M6
5
70
S4
M7
7
70
* Piezometer M1 is selected as the reference point
0
Ground water level
1
2
3
Depth [m]
4
5
6
7
8
9
Measured
Hydrostatic line
10
11
0
20
40
60
80 100
Intial pore pressure [u o ] (kPa)
Fig. 5 Initial pore pressure (uo) in the marine clay deposits

prior to the stabilization (NPRA 2010a)
Ground water level in the area was located around 1 m below
the surface level. Figure 5 shows that the initial pore pressure
(uo) in the area is hydrostatic prior to the stabilization work
started. Pore pressure responses were recorded for about 200
days. The stabilization started at 12 days after the
piezometers were installed. Figure 6 shows measure pore
pressure response (u) for the seven piezometers. As expected
several peaks in the pore pressure response were observed
throughout the stabilization work. The maximum pore
pressured registered by the piezometers are shifting from M1
to M7 as the time elapses and as the stabilization works
Fig. 6 Measured pore pressure response (u) in the marine clay

deposits during the stabilization stage.
S4
S3
S1
S2
vo
vo
vo
vo
vo
vo
u-uo
u-uo
u-uo
vo
The normalized excess pore pressure (u-uo/vo), where vo is

the total vertical stresses, is presented in Figure 7. The
maximum normalized excess pore pressures reported by the
piezometers are between 0.3 and 0.4. This also means that the
marine clay deposits were never come close to a zero
effective stresses condition i.e. liquefaction endangering the
slope to collapse during the construction stages.
u-uo
moves from zone S1 to S4. The results show that the

dissipation of excess pore pressure (u-uo) was rather quick.
For example, between day 40 and 41 the pore pressure
registered at M3 reduced from 70 kPa to 45 kPa. This is
primarily due to presence of large amount of silt in the
marine clay deposits as well as due to the shorter drainage
length in the order of 1.5 to 2 m for the marine clay layers.
u-uo
u-uo
u-uo
Start
Fig. 7 Normalized excess pore pressure response in the

marine clay deposits during the stabilization stage.
However, the plots show that M1, M2, M4 and M5 show

some residual normalized pore pressure in order of 0.05-0.1.
It is believed that these residual values are due to alteration in
the flow pattern of the ground water caused by the closure or
densification of the sand layers by the Lime-cement ribs. As a
result of this the ground water level was raised to the surface
as noticed during the construction period. Figure 6 and 7
shows that once the marine deposits were stabilized they
generated less excess pore pressure. For example, M1 to M4
shows insignificant pore pressure built-up when stabilization
was being carried out in zone S4 (day 50-80). On other
hands, when stabilization was being carried out in zone S1
and S2 (day 12-25) the variation in the pore pressure built up
were recorded up to 70 m away from M1 at M5, M6 and M7.
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, selected field results of pore pressure response
observed during the lime-cement stabilisation of the coastal
deposit were presented. The measurement showed that the
pore pressure in the clay deposit increased by 50-80 %
locally and up to 20% up to 70 m away from the installation
points during the stabilization process. These observations
result indicate that during the installation process the slope
should have had a reduced safety margin, even though, the
dissipation of excess pore pressure was rather quick due to
the shorter drainage paths. Therefore, a proper care must be
taken otherwise during the installation phase the lime cement
stabilization method can be responsible to trigger a failure in
slopes especially when it has a safety factor around unity.
REFERENCES
1. NPRA (2010a), Ground Investigation Report,
Norwegian Public Roads Administration, Norway. report
no. 2010000427-1.
2. CEN (2000), CEN standard EN197-1:2000. Cement
Part 1: Composition, specifications and conformity
criteria for common cements. European Committee for
standardization (CEN), Brussels.
3. NPRA (2010b), Guidelines for road construction.
Handbook 274, Norwegian Public Roads Administration.

December 13-15,2012, Delhi (Paper No. B-256)
SOME STUDIES ON THE SEEPAGE ANALYSIS OF GEOSYNTHETIC REINFORCED SOIL

WALLS CONSTRUCTED WITH LOW-PERMEABILITY BACKFILL SOILS
Dipankana Bhattacherjee, PG student, Dept. of Civil Engg, IIT Bombay, India. Email:dipankanabhattacherjee@gmail.com
Sreeja Balakrishnan, Research Scholar, Dept. of Civil Engg, IIT Bombay, India. Email: sreejabalakrishnan46@gmail.com
B.V.S.Viswanadham, Professor, Dept. of Civil Engg, IIT Bombay, Mumbai -400 076, India. Email: viswam@civil.iitb.ac.in
ABSTRACT: Cohesionless soils are typically preferred as a fill material in geosynthetic reinforced soil wall construction due
to their high strength, ease of compaction, ability to dissipate excess pore water pressures and their inherent resistance to creep.
Much of the knowledge and experience with geosynthetic reinforced soil wall structures to date has been with select
cohesionless backfill. Design issues include drainage, deformations, reinforcement pullout, constructability, and performance
expectations. While there may be significant savings in using low-permeability backfill soils, their effect on the performance
must be carefully evaluated. In this paper, an attempt has been made to evaluate the effect of geocomposite layers and
conventional sand drainage layers on the drainage capability of geosynthetic reinforced soil walls constructed with lowpermeability backfill soils through seepage analysis. Seepage analysis was carried-out using SEEP/W by varying the number
of geocomposite and conventional sand drainage layers. For selected sections, static global stability of geosynthetic reinforced
soil wall sections with and without geocomposite layers and conventional sand drainage layers was carried-out by using
SLOPE/W. The results indicate that the inclusion of geocomposite layers and conventional sand drainage layers was effective,
as it lowered the phreatic surface by causing a reduction in excess pore water pressure. Further, the static global stability of the
geosynthetic reinforced soil wall provided with geocomposite drainage layers was found to increase considerably. This can
lead to reduction in project costs and allow the use of locally available low-permeability backfills in reinforced soil wall
construction.
INTRODUCTION
Construction of geosynthetic reinforced soil walls results in
potential savings over conventional retaining walls. However,
the proper selection of a backfill material is of primary
concern in ensuring the stability of these wall sections. Well
graded, freely draining granular material is generally
recommended for reinforced soil wall construction. The
unavailability of good quality backfill material has recently
led to the use of low permeability backfill soils. The Federal
Highway Administration [1] allows up to 35% of fines
(passing 0.0475 mm) in the reinforced fill material, provided
the properties of the materials are well-defined, and proper
controls are established to address various design issues. But
the use of low permeability backfill material results in some
difficulties like development of pore water pressures,
reduction in shear strength at interface of soil and
reinforcement and excessive deformations. The destabilizing
seepage force due to the development of pore pressure
beneath, behind or within the reinforced zone often leads to
the instability of the wall. The use of low permeable backfill
was reported as the cause of many serviceability problems
and actual failures of geosynthetic reinforced soil walls by
Mitchell and Zornberg (1995) [2], Koerner and Soong (2005)
[3], and Christopher and Stuglis (2005) [4]. The use of
permeable inclusions as an effective alternative to relieve the
pore pressure buildup was discussed by Mitchell and
Zornberg (1995) [2], Christopher et al. (1998) [5],
Viswanadham and Raisinghani (2010) [6], and Koerner and
Soong (2005) [3]. Geocomposites that combine drainage and
reinforcement properties or thin layers of sandy soil were
recommended as a remedial measure by Christopher et al.

(1998) [5]. Chen et al. (2007) [7] used geocomposites in
improving the stability of vertical geosynthetic reinforced
earth wall with clayey backfill. Koerner and Soong (2005) [3]
reported that the seepage forces behind the reinforced zone
got halved when geocomposites were accommodated in the
backfill. OKelly and Naughton (2008) [8] recommended the
use of dual-function geosynthetics in the reinforced earth
structures, to provide both reinforcement and preferential
drainage channels, thereby increasing the factor of safety for
the slope.
Numerical studies on the seepage and stability characteristics
of reinforced soil walls with marginal backfills have also
been carried out. Yoo and Jung (2006) [9] carried out seepage
studies of a segmental retaining wall of height 7.4m with low
permeable backfill using SEEP/W. The pore water pressures
in reinforced and retained zone due to continuous infiltration
of rainwater were quantified. It was found that the factor of
safety reduced drastically due to seepage, thus necessitating
the use of suitable drainage inclusions like geocomposites in
the fill material.
In this paper, an attempt has been made to evaluate the effect
of geocomposite and sand drainage layers on the drainage
capability of geosynthetic reinforced soil walls constructed
with low-permeability backfill soils through seepage analysis
using SEEP/W software [10]. For selected sections, static
global stability analysis was carried out using SLOPE/W
software [10].The number of geocomposite and sand
Dipankana Bhattacherjee, Sreeja Balakrishnan and B.V.S. Viswanadham

drainage layers were varied to optimize the height upto which
provision of these layers proved effective. Also, the phreatic
surfaces (in terms of normalized pore water pressure) and
factor of safety values obtained with equal number of
geocomposites and sand layers were compared.
DETAILS OF THE GEOSYNTHETIC REINFORCED
SOIL WALL AND MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Figure 1 represents the geogrid reinforced soil wall section
used for the present study. It is a 7.8m high reinforced wall
with a crest width of 10.225m, and a slope of 84.29. An
embedment depth of 1m has been provided in front of the
wall. The length of the reinforced zone is 0.7 times the height
of the slope, which comes out to be 5.6m.
Table 2 Polymeric strip reinforcement material properties

Tensile Load (kN/m)
Layer No. (from top)
Layer 1
15.1
Layer 2
20.2
25.8
Layer 3
Layer 4
37.9
Layer 5
51.3
Layer 6
50.6
Layer 7
63.2
Layer 8
75.8
Layer 9
88.3
Layer 10
101
Layer 11
113.5
NUMERICAL MODELLING OF THE WALL
Modelling using SEEP/W
For the geosynthetic reinforced soil wall with a marginal
backfill, with full saturated condition behind the backfill,
seepage analysis was carried out using the finite element
program SEEP/W ver7.13 (Geoslope 2007) to obtain the
phreatic surface. The mesh was generated with 665 nodes and
625 elements, with an approximate global element size of
1m. The element type for the marginal fill and foundation soil
layers were triangles and quadrilaterals, while for the
geocomposite, the element type was specified as interface.
The zero pressure boundary condition was assigned at the
interface of the wall and Layer 1. The face of the wall was
assigned as the potential seepage face, whereas, a full rain
condition was maintained at the top of the wall to simulate
the condition of full saturation.
Fig. 1 Geometry of the geosynthetic reinforced soil wal

The properties of the marginal fill used in the analysis are
listed in Table 1. The soil was found to have 25% fines and
the coefficient of permeability is 1.58 x 10-7 m/s. The
properties of the foundation layers are shown in Fig. 1 itself.
Eleven layers of 5.6m long polymeric strip reinforcement
were used for stabilizing the wall, whose properties are
shown in Table 2. The values of tensile strength given in
Table 2 were obtained after deducting for relevant factors.
The bottom reinforcement layer was placed at 0.4m from the
base, and subsequent reinforcements were placed at a spacing
of 0.8m. The topmost reinforcement had a clear height of
0.4m from the top surface of the wall.
Table 1 Properties of marginal fill
Soil type
Unit
Cohesion
weight
(kPa)
(kN/m3)
Marginal
fill
18
20
Angle
of
friction
( )
15
Co-efficient
of
permeability
(m/sec)
1.58 x10
-7
The seepage analysis was carried out for the three different
cases given below:
Case-1 With marginal backfill alone
Case-2 With marginal backfill along with layers of sand,
0.2m thick
Case-3 With marginal backfill along with layers of
geocomposites
The number of sand and geocomposite layers were varied
from n 1 to7, and the corresponding sections were analysed to
obtain phreatic surfaces at the onset of seepage. These
drainage layers were placed from the bottom, midway
between polymeric strip reinforcement layers, and were
considered to be 1m longer than the length of the
reinforcement layers. The coefficient of permeability of sand
used in the present study is 6.65 x 10-5 m/s. It has a friction
angle of 37 for the sand placed at 70% relative density and a
unit weight of 20 kN/m3. The properties of the geocomposite
layers used were adopted from Raisinghani and
Viswanadham (2011) [11] and are shown in Table 3.
Table 3 Properties of geocomposite
Normal
Tangential
Co-efficient of
Co-efficient of
permeability
permeability
(m/sec)
(m/sec)
12.59 x10-5
7.975x10-4
Tensile
Load
(kN/m)
55.35
Bond
skin
friction
(kPa)
12.49
Some studies on the seepage analysis of geosynthetic reinforced soil walls constructed with low-permeability backfill soils
Modelling using SLOPE/W
Static global factor of safety for the three cases mentioned
above were calculated using modified Bishops method of
slices. The slip circle was restricted within the reinforced
zone. The material model chosen was Mohr-Coulomb, and
tensile load was applied evenly along the reinforcement. The
bond resistance for the polymeric strips were calculated using
a contact cohesion of 0 kPa and a contact friction angle of
10. The reinforcement function of the geocomposites was
considered while performing stability analysis along with
their in-plane drainage capability.
ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
Seepage analysis
Figures 2a-2c illustrate the typical results of seepage analysis
for: i) Case-1 ii) Case-2, n =2 ii) Case-3, n =2. As can be
noted from the figures, the phreatic surface got lowered with
the provision of drainage layers and was more pronounced
with provision of geocomposite layers. The normalized pore
water pressures u/h (which is defined as a ratio of pore water
pressure at half reinforcement length from toe of the wall to
the product of unit weight of the soil and height of the wall)
was calculated at the wall base, mid-way of the reinforced
zone to assess the reduction in pore water pressure with
increase in number of sand and geocomposite layers.
c) Seepage analysis with 2 layers of geocomposite

Fig. 2 Typical results of seepage analysis using SEEP/W
Figure 3 depicts the variation of normalised pore water
pressure with the number of sand and geocomposite layers.
The value of u/h was found to reduce significantly with the
provision of three layers of either sand or geocomposite
drainage layers and thereafter, further increase in number of
sand or geocomposite layers was found to have marginal
influence on u/h. This indicates the provision of drainage
layers (either in the form of sand or geocomposite layers) is
having significant influence in reducing the pore water
pressures within marginal backfills for reinforced soil walls.
a) Seepage analysis with marginal fill alone
Fig. 3 Variation of u/h with number of sand and

geocomposite layers
b) Seepage analysis with 2 layers of sand
Stability analysis
The phreatic surfaces obtained from SEEP/W analyses were
used while performing stability analysis. Figure 4 represents
the critical slip circle and the factor of safety values for Case3 with five numbers of geocomposite layers. Table 5
summarises the value of factor of safeties of different cases
analysed. The value of factor of safety obtained for Case-3
with five numbers of geocomposite layers was found to be
38% more than the wall section with marginal fill alone. In
Dipankana Bhattacherjee, Sreeja Balakrishnan and B.V.S. Viswanadham

the case of wall section, with equal number of sand layers,
the factor of safety was found to be 1.71 and is 22% more
than the wall section with marginal fill alone. This implies
that the reinforcing effect of geocomposite can also
contribute to increase the global stability of the wall. The
sand and geocomposite layers provided in the upper half of
the wall section were found to be less significant in lowering
pore water pressures as well as for improving the global
stability.
Fig. 4 Stability analysis of wall section with five number of

geocomposite layers
Table 5 Summary of factor of safeties of different cases
No: of layers
With
With
sand
geocomposite
0
1.49
1.49
1
1.62
1.62
2
1.63
1.67
1.8
1.68
1.93
1.71
2.06
1.72
2.16
1.72
2.19
1.64
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the analysis and interpretation of seepage and
stability analysis of wall section with and without either
geocomposite or sand drainage layers, the following
conclusions can be drawn:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The geocomposite layers were found to be more

effective in improving the stability of the geosynthetic
reinforced wall section than identical number of sand
layers.
Significant reduction in pore water pressure was noted
with the inclusion of either sand or geocomposite layers.
The provision of geocomposite layers was found to be
effective as a better drainage measure and reinforcing
element and is a possible solution to alleviate the
problems posed by low permeability backfill in
reinforced soil wall construction.
The provision of drainage layers proved effective only
upto about the mid-height of the wall.
Further studies are warranted to understand the stability
and deformation behavior of reinforced wall sections
with different types of marginal

geocomposite/sand drainage layers.
fills
and
REFERENCES
FHWA-NHI-10-024(2009). Design and construction of
mechanically stabilized earth walls and reinforced soil
slopes,Vol 1, 94-101.
2. Mitchell, J.K and Zornberg, J.G. 1995. Reinforced soil
structures with poorly draining backfills. Part II:Case
Histories and Applications. Geosynthetics International,
2(1), 265-307.
3. Koerner, R. M., Soong, T.-Y., and Koerner, G. R. 2005.
Back drainage design and geocomposite drainage
materials. Proc., GRI-19 Conference, Las Vegas, GII
Publication, Folsom, PA, 51-86.
4. Christopher, B.R., Stuglis, R.S. 2005. Low permeable
backfill soils in geosynthetic reinforced soil wall: State
of the practice in North America: state of the practice in
North America. Proceedings of North American Geosynthetics Conference (NAGS 2005), Las Vegas,
Nevada, USA, GRI-19, 1416.
5. Christopher, B.R., Zornberg, J.G., and Mitchell, J.K.
1998. Design Guidance for Reinforced Soil Structures
with Marginal Soil Backfills. Proceedings of the Sixth
International Conference on Geosynthetics, Atlanta,
Georgia, Vol. 2, 797-804.
6. Viswanadham, B. V. S., and Raisinghani D. V., 2010.
Centrifuge model studies on the behavior of
Geocomposite reinforced soil slopes. Proceedings of the
7th International conference on Physical Modeling in
Geotechnics, S. Springman, J. Laue, and L. Seward
(Eds.), Taylor and Francis group (Pubs.), 2, 1157-1162
7. Chen, H-T, Hung, W-Y, Chang, C-C, Chen, Y-J, Lee, CJ. 2007. Centrifuge modeling test of a geotextilereinforced wall with a very wet clayey backfill.
Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 25(6), 346359.
8. OKelly, B.C, and Naughton, P.J. 2008. Technical note
on the interface shear resistance of a novel geogrid with
in-plane
drainage
capability.
Geotextiles
and
Geomembranes, 26(4), 357-362.
9. Yoo, C.A, Jung, H.Y. 2006. Case History of
Geosynthetic Reinforced Segmental Retaining Wall
Failure. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, ASCE, 132(12), 1538-1550
10. Geo-Slope 2007. SLOPE/W and SEEP/W Ver. 7.15
Users Guide. Geo-Slope International Ltd, Calgary,
Canada.
11. Raisinghani, D.V., and Viswanadham, B.V.S. 2011.
Centrifuge model study on low permeable slope
reinforced by hybrid geosynthetics. Geotextiles and
Geomembranes, 29(6), 567-580.
1.

SOME STUDIES ON THE DEFORMATION BEHAVIOUR OF SOIL-NAILED SHORING

SYSTEM
Saptarshi Kundu, PG student, Dept. of Civil Engg, IIT Bombay, India. Email: saptarshikundu123@gmail.com
B.V.S.Viswanadham, Professor, Dept. of Civil Engg, IIT Bombay, Mumbai -400 076, India. Email: viswam@civil.iitb.ac.in
ABSTRACT: In the recent past, the use of shoring systems for retaining excavations is on the rise in urban areas. There are
different types of shoring systems, like i) sheet pile walls, ii) Secant and contiguous piled walls, iii) jet grout and deep mixed
walls, iv) soil-nailed shoring system, etc. Out of these, soil-nailed shoring systems were found to be economical and rapid in
construction. In soil-nailed shoring system, soil nails are installed in rows by using top-down approach across the face of an
excavation and are typically covered with reinforcement and shotcrete. The number of soil nails per row, as well as the row
spacing in both horizontal and vertical directions, is largely dependent on earth conditions and design loads. In this paper, the
deformation behaviour of shoring system with and without soil nails was evaluated by simulating the incremental excavation
stages numerically. An attempt has been made to bring-out the efficacy of soil-nailed shoring system in retaining the soil was
presented in terms of face deformations, soil-nail forces and strain contours during different stages of excavation.
INTRODUCTION
Increase in construction practice in congested urban
environment has brought in new construction challenges to
civil engineers. Vertical excavations for deep foundations
have thus become a common practice in densely populated
localities. Many underground infrastructures are being built
very close to existing buildings in urban areas. To support
such deep excavations and protect nearby buildings,
appropriate shoring systems or earth retention systems are
very much essential. There are different types of shoring
systems, like i) sheet pile walls, ii) secant and contiguous
piled walls, iii) jet grout and deep mixed walls, iv) soil-nailed
shoring system, etc. Out of these, soil-nailed shoring systems
are quite preferable as they are economical and facilitate
rapid top-down construction.
In recent years, soil nailing system has been widely used as a
method of reinforcement for stabilizing steep slopes. The
knowledge on the use of nails in shoring systems is still very
limited. Numerical studies using 2D finite element model
have been carried out by Shen et al (1981) [1], Song and
Chen (1996) [2], and Zhang and Song (1997) [3] for
analyzing the overall behaviour of nailed soil structures.
Zhang et al. (1998) [4] used a limit equilibrium approach to
design and study a nailed structure. Smith and Su (1997) [5]
used a 3D finite element model to model all three
components of a nailed soil structure, namely, soil, nails and
facings. The 3D model was found to effectively simulate the
soil-structure interaction as compared to the earlier 2D
models. Fan and Luo (2008) [6] used a non-linear FEM
approach to study the effect of nail orientation and geometric
layout on the overall stability of soilnailed slopes.
For the proper design of a nailed soil-structure, the allowable
deformation level should be taken into account, especially
when buildings and other underground facilities exist near the
excavation. In the field, often ground movements have been
observed near deep open excavations, threatening the safety

of the adjacent buildings. So far, limited research has been
carried out to study the deformation characteristic of a nailed
soil-structure. Zhang et al. (1999) [7] used a 3D finite
element model to obtain the magnitude and extent of
deflections of nailed soil structures. They also predicted the
soil movement and forces in the nails under working loads.
In this paper, an attempt has been made to evaluate the
deformation behaviour of a shoring system with and without
nails. The excavation stages were executed incrementally by
simulating a 3D finite element model in ABAQUS [8]. The
parameters calculated are face deformations, soil-nail forces
and strain contours during different stages of excavation. The
results obtained highlight the efficiency of a soil-nailed
shoring system in retaining the soil and preventing excessive
ground movement near deep excavations.
DETAILS OF THE SOIL-NAILED SHORING SYSTEM
AND MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Figure 1 represents the soil-nailed shoring system analysed in
the present study. The properties of the soil used in the
present analysis are shown Fig. 1. The excavation was
carried-out in incremental stages of 1 m up to 5 m depth,.
Five nails, along with the nail heads have been inserted
successively in every stage to support the excavation.
Typically, in the field, during construction of a soil-nailed
shoring system, a 0.2 m diameter borehole is made, wherein a
0.036 m diameter steel rod is inserted, and the rest of the
space is filled up with cement grout. In this paper, the soil
nail has been modelled as a square rod of 0.2 m x 0.2 m
dimensions. The steel nail was taken predominantly as a
tension member, while the grout was assumed as not to take
any load. Hence, a modified modulus of elasticity should be
used while modelling the nail in ABAQUS [8]. The modified
Saptarshi Kundu and B.V.S. Viswanadham

modulus of elasticity (Emod) was obtained from Equation 1 as
follows:
Emod = (Esteel x Areasteel)/ (Model area)
(1)
Using a modulus of elasticity of steel (Esteel) as 210 x 109 Pa,

area of steel (Asteel) as 0.00102 m2 (3.14 x 0.0182), and a
model area of 0.2 m x 0.2 m, the modified modulus of
elasticity (Emod) comes out to be 5.343849 x 109 Pa. The
Poissons ratio will remain unchanged, and has been taken as
0.3.
compare the stresses with and without nails. The mesh was
generated with 23,256 nodes and 18,750 elements, with a
global element size of 0.2m. 3D 8-node continuum linear
brick elements were used to model the soil, the nail and nail
head. The soil was modelled as a homogeneous, isotropic
material obeying the Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion. Further,
an elastic perfectly plastic stress-strain behaviour was
assumed for the soil. The steel nails were modelled as
homogeneous, isotropic, and perfectly elastic material. The
horizontal and vertical spacing between the nails was kept as
1m. The nails were taken to be 5 m in length and 0.2 m x 0.2
m in cross section. The nail heads were kept as 0.6 m x 0.6 m
x 0.04 m. Due to symmetry, the analysis was carried out with
a 15m x 10 m x 1 m section with 5 m x 5 m excavated zone.
Numerically, the excavation of the soil was simulated by
removing the soil elements in the zone to be excavated. The
excavation was carried out in five stages. For studying the
behaviour of the soil-nailed system, 1m of the soil was
excavated, and a 0.2 m x 0.2 m hole was dug, and nails were
inserted at mid-depth of excavation horizontally. The face
deformations and the stress in soil nails were recorded in
every stage of excavation.
Fig. 1 Geometry of the soil nailed shoring system

The interaction between the soil and the nail was taken to be
frictional in nature, with a bond co-efficient of 0.9. The
material property of the nail-head was taken similar to that of
the nail itself. The properties of the soil, nail and nail head
used in the analysis are listed in Table 1.
Table 1 Properties soil, nail and nail head
Parameter
Soil
Nail
Unit weight
(kN/m3)
20
77.5
ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

Figure 2 shows the lateral deformation pattern observed at the
face of the wall after 2 m and 5 m excavation, both with and
without nails. As can be noted from Fig. 2, there is a 50%
decrease in the magnitude of the peak horizontal deformation
due to insertion of nails, although the position of the peak
remains the same as that without nails. The values of
horizontal displacements were also observed to increase in
between nail heads, which is due to the absence of facing.
However, this can be reduced by providing an appropriate
facing to the soil-nailed shoring system.
Nail head
77.5
Cohesion
(kPa)
13.2
35
Angle of
internal friction
( )
Modulus of
elasticity (Pa)
8 x 106
5.3 x 109
5.3 x 109
Poissons ratio
0.3
0.3
0.3
NUMERICAL MODELLING OF THE SHORING

SYSTEM USING ABAQUS
For the soil-nail reinforced shoring system, numerical
excavation was carried out using the finite element program
ABAQUS [8] version 6.9 to obtain its deformations and
Fig. 2 Variation of horizontal displacements with depth
Some studies on the deformation behaviour of soil-nailed shoring system

Figure 3 shows the force distribution in each nail after
completion of 5th excavation stage (i.e. 5m excavation). It can
be observed, that the peak force values increases with an
increase in depth, with the highest value at the bottom. The
location of the peak force value shifts towards the nail head
as we go towards the bottom, and by joining the peak force
values, we can get the potential failure surface, as shown in
Fig. 3.
The deformations without and with five nails are plotted in

Figs. 5 and 6 respectively. The un-deformed portion has been
indicated with a broken line. From Figs. 5-6, it is evident that,
the deformations near the facing of the shoring system were
observed to decrease drastically with the insertion of nails.
As can be noted from Figs. 5-6, the portion of the wall with
negligible deformations was found to extend upto the facing
in the case of soil-nailed shoring system. Thus, the soil-nailed
shoring system is effectively acting as a single mass
reinforced system and retains lateral movements
considerably.
Fig. 3 Force distribution in each nail

Figure 4 shows the distribution of bending moments along
the length of the nails after the final excavation with five
nails. The bending moment is calculated by using Equation 2
as follows:
= (P/A) (Mz/Ix)
Fig. 5 Typical deformed

(deformation values are in m)
shape
without
soil
nails
(2)
where, is the stress at any point in the nail (kPa), P is the

average axial force (kN) along a cross-section of the nail, A
is the cross-section of the nail (m2), M is the bending moment
(kN-m) calculated at any cross-section at a distance z (m)
from the neutral axis, and Ix is the area moment of inertia
(m4) about the horizontal centriodal axis.
Fig. 6 Typical deformed shape with five nails (deformation

values are in m)
Fig. 4 Distribution of bending moment along the length of

nails
The critical height of the excavation is 5 m, corresponding to

which factor of safety for the unsupported wall is 1. The
factor of safety for the soil-nailed wall after 5th stage
excavation calculated using the reduced shear strength
method [9] and is found to be 2.5. This brings out the
effectiveness of the soil-nailed shoring system in stabilizing
the excavation.
The normalized maximum deformation in the horizontal
direction at every stage of excavation with and without soil
nails is tabulated in Table 2.
Saptarshi Kundu and B.V.S. Viswanadham

2.
Song, E.X. and Chen, Z.Y. (1996), Soil nailing and

its analysis by FEM, Geotechnical Investigation and
Surveying, 139(2), 1-6.
3.
Zhang, X. and Song, E.X. (1997), Field

measurement and finite element analysis of soil
nailing system, Industrial Construction, 27(11), 1417.
4.
Zhang, M.J., Song, E.X. and Chen, Z.Y. (1998), A

retaining technique using soil nailing, Central South
China Highway Engineering, 23(1-2), 56-60, 37-43.
5.
Smith, I.M. and Su, N. (1997), Three-dimensional

FE analysis of a nailed soil wall curved in plan,
International Journal for Numerical and Analytical
Methods in Geomechanics, 21(9), 583-597.
6.
Fan, C. C. and Luo, J.H. (2008), Numerical study on

the optimum layout of soilnailed slopes, Computers
and Geotechnics, 35(4), 585599.
Based on the analysis and interpretation of results on

retaining system with and without soil nails, the following
conclusions can be drawn:
7.
1) It is evident that the normalized maximum horizontal

deformation for the nailed shoring system is reducing
considerably as the depth of the excavation increases. The
percent reduction in deformations with soil-nailed shoring
system was found to be 33% for the Stage 1 and for Stage 5,
this was observed to be 50%. This shows the effectiveness of
the soil-nail system as a shoring system for supporting
excavations.
Zhang, M., Song, E.X. and Chen, Z. (1999), Ground

movement analysis of soil nailing construction by
three-dimensional (3-D) finite element modeling
(FEM), Computers and Geotechnics, 25 (4), 191204.
8.
ABAQUS User's and Theory Manuals, Version 6.9,

Hibbit, Karlson& Sorensen, Inc., Pawtucket, R.I.
9.
Faheem, H., Cai, F. and Ugai, K. (2004), Threedimensional base stability of rectangular excavations
in soft soils using FEM, Computers and
Geotechnics, 31(2), 6774.
Table 2 Normalized maximum horizontal deformation at

every stage of excavation
Stages of
excavation
Maximum normalized horizontal

deformation (%)
Stage 1
Without nails
0.15
With Nails
0.1
Stage 2
0.225
0.15
Stage 3
0.3
0.18
Stage 4
0.35
0.21
Stage 5
0.49
0.24
CONCLUSIONS
2) Generation of negligible bending moments compared to

the tension stresses shows that the nails are behaving
predominantly as tension members.
3) Further studies are warranted to understand the variation of
factor of safety of the nailed soil- wall by varying the length
of the nails, and the horizontal and vertical spacing between
the nails along with the improvement in modelling of nails
and soil-nail interface adequately. It may also be interesting
to model the simulation of excavation physically through
small-scale model tests.
4) Finally, it may be pointed out that, the current analysis was
carried out using nails of square cross-section. But, in real
life, circular nails are more commonly used. This issue
should be addressed in future.
REFERENCES
1.
Shen, C.K., Bang, S. and Herrman, L.R. (1981),

Ground movement analysis of earth support system,
Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE,
107(12), 1609-1623.

FOUNDATION SYSTEM FOR FUEL HANDLING STRUCTURES OF A

THERMAL POWER PLANT IN VARIED GROUND CONDITIONS
B.V Sushma, Assistant Manager- Civil (Geotech), TATA Consulting Engineers Ltd., email: bvsushma@tce.co.in
ABSTRACT:
The fuel handling system in a coal/lignite fired thermal power plant consists of the structures/equipments for receipt, storage,
preparation and transport to the steam generator for combustion to generate high pressure and temperature steam which will
drive the steam turbine for power production. The fuel handling system typically includes fuel receipt and unloading system,
stock pile, conveyors, conveyor galleries and trestles, junction towers, crusher house, stacker reclaimers etc and is one of the
critical systems for plant operation. This paper presents the challenges in the design of foundation system for lignite handling
conveyor system in a power plant where large variation in sub soil/ rock stratification was observed. Geotechnical
investigations revealed presence of expansive black cotton soil underlain by weathered/ fractured rhyolitic rock. It was found
that the encountered rhyolitic rock highly varied in the lignite handling system area from around 2-21m. In view of such wide
variation in availability of hard strata, it became imperative to optimize the foundation design by selectively adopting pile
foundation. Also huge variations in sub soil profile were also noted within the crusher house foundation area which required
analysis of various soil and rock strata permutations to arrive at the final design.
INTRODUCTION
The fuel handling system typically includes fuel receipt and
unloading system, stock pile, conveyors, conveyor galleries
and trestles, junction towers, crusher house, stacker
reclaimers etc and is one of the critical systems for plant
operation. Typically the fuel handling systems performs the
functions as explained for coal handling system. The coal
handling system facilitates coal receipt, unloading of coal,
storage, crushing and screening of coal to the required size,
transfer of coal to coal bunker in boiler area through
conveyors. Junction towers were provided wherever change
in direction of conveyors is encountered. The coal stored in
coal bunker in boiler area is fed to pulverizers and the
powdered coal along with conveying air is fed to the boiler
for combustion.
Generally crusher house has dynamic loadings and may be
designed as dynamic foundations or can be supported by
vibration isolation system and be designed as static
foundations. The structures like crusher house, conveyor
trestles, stacker reclaimers, junction towers, screen house are
considered as major structures for foundation design, whereas
stock pile, junction towers, conveyor galleries and other
auxiliary structures may be considered of minor importance.
Shallow foundations are generally preferred if a good bearing
stratum exists at shallow depths capable of withstanding
anticipated loads. Whereas Pile foundations are adopted
when competent stratum exists at greater depths. If weathered
rock/ hard rock exist at deeper depths overlain by weaker
strata, then the piles are designed as end bearing piles.
When a pile is rested on a rock stratum, the pile capacity is

derived predominantly by the bearing stratum existing at the
pile tip [1].
In a highly varying ground profile encountered of weathered
rock / hard rock may be at different levels. For certain
foundations particularly having higher dimensions such as
raft, it may also happen that certain part of foundation rests
on soil and remaining part rests on weathered rock / hard
rock. The design of foundation in such circumstances calls
for careful planning.
OVERVIEW OF THE ENCOUNTERED GROUND
PROFILE
The site under consideration is for thermal power plant under
construction, in Coastal Gujarat region where predominantly
expansive stiff clay/ bentonitic clay exists. In the lignite
handling system area of the project site, high to moderate
weathered rhyolitic rock formations were observed at varying
depths. High to moderate weathered rhyolitic rock was
encountered at varied depths ranging from around 2-21m
depth below Natural ground level. The Groundwater was also
found to be varying with depths of around 2-26m below
Natural ground level in some of the boreholes, whereas in the
other boreholes the ground water table was not encountered
even after drilling upto a termination depth of 30m below
Natural ground level.
Sushma B.V.
Typical borelogs of fuel handling area are presented in Fig 1

and Fig 2, which reflects the variation in sub soil profile.
Borelogs in Fig 1 indicates the representative borelog where
high to moderate weathered rhyolite rock was encountered at
shallow depths of around 2m. Whereas borelogs in Fig 2
represents other areas where high to moderate weathered
rhyolite rock was encountered at deeper depths of around
21m and in some cases rock was not encountered within the
investigation depth.
VARIATION OF ROCK PROFILE IN FUEL

HANDLING AREA
In this project, the variation in encountered rock profile in the
fuel handling area is represented by rock contours on the fuel
handling structures layout in Fig 3. It can be seen that the
rock levels are highly varying in the area, however broadly it
can be stated that the rock was encountered at deeper depths
in the area bearing co-ordinates 900N-00NS & 100- 400E.
The ground levels were also found to be highly varying,
hence it was decided to adopt terrace grading in the area
considering different finished grade levels for different
structures. In general shallow foundations can be adopted
which is in proximity to weathered / hard rhyolitic rock and
pile foundation can be adopted where the weathered rock is
encountered at deeper depths or when rock is not
encountered. The adoption of shallow or pile foundations for
structures were decided based on the loading of the
anticipated structure for the particular location/ stretch and
also the depth of rock strata in the area [2,3].
Fig 1 Typical borelog showing encountered rhyolite rock at

shallow depths
Fig 2 Typical borelog reflecting the presence of entire soil /

encountered of rhyolite rock at greater depths
Fig 3 Lignite handling system structures layout with mapped

rock contours
FOUNDATION SYSTEM FOR FUEL HANDLING STRUCTURES OF A THERMAL POWER PLANT IN VARIED GROUND CONDITIONS
FOUNDATION SYSTEM FOR FUEL AND LIME

STONE HANDLING STRUCTURES
The foundation system adopted for lignite and lime stone
handling structures are depicted in Fig 4. Limestone is used
for SOx control.
Fig 4 Foundation system adopted for Lignite & lime stone

handling system structures
From Fig-4, it can be seen that the structures such as Screen
house, Junction towers for lignite handling-(JNT-3-8),
Trestles foundations for certain conveyors marked above for
lignite & lime stone handling (BCN/BCN-LS) were provided
with pile foundations. For structures such as lignite and lime
stone stock pile, stacker cum reclaimer, crusher house,
Junction towers for limestone handling-(JNT-LS), lignite and
lime stone bunker bay, Junction towers for lignite handling(JNT-1&2) and other miscellaneous structures, shallow
foundations were suggested.
It can be observed that pile foundations were generally
recommended in the areas which were also classified as
having deeper rock levels as per the rock contours indicated
in Fig 3. However as an exception for certain structures such
as trestle foundations for conveyors for limestone and lignite
handling, pile foundation were adopted because of structure
loading and foundation size constraints. For structures such
as limestone stock pile, stacker reclaimers, Junction towers (JNT-1&2) and lignite bunker bay, shallow foundations were
adopted as the structures are lightly loaded.
Shallow foundations in the area excepting crusher house raft
were generally founded at around 3-4m below the finished
grade level for structures. The raft for crusher house was
proposed to be founded at 4m below the finished grade level.
For pile foundations, piles were installed below the pile cut
off levels which was generally about 3-4m below the finished
grade level in the area.
The piles proposed in the area were designed as end bearing

piles deriving its capacity by end bearing by virtue of resting
on weathered rock/hard rock strata. For the piles which do
not encounter rocky strata within 21m depth, piles were
designed as friction piles of 25m length below pile cut off
level. The piles were installed as bored cast-in-situ piles as
the pile length varies in relation to the depth of encountered
hard bearing strata in the area.
In case of crusher house, it was noted that investigations
revealed existence of both soil & weathered rock at the
founding levels. Hence it was planned to consider the safe
bearing pressures presuming soil- Stiff clay to be existing at
founding level as a conservative approach. The safe bearing
pressure was considered as 18 T/m2 at the founding level and
the raft size was calculated as 43 x 20m and 1.5m thick. Also
the raft was designed to account for a differential settlement
of about 10 mm that may occur in extreme cases between
portion of raft resting on soil and portion of raft resting on
rock. The following concepts were adopted during design of
raft for the crusher house foundation.
Top deck of crusher was provided with Vibration
Isolation System to take care of dynamic loading
and hence the foundation was designed as static
foundation.
A 3-D model of raft was prepared in STAAD Pro.
Software. Modulus of sub-grade reaction for soil &
weathered rock were considered as 3.5 kg/cm3 and
30 kg/cm3 respectively.
As part of the raft was anticipated partly on rock and
partly on soil, the raft was analyzed considering
various combinations of weathered rock and soil
portions by modelling the soil springs (modulus of
sub-grade reaction) accordingly.
Finite Element Analysis was carried out to obtain
base pressure below the raft for various load
combinations. The analysis confirmed the base
pressures to be within the limits of safe bearing
pressures considered.
Differential Settlement of raft was computed for
various load cases which was observed to be 2mm to
3mm which is well within the permissible limits.
EXECUTION OF FOUNDATION WORKS AT SITE
Foundations works were initiated at site with the above
design philosophy. Piles were installed by using hydraulic
rigs and were rested on weathered / hard rhyolitic rock strata.
The excavation for shallow foundation works were also
initiated at site. Fig 5 & 6 shows excavations carried out for
crusher house raft foundation and stacker reclaimer
foundations. During excavations for crusher house the extent
of rock and soil below the founding levels was assessed by
visual inspection and it was found that it almost matched with
one of the combinations of rock and soil already evaluated
during modeling the raft. Hence it was confirmed that the
design basis is in order.
Sushma B.V.
Adoption of bored cast-in situ piles is highly advantageous

for end bearing piles in highly varied ground conditions. As
in end bearing piles the length of pile cannot be
predetermined as it depends on the depth of encountered
bearing strata.
REFERENCES
1.
Naveen, B. P. Nayak, S. and Pujar, K. L. (2010),

Designing and Construction of Piles under Various Field
Conditions, Indian Geotechnical Conference, Mumbai,
India, 1034-1036.
2.
Boominathan A, Gandhi S.R, Elango J, Sivathanu Pillai

C (2004), Evaluation of rock characteristics for a power
plant site in India, Proceedings, Fifth International
Conference on Case histories in Geotechnical
engineering, Newyork, 1-8.
3.
Mourya R.R, Sharma B.V.R B. R. and Naresh D.N

(2004), Shallow and Deep foundations for a power plant
A new approach, Foundations and ground
improvement, CE&CR 33-35.
Fig 5 Foundation excavation for crusher house raft
Fig 6 Excavation for stacker reclaimer foundation

CONCLUSIONS
In varied ground conditions, having weathered rock/ hard
rock underlying overburden at varied depths across different
structures in an area, it is required to map variation of rock
depth underneath each structure. To have techno-economic
design, the foundation for each structure shall be planned
taking the anticipated structure loading and depth of
encountered bearing strata into consideration.
While adopting raft foundations in highly varied ground,
which is likely to encounter both weaker and strong strata,
the safe bearing capacity shall be considered based on the
weaker strata. During modelling the raft, the spring constants
to be considered in various combinations of encountered
weaker and strong strata. Such foundation design could be
considered as optimum and said to address all possible
variations of the underlying strata.

INFLUENCE OF ADMIXTURE ON COMPACTION CHARACTERISTICS AND CBR OF

COPPER SLAG
C. Lavanya, Asst.Prof, GRIET, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA-500090, lavanya.cc@gmail.com
A. Sreerama Rao, Formerly Principal JNTU, Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA-533461, srajjarapu@yahoo.com
N. Darga Kumar, Asst.Prof, JNTUH, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA-500085, ndkumar@jntuh.ac.in
ABSTRACT: The use of waste materials in rural and urban roads has been in practice all over the world for quite some time
and is particularly necessitated because of the dumping problems associated with it. Copper slag is one of the waste materials
being used extensively in civil engineering construction. In India, copper producing units leave every day thousands of tonnes
of copper slag as byproduct. Granulated copper slag is more porous and, therefore, has particle size equal to that of medium
sand. Also, due to the scarcity of sand, copper slag along with binding material can be used for the improvement of sub-grades
and sub-bases. The present paper discusses the laboratory test results of standard compaction tests and CBR (California
Bearing Ratio) tests conducted on copper slag mixed with lime. The results showed that the compaction behavior of copper
slag is similar to that of granular soil and the maximum dry densities vary from 23.5 kN/m3 to 26 kN/m3 on addition of lime
from 0% to 10%. The soaked CBR values have been observed to increase by 2.0 to 2.5 times as the % lime increases from 0 to
10% .
INTRODUCTION
Copper is one of the basic chemical elements which is soft
and ductile. Pure copper is rarely found in nature, but is
usually combined with other chemicals in the form of copper
ores. The process of extracting copper from copper ore varies
according to the type of ore and the desired purity of the final
product. Once the waste materials have been physically
removed from the ore, the remaining copper concentrate must
undergo several chemical reactions to remove the iron and
sulphur. This process is called smelting. The recovery of
sulphuric acid from the copper smelting process not only
provides a profitable byproduct, but it also significantly
reduces the air pollution caused by the furnace exhaust.
Copper slag (CS) is a waste product which comes out from
the smelting process.
It has been estimated that the production of one tonne of
blister copper generates 2.2 tonnes of slag. Metal industry
slag, mine stone and mining waste are generally suitable for
recycling or reuse and the use of these inorganic wastes as
alternative materials in building, road and geotechnical
applications have been reported [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6].
Copper slag, upon mixing with soil, can be used as an
effective stabilizing agent for the improvement of
problematic soils for use in highway embankments, subgrades and sub-bases. Also, by mixing it with fly ash, it
becomes suitable for embankment fill material. Slag, when
mixed with fly ash and lime, develops pozzolanic reactions
[7]. Fly ash has been widely accepted as embankment and
structural fill material [8, 9].
Copper slag along with binding material or an admixture can
be used as an alternative material to that of sand in road
construction. If the copper slag is mixed with calcium-based
compound like lime, the silica and alumina present in copper

slag may react chemically on hydration and it may be used
for the improvement of sub-grades and sub-bases. The
present paper discusses the compaction characteristics of the
copper slag when admixed with lime with varying
percentages added.
Expansive soils undergo alternate swelling and shrinkage
upon wetting and drying due to seasonal moisture
fluctuations. The difference in water contents between the
interior and the exterior zones of the building causes uplift of
the interior portion and results in heave of the floor of the
building. Severe cracking might result in the walls of the
structure as a consequence. Techniques like sand cushion and
cohesive non-swelling soil (CNS) layer have been tried to
arrest heave.
Katti (1979) observed that in an expansive soil stratum,
development of cohesion in the soil-water system takes place
due to its saturation which helps to arrest heave below a
depth of 1.2m [10]. However, the soil in the top 1.2m can
undergo heave. So, if an environment similar to that existing
up to 1.0 to 1.2 m depth in an expansive soil is produced and
no swell is allowed to occur in the soil up to 1.0 to 1.2m, it
should be possible to completely arrest the heave. Copper
slag cushion admixed with lime, laid on the expansive soil,
may be suitable since calcium reacts with silica and alumina
present in copper slag and develops cementatious products.
This helps arrest the heave of the expansive soil beneath it.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
Materials Used
Soil
Soil used in the present investigation is an expansive soil,
collected from near Gandipet in Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh.
C.Lavanya, Dr.A.Sreerama Rao & Dr.N.Darga Kumar
The properties of soil are presented in Table 1. The plasticity

index of the soil is high. It has free swell index of 180%
which shows a high degree of expansiveness and high
volume change potential.
Table 1 Basic Properties of Soil
Property
Liquid Limit (%)
Plastic Limit (%)
Free Swell Index (%)
Grain Size Analysis
Gravel (%)
Sand (%)
Silt & Clay (%)
MDD (kN/m3)
OMC (%)
CBR (%)
Value
75
35
40
180
0
30
70
14.0
15
0.97
Copper Slag
Copper slag was procured from Sterilite Industries, Tuticorin,
Tamil Nadu. The physical and chemical properties are
presented in Tables 2 and 3 respectively.
Tests Conducted
Standard compaction test was performed (11) for the copper
slag mixed with lime of 0%, 4% and 10%. Copper slag and
lime are mixed in dry condition and then water is added in
various percentages.
California Bearing Ratio test was performed for the copper
slag mixed with lime, which is laid on the expansive soil as a
cushion, in soaked condition (12). Before the sample was
kept for soaking the copper slag was mixed with lime at its
optimum moisture content and was cured for 7days. In the
present experimental study, CBR samples were prepared for
thickness ratio of the stabilized copper slag cushion (tc) to the
expansive soil bed (ts) 1:1. Both the soil bed and lime-mixed
copper slag were compacted at their respective OMC values.
Compaction Results
Standard compaction and CBR tests were conducted on the
copper slag samples mixed with lime in proportions of 0%,
4% and 10%. The results of the compaction test are presented
in Figs. 1 and 2.
Table 2 Physical Properties of Copper Slag

Value
Property
Hardness, Mohs Scale
6.5 7.0
Specific Gravity
3.6
Plasticity Index
Non-Plastic
Swelling Index
Non-Swelling
Granule Shape
Angular, Sharp edges
Grain Size Analysis
Gravel/Size (%)
1.00
Sand/Size (%)
98.9
Silt & Clay/Sizes (%)
0
0.05
MDD (kN/m3)
23.5
OMC (%)
-Direct Shear test
0
Cohesion (kN/m2)
40
Angle of friction (deg)
15.43 x 10-3
Permeability(cm/sec)
3.5
CBR (%)
Table 3 Chemical Composition of Copper Slag
Property
(% wt)
Iron Oxide , Fe2O3
55 60
Silica, SiO2
28- 30
Aluminium Oxide, Al2O3
13
Calcium Oxide, CaO
3 5
Magnesium Oxide, MgO
1.0 1.5
(Ref. Sterilite Industries Ltd, Tuticorin, Tamilnadu, India)
Lime
Locally available hydrated lime which consists of 95% of
Calcium hydroxide is used in the present study.
Fig. 1 Typical Compaction curves for Copper slag mixed

with Lime
The compaction curves of copper slag alone and copper slag
mixed with 4% and 10% lime are presented in Fig.1. From
this figure, it can be seen that the compaction curves of
Influence of Admixture on Compaction Characteristics and CBR of Copper Slag

copper slag are following the trend similar to that of a
granular soil. From these curves, it is noticed that the dry
density peaks are almost observed at a water content of 6 to
8%. The dry densities of copper slag alone and lime mixed
copper slag are varying between 22 kN/m3 to 26 kN/m3 for
water contents ranging between 2 and 12%. The compaction
curve of copper slag mixed with 10% lime has the highest
MDD value.
Fig. 3 Soaked CBR after 7days Curing of Copper Slag mixed

with Lime as Cushion
Fig. 2 Optimum moisture content Vs % of Lime added in

Copper Slag
In Fig.2, the variation of optimum moisture content (OMC) is

presented with the admixture. From this figure, it can be
observed that on 4% lime addition to the copper slag, the
OMC is higher compared to the lime content of 0% and 10%.
Lime addition to the copper slag is causing increase in OMC
up to about 4% of lime.
CBR Results
The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test results are presented
in Figs. 3 and 4. The load penetration curves of copper slag
mixed with 0%, 4% and 10% lime are presented in Fig.3.
From this figure, it can be seen that the load penetration
curve of 4% lime added to copper slag lies above the other
two curves. This indicates that 4% lime is imparting stiff
behavior to the copper slag. Further the CBR values
estimated at 2.5 mm and 5 mm penetration are presented in
Fig.4. From this figure, it is observed that as the % lime
increased from 0 to 10%, the CBR values are increasing for
the penetrations. At both the penetration levels almost close
values are observed for CBR. As compared to 0% lime
addition to the copper slag, the increase in CBR values for
4% lime and 10% lime are about 2 to 2.5 times.
Fig. 4 CBR in % for Copper Slag mixed with Lime
C.Lavanya, Dr.A.Sreerama Rao & Dr.N.Darga Kumar
CONCLUSIONS
Copper slag availability is plenty and its utilisation can be of
advantage especially in road projects. From the results, it was
noticed that there is a marked improvement in the CBR
values of lime- mixed copper slag and it was noticed that it
was twice the value when 4% lime was added to copper slag
compared to copper slag alone. The compaction behaviour of
the copper slag is similar to that of a granular soil on lime
addition to the slag, imparting increase in dry density. As an
extension of the present work, it is planned to conduct testing
with varied lime content and varied cushion thickness
towards utilisation of copper slag in the road projects.
REFERENCES
1. Hartlen, J., Carling, M & Nagasaka, Y. (1997) Recycling
or reuse of waste materials in geotechnical applications,
Proceedings of the second International Congress on
Environmental Geotechnics, Osaka, Japan, pp 14931513.
2. Kamon, M. (1997) Geotechnical utilization of industrial
wastes, Proceedings of the second International
Congress on Environmental Geotechnics, Osaka, Japan,
pp 1293-1309.
3. Kamon, M. & Katsumi, T. (1994) Civil Engineering use
of industrial waste in Japan, Proceedings of the
International Symposium on Developments in
Geotechnical Engineering, Bangkok, Thailand, pp 265278.
4. Sarsby, R. (2000) Environmental Geotechnics, Thomas
Telford Ltd., London, UK.
5. Vazquez, E., Roca, A., Lopez-soler, A., FernandezTuriel, J.L., Querol, X & Felipo, M.T. (1991) PhysicoChemical and mineralogy characterization of mining
wastes used in construction, Waste materials in
construction, Proceedings of the International
Conference on Environmental Implications of
Construction with Waste Materials, Maastricht, The
Netherlands, pp 215-223.
6. Comans, R.N.J., van det Sloot, H.A., Hoede, D.
&Bonouvrie, P.A. (1991) Chemical Processes at a
redox/pH interface arising from the use of steel slag in
the aquatic environment, Waste materials in
construction, Proceedings of the International
Conference on Environmental Implications of
Construction with Waste Materials, Maastricht, The
Netherlands, pp 243-254.
7. Chu, S.C. and Kao, H.S. (1993) A study of Engineering
Properties of a clay modified by Fly ash and Slag,
Proceedings, Fly ash for Soil Improvement, American
Society of Civil Engineers, Geotechnical Special
Publication, No. 36, pp 89 99.
8. Mclaren, R.J. and A.M.Digionia, (1987) The typical
engineering properties of fly ash, Proceedings of
Conference on Geotechnical Practice for Waste
Disposal, Geotechnical Special Publication NO 13,
ASCE, R.D.Woods (ed.), pp 683-697.
9.
Martin, P.J., R.A.Collins, J.S.Browning and J.F.Biehl,

(1990) Properties and use of fly ashes for embankments,
Journal of Energy Engineering, ASCE, 116(2), pp 71-86.
10. Katti R.K. (1979), Search for solutions for problems in
black cotton soils, Indian Geotechnical Journal, 9, pp
1-80.
11. IS: 2720 (part-16) (1979), Laboratory Determination of
Proctor Compaction test, Bureau of Indian Standards.
12. IS: 2720 (part-16) (1979), Laboratory Determination of
CBR, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, pp 278283.

INFLUENCE OF NYLON FIBER AND LIME ADDITION ON SWELLING BEHAVIOUR OF

EXPANSIVE SOILS
M.Muthukumar, Assistant Professor Sr., VIT University, Vellore - 632014, email :mmuthukumar@vit.ac.in
Vikram Guptha, B.Tech. Civil Engineering, VIT University, Vellore -632014, email:gupta.vikram64@gmail.com.
Atharv Mishra, B.Tech. Civil Engineering, VIT University, Vellore -632014. email:aravsonik@gmail.com.
ABSTRACT: Expansive soils undergo drastic volume change based on the amount of moisture content. Expansive soil swells
during rainy seasons as they absorb water and shrink when water evaporates from them. Because of this extreme volume
change it causes distress to many civil engineering structures. Several mitigating techniques are adopted to counteract the
problems posed by the expansive soils either by modifying the properties of the soil by lime, cement, fly ash, calcium chloride
or by adopting special foundation technique. In recent years geosynthetic fibers have been used to stabilize the soil to improve
the strength and permeability behaviour of soils. Laboratory investigations have been carried out to study the heave behaviour
of expansive soils reinforced with nylon fiber and lime addition. Different combinations of expansive clays specimens were
prepared with 0.75% of nylon fibers and lime content was varied as 1%, 2% and 3%. All the specimens were compacted at a
dry density of 15kN/m3 and water content w = 20%. Surface heave of all the expansive clay specimens were monitored
continuously until equilibrium heave was achieved. It was observed that heave reduces considerably with the Lime content was
2% The reduction in heave is due to both reinforcing effect as well as due to increase in the shear strength , which resist the
swelling nature of the soil.
INTRODUCTION
Expansive soils are highly problematic as they have a
tendency to increase in volume on absorption of water and
shrink on evaporation of water. On absorption of water the
density of these soils increases and they become slushy due
to increase in density and becomes hard on evaporation of
water due to increase in density[1]. The volumetric change in
these soils is attributed to seasonal variations in the ground
water profile resulting in changes in the moisture content [2].
During summer, polygonal shrinkage cracks appear near the
surface, extending to a depth of about 2m, indicating a high
potential for expansion and contraction [1].The depth of
cracking indicates the depth of active zone in which
significant volume changes occur, which is defined as the
thickness of the soil in which moisture deficiency exists.
In Indian expansive soils, the depth of active zone is confined
only to the top 1.0 to 1.2m, and that there will not be much
change in dry density corresponding to changes in moisture
content.
Several mitigating techniques are available to counteract the
problems posed by the expansive soils. These are done either
by mechanical stabilization, chemical stabilization or by
adopting special foundation techniques. Mechanical
stabilization includes excavating the expansive soil and
replacing with non-expansive material. Sand cushion method
and cohesive non- swelling (CNS) layer method are very
popular. Chemical stabilization is done using lime, cement,
fly ash and salts [2] or by adopting special foundation
techniques lime under-reamed piles, belled piers and granular
pile anchors. In recent years geosynthetic fibre has been used
extensively to improve the strength and mechanical

behaviour of the soils [3,4&5]. Nylon fibers have been used
to stabilize the heave of expansive soil and the maximum
heave reduction occurred at 0.75% fiber content [5].
In this present study, combination of nylon fibers and lime
were used to study the heave behaviour of expansive soils.
All the specimens were mixed with 0.75% nylon fibre and the
lime content alone was varied as 0.5%, 1%, 2% and 3%. All
the samples were prepared at the same density of 15kN/m3 at
20% water content. Surface Heave was monitored
continuously until there is no further movement in the dial
gauge this ensures that there is no further heave of expansive
soil.
Test materials and Variables
The soil used for the investigation was collected from
Amalapuram district, Andrapradesh, India. The soil was
collected at a depth of 1.5m from ground level. Various basic
tests were conducted and listed in table 1. According to
USCS the soil classified as CH.
The nylon fiber of diameter 0.1mm and of length 10mm was
used for the investigation. All the specimens were prepared
with a fiber content of 0.75% of dry weight of the soil.
Hydrated lime was used and it was varied in different
proportions as 0.5%, 1%, 2% and 3% by dry weight of the
soil.
Test Procedure
The soil was oven dried and the soil passing 4.75mm sieve
was used for the test. A predetermined amount of soil was
mixed with fiber content of 0.75%, with 0.5% of lime and
M.Muthukumar, ar, Vikram gupta &Atharv Mishra

Fig. 2 shows the failure envelopes for varying lime content. It
is observed that angle of internal friction increased with the
increase in the lime content of 2%. At 3% there is a slight
decrease in the cohesion.
250
L = 0.5%
L=1%
200
Shear box test were also performed for all the specimens at
the same density as adopted in the heave test to determine the
variation of shear strength with increase in the lime content.
The normal stress was varied as 50kPa, 100kPa, 150kPa and
200kPa.
Table 1 Properties of soil
Soil properties
Specific gravity
Grain size distribution
Sand %
Silt %
Clay %
Consistency limits
Liquid limit %
Plastic limit %
Shrinkage limit %
Free swell index
USCS Classification
102
20
12
200
CH
Heave (mm)
Heave in mm
8
7
6
5
4
3
50
100
150
Normal stress (kPa)
200
250
Fig.2 Failure envelopes
14
44
42
2
Lime content in %
100
10
Linear (L=3%)
150
50
Value
2.73
DISCUSSION OF TEST RESULTS

Fig. 1 shows the variation of heave with respect to the
increase in the lime content. Heave was observed to be
9.81mm with 0% and for a fiber content of 0.75%. Heave
was reduced to 8.5mm when 0.5% of lime was added in
addition to a fiber content of 0.75% further the heave was
reduced with increase in lime content. It can be seen that
heave was decreased with the increase in the lime content up
to 2%. Heave observed to be 5.72 mm for a lime content of
2%. For 3% lime heave observed to be 5.79mm.
L=2%
L=3%
Shear stress (kPa)
compacted in a proctor mould to a height of 50mm in three

layers to attain a dry density of 15 kN/m3. After compacting
the soil to the required height, heave stake was placed on the
soil inside the proctor mould. A dial gauge was fixed on the
top of the heave stake to measure swelling. After setting the
dial to zero, expansive soil was inundated with water and the
heave was monitored continuously till the equilibrium heave
was achieved. Similar test procedure was adopted for all the
specimens by varying the lime content as 1%, 2% and 3%.
Fig. 1 Variation of heave with respect to lime content.
CONCLUSIONS
Heave reduces to a greatest extent when the fiber content was
0.75% and with a lime content of 2% and was very minimal
with further addition of lime. It is observed nearly 50% of
heave reduced at this combination. The reduction in heave is
mainly due to following reasons:
i) due to the increase in the fiber content which replaces the
expansive soil.
ii)due to the reinforcing affect which binds the soil together
and does not allow to swell and
iii) due the increase in the shear strength of the soil because
of the reaction between the lime and the soil.
It is concluded that the maximum reduction in heave can be
achieved with a fiber content of 0.75% and lime content of
2%.
REFERENCES
1. Chen, F.H. (1988), Foundations on expansive soils, 2nd Ed.,
Elsevier Scientific
Netherlands.
2.
Publishing
Co.,
Amsterdam,
The
Phanikumar, B.R., Naga Reddayya, S., and Sharma, R.S.

(2001). Volume change behavior of fly ash- treated
expansive soils. Proc., 2nd Int. Conf. on Civil
Engineering, Indian Inst. Of Science, Bangalore, India,
2, 689 965.
3. OPle, T.N.H.Le (2012). Effect of polypropylene fiber
reinforcement on the mechanical behaviour of silty clay
Geotextile and Geomembrane 32(2012) 111-116.
4. .J.Prabakar, R.S.Sridhar,(2002). Effect of random
inclusion of sisal fibre on strength behaviour of soil,
Construction & Building materials 16 (2002) 123-131.
5. B.V.S. Viswanatham, B.R.Phanikumar, Rahul V. (2009).
Swelling behaviour of a geofiber- reinforced expansive
soil Geotextile and Geomembranes 2.7 73 -76.

PARAMETERS INFLUENCING THE PERFORMANCE OF GEOCELL-REINFORCED

FOUNDATION SYSTEM: A BRIEF REVIEW
Arghadeep Biswas, Research Scholar, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, email: b.arghadeep@iitg.ernet.in
Sujit Kumar Dash, Associate Professor, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, email: sujit@civil.iitkgp.ernet.in
A. Murali Krishna, Assistant Professor, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, email: amurali@iitg.ernet.in
ABSTRACT: Geocell-reinforcement in ground improvement is being used very extensively in present days. It is a three
dimensional honeycombed confinement system, made of geosynthetics, which significantly improves the bearing capacity of
soft soils, specially, in foundations, and pavements applications. Apart from improving the soil strength, it has also been
extensively used in various slope stabilization, embankment construction and railway track applications. Various parameters
are needed to be considered and designed for the application of geocell systems, like: geometrical parameters of geocell, its
location and infill soil characteristics. In this paper brief review on the research and developments on geocell-reinforced
foundation bed has been presented based on experiments carried out to find out the effect of various parameters.
INTRODUCTION
Soil strengthening using reinforcement is not a new science
but has long history. In modern civilization systematic soilreinforcement was first adopted by French architect and
engineer Henri Vidal. The systematic research has started
with Binquet and Lee in 1975 [1] through their pioneer
research with planar aluminum strips. In earlier days, mostly
metal reinforcement in planar form were used which are
costly and corrosive. But the invention of polymeric
geosynthetics has come as revolution in soil reinforcement.
The latest trend in geosynthetic-reinforcement is Geocell.
Although the detail parametric effect has yet to be fully
exploited but several influencing parameters have been
investigated. In this paper, parametric influences on the
performance of geocell-reinforcement in foundation are
briefly presented.
MECHANISM OF GEOCELL REINFORCEMENT
Geocell reinforcement is a three dimensional honeycombed
interconnected structure made of geotextiles or geogrids. Its
pockets provide all round confinement to the in-filled soil
(Fig. 1). It also develops interlocking with surrounding soil
through its apertures and develops strong anchorage which
improves the load bearing capacity (Fig. 1). Soil in-filled
geocell mattress behave like a semi-rigid slab which
redistribute the footing load over wider area onto the
underlying soil leading to reduced stress and settlement.
FIELD APPLICATIONS
Most of the field applications of geocell were aimed to make
stable the soft subgrade, embankment, slopes etc. It has been
started much before than systematic laboratory model study
by Webster and Watkins [2] who has begun this journey of
commercialization of geocells to present days through their
revolutionary work with sand filled, vertical, interconnected,
shallow and thin-walled aluminum cells placed over soft
subgrade and tested with full scale traffic loading. Johnson
[3] has used geocell mattress in the construction of the Great
In-filled Soil
All-round
Confinement
Geocell
Anchorage
Fig. 1 Reinforcing Mechanism of Geocell Reinforcement

ham Creek Bridge in England. Robertson and Gilchrist [4],
Bush et al. [5] have reported the construction of geocellreinforced embankments. Cowland and Wong [6] too had
reported a field investigation with construction process of
instrumented geocell-sand reinforced road embankment over
soft clay and monitored the performance. Bathurst and
Crowe [7] described the use of geocell in constructing
flexible gravity walls and steepened slopes. Gupta and
Somnath [8] used geocell in the construction of box culverts
over marine clay deposits in New Bombay area. In all
applications, geocell mattress is reported as most convenient,
easy to construct, economic, environ-friendly with much
better improvement than other traditional ground
improvement methods.
GEOCELL-REINFORCED FOUNDATION SYSTEM
A typical geocell-reinforced foundation system is shown in
Fig. 2 where h, b and d are the height, width and pocket
size of the geocell mattress, respectively, which is placed at a
depth u below the footing of diameter (or width) D (or B).
To improve the bearing capacity of soft foundation soil,
geocells are placed directly over the native soft ground and
then the pockets of geocell are filled with either using native
soil or using better granular materials like sand or gravel. If it
is filled by the native soil, then soil-1 and soil-2, shown in the
Fig. 2, are one and the same (clay-clay or sand-sand).
Arghadeep Biswas, Sujit Kumar Dash & A. Murali Krishna

Otherwise if it is filled by granular sand or gravel, then the
two soil medium will be different (sand/gravel-clay).
Load
Formation Pattern: The chevron pattern (Fig. 3) of geocell

formation was found to be more beneficial over diamond
pattern as it have more joints per unit area so as the rigidity
[10].
Footing
u
Hh
Geocell Mattress
Soil-1
Soil-2
Fig. 2 Typical Geocell-Reinforced Foundation System

Successful field applications inspired researchers for rigorous
parametric study to use geocell more effectively. Rajagopal et
al. [9] investigated strength and stiffness behavior of
individual geocell-sand system through triaxial tests. Dash et
al. [10] reported a detail parametric study on formation
pattern, geometry, and placement depth, stiffness of the
geocell material and relative density (ID) of the in-filled sand
of geocell-sand foundation system. About 8 fold
improvement in bearing capacity with geocell was observed.
Pokharel et al. [11] investigated effect of shape, type,
embedment depth of footing, height of geocell and quality of
in-filled material on geocell reinforced foundation bed and
found that circular shaped geocell pocket gave better result
than elliptical shape.
According to general field conditions, several model studies
have also been carried out with geocell-sand mattress over
soft clay subgrade. Mandal and Gupta [12] investigated
responses of geocell-sand foundation mattress over soft
marine clay. Krishnaswamy et al. [13] investigated behavior
of a model footing rested on geocell-sand reinforced
embankment over soft clay. Emersleben and Meyer [14]
performed model and field test with full-scale traffic loading
on geocell-sand mattress over soft clay subgrade. Zhang et al.
[15] proposed bearing capacity calculation method of geocell
reinforced foundation system considering Lateral resistance
effect, Vertical stress dispersion effect and Membrane
effect.
Few laboratory model investigations have also been carried
out with geocell-reinforced clay over clay subgrade. Sitharam
et al. [16, 17] investigated clay-filled geocell mattress over
soft clay subgrade. About 5 fold increases in bearing capacity
was achieved. It was reported about 90% reduction in
settlement due to geocell-clay mattress over soft clay
subgrade.
PARAMPETRIC EFFECTS
Laboratory model studies revealed several influencing
parameters having immense effect on geocell-reinforced
foundation system.
Fig. 3 Pattern of Formation [10]

Pocket Size: The pocket size (d) of the geocell was
considered as the diameter of an equivalent circular area of
the geocell pocket opening which have inverse effect on
geocell performance [10]. But due to constructional
difficulties it has been recommended to make pocket opening
of geocell mattress slightly smaller than the footing area so
that the footing can cover at least one full pocket opening.
Optimum pocket size was considered as 0.8D where D is
the footing diameter [18].
Relative Density of In Filled Soil: Dash et al. [10], Madhavi
Latha et al. [19], Dash [20] (Fig. 4) observed that with
increase in relative density (ID) of in-filled sand, the
performance of geocell-foundation system improves as its
stiffness increases. Thus it is recommended that the in-filled
relative density (ID) should be kept high as much as possible.
Fig. 4 Effect of relative density of in-filled sand [20]

Width of Geocell Mattress: According to Mhaiskar and
Mandal [21], Sitharam et al. [16], Sireesh et al. [22] and
others the optimum width of geocell mattress should be 4-6D.
Beyond it, the improvement is marginal (Fig. 5) as furthest
rupture planes were observed well within 2B distance at each
side of the footing [10].
Parameters Influencing the Performance of Geocell-Reinforced Foundation System
Fig. 7 Effect of depth of placement [10]

Fig. 5 Effect of geocell width [19]
Height of Geocell Mattress: In most of the cases the height
of the geocell found to be optimum within twice of footing
diameter [10, 19, 16]. Beyond it, marginal improvement was
found (Fig. 6).
Geogrid Properties: Stiffness of geogrid, orientation of ribs

and aperture opening size (da) also has great influence in
improving the reinforcing effect of geocell [25]. At a large
settlement, when sand cushion squeezed away, the footing
load directly comes over the geocell walls. At this stage, the
stiffness of geogrid is predominant in load bearing and also in
resisting the in filled sand to shear away from geocell
pockets. It is seen that having larger opening size, the geogrid
develops better interlocking and anchorage with the soil
particles than the solid walled or perforated walled geocells
(geoweb) which gives rise in improving the performance. In
other side geogrids having smaller opening sizes has higher
improvement capacity as the confinement of in filled soil is
better in smaller openings and per unit surface area for
frictional resistance and anchorage effect increases which
produces a comparatively stiff geocell-sand mattress and
redistributes the loading even better. The orientation of
geogrid ribs is also significant in improving load bearing
capacity. Horizontal and vertical orientation of ribs (square or
rectangular openings) gives better resistance against loading
than the inclined orientation (diamond openings).
Table 1 is summarizing the optimum values after normalized
with footing diameter (D) or footing width (B).
Table 1 Optimum value of the parameters
Fig. 6 Effect of geocell height (Sireesh et al., 2009)

Placement Depth: Sand cushion (u) in between footing and
geocell mattress of 0.1D depth was used as optimum to
prevent geocell wall from direct loading [10 (Fig. 7), 23, 24].
Parameters
Formation Pattern
Rib Orientation
Geogrid Opening (da/D50)
Stiffness of Geogrid
Pocket size (d)
Width (b)
Height of geocell (h)
Depth of placement (u)
ID of in-filled sand (%)
Values (Range)
Chevron
Horizontal & Vertical
80
As high as possible
0.8 - < 1D (B)
4 6D (B)
1.5 < 2D (B)
0.1 < 0.33D (B)
As high as possible
Arghadeep Biswas, Sujit Kumar Dash & A. Murali Krishna

CONCLUSIONS
This paper briefly discussed the developments and parametric
studies on geocell performance so far. To have a better
performance of geocell-reinforced soil, one must consider the
influencing different parameters involved and their working
mechanism. The behaviour and design of geocell reinforced
soil structures is yet to be fully explored.
REFERENCES
1. Binquet, J. and Lee, K.L. (1975). Bearing capacity tests
on reinforced earth slabs, Journal of the Geotechnical
Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 101, 1241-1276.
2. Webster, S.L. and Watkins, J.E. (1977). Investigation of
Construction Techniques for Tactical Bridge Approach
Raods across Soft Ground, Technical Report S-77-1,
United State Army Crops of Engineers, Waterway
Experiment Station, Mississippi, USA.
3. Johnson, J.E. (1982). Bridge and Tidal Waters,
Municipal Engineer, 109, 104 - 107.
4. Robertson, J. and Gilchrist, A.J.T. (1987). Design and
construction of a reinforced embankment across soft
lakebed deposits, Proceedings of the International
Conference on Foundations and Tunnels, London, 2,
M.C. Edinburg, pp. 84-92.
5. Bush, D.I., Jenner, C.G. and Bassett, R.H. (1990). The
Design and Construction of Geocell Foundation
Mattresses Supporting Embankments over Soft Ground,
Geotextiles and Geomembranes (9) 83-98.
6. Cowland, J.W. and Wong, S.C.K. (1993). Performance
of a road embankment on soft clay supported on a
geocell
mattress
foundation,
Geotextiles
and
Geomembranes (12) 687-705.
7. Bathurst, R.J. and Crowe, R.E. (1992). Recent case
histories of flexible geocell retaining walls in North
America, Proceedings of Symposium on Recent case
Histories of Permanent Geosynthetic Reinforced Soil
Retaining Walls. Tokyo, November, Balkema,
Rotterdam, 1-19.
8. Gupta, A. and Somnath, B. (1994). Bearing Capacity
improvement using geogrids, Civil Engineering and
Construction Review, 7, 12-13.
9. Rajagopal, K., Krishnaswamy, N.R. and Madhavi Latha,
G. (1999). Behaviour of sand confined with single and
multiple geocells, Geotextiles and Geomembranes (17)
171-184.
10. Dash, S.K., Krishnaswamy, N.R. and Rajagopal, K.
(2001). Bearing capacity of strip footings supported on
geocell-reinforced sand, Geotextiles and Geomembranes
(19) 235256.
11. Pokharel, S. K., Han, J., Leshchinsky, D., Parsons, R. L.,
and Halahmi, I., (2010). Investigation of factors
influencing behavior of single geocell-reinforced bases
under static loading. Geotextiles and Geomembranes
(28) 570-578.
12. Mandal, J.N. and Gupta, P. (1994). Stability of geocellreinforced soil, Construction and building materials, 8,
55-62.
13. Krishnaswamy, N.R., Rajagopal, K. and Madhavi Latha,

G. (2000). Model studies on geocell supported
embankments constructed over a soft clay foundation,
Geotech. Test. J., 23(2), 4554.
14. Emersleben, A. and Meyer, N. (2008). The use of
geocells in road constructions over soft soil: Vertical
stress and falling weight deflectometer measurements,
EuroGeo4 Paper number 132, 2008.
15. Zhang, L., Zhao, M., Shi, C. and Zhao, H. (2010).
Bearing capacity of geocell reinforcement in
embankment
engineering,
Geotextiles
and
16. Sitharam, T.G., Sireesh, S. and Dash, S.K. (2005). Model
studies of a circular footing supported on geocellreinforced clay, Can. Geotech. J. (42) 693703
17. Sitharam, G.T., Sireesh, S. and Dash, S.K. (2007),
Performance of surface footing on geocell-reinforced
soft clay beds, Geotech. Geol. Eng. (25) 509524
18. Dash, S.K., Sireesh, S. and Sitharam, T.G. (2003). Model
studies on circular footing supported on geocell
reinforced sand underlain by soft clay, Geotextiles and
Geomembranes (21) 197219.
19. Madhavi Latha, G., Dash, S.K. and Rajagopal, K.
(2009). Numerical Simulation of the Behavior of Geocell
Reinforced Sand in Foundations, International Journal
of Geomechanics, ASCE (8) 143-152.
20. Dash, S.K. (2010). Influence of relative density of soil
on performance of geocell reinforced sand foundations,
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE, May,
533-538.
21. Mhaiskar, S.Y., and Mandal, J.N. (1996). Investigations
on soft clay subgrade strengthening using geocells,
Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 10, No. 4,
281-286.
22. Sireesh, S., Sitharam, S. and Dash, S.K. (2009). Bearing
capacity of circular footing on geocell-sand mattress
overlying clay bed with void, Geotextiles and
Geomembranes (27), 89-98
23. Yoon, Y.W., Heo, S.B. and Kim, K.S. (2008).
Geotechnical performance of waste tires for soil
reinforcement from chamber tests, Geotextiles and
24. Tafreshi, S.N.M. and Dawson, A.R. (2010). Comparison
of bearing capacity of a strip footing on sand with
geocell and with planar forms of geotextile
reinforcement, Geotextiles and Geomembranes (28) 7284.
25. Dash S.K. (2011). Effect of Geocell Type on Load
Carrying Mechanism of Geocell Reinforced Sand
Foundations. International Journal of Geomechanics.
August. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000162

December 13-15,2012, Delhi (Paper No. B 269.)
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON COIR GEOTEXTILE REINFORCED SUBGRADE

Nithin S., M.tech Student, College of Engineering Trivandrum, nithinsudersanan@gmail.com
Sayida M K., Associate Professor, College of Engineering Trivandrum, sayidamk@rediffmail.com
Sheela Evangeline Y., Associate Professor, College of Engineering Trivandrum, sheelabala2000@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT: Unpaved roads are built with only single layer of base course of aggregate over locally available subgrade soils.
The stiffness and the load carrying capacity of the soil can be improved through increasing the frictional interaction between
the soil and geosynthethics. Coir geotextiles are best suited for low cost applications because of its high availability at low cost
compared to its synthetic counterparts. Model studies were conducted to investigate the beneficial use of Coir geotextiles as
reinforcing material on weak lateritic soil with wet mix macadam (WMM) representing unpaved roads on poor subgrade. The
coir geotextiles are kept at different levels in the model sections for studying the effect of position of geotextiles in upgrading
the bearing capacity of soil. The results are encouraging for use in developing countries (like India) where rural roads that are
yet to be developed to connect many villages as most of these roads are to be constructed on weak subgrade.
INTRODUCTION
The rural roads in India form a substantial portion of the
Indian road network. These roads are in poor shape, affecting
the rural population's quality of life. One of the major
problems faced by these rural roads are most of the unpaved
roads are built in weak subgrade. Geosynthetic reinforced
unpaved roads are easier and quicker solutions compared to
traditional alternatives which are solutions detrimental to the
environment.
In developing countries like India, cost and availability of
geosynthetics are the major constraining factors for the
construction of reinforced soil structures. High cost of
geosynthetics and stringent environmental protection
requirement make it important to explore alternative natural
products to make the constructions cost efficient and ecofriendly [17, 15, 6]. Natural geotextiles like coir and jute are
gaining importance because of their Eco friendliness and low
cost with reasonable durability. An unpaved road on soft
subgrade gets stabilized by soil consolidation due to passage
of vehicles, till the time, natural geotextiles supports it. [7].
The degradation of coir is found to retain 80% of its tensile
strength after 6 months of embedment in clay [14].
The benefits of using reinforcements in flexible pavements
depend largely on the quality and thickness of the granular
base and location of the geosynthetics within the pavement
structure along with other factors such as mechanical
properties of reinforcement material [13], subgrade strength,
nature of interaction between soil and geosynthetics and
magnitude of applied load [5]. The placement position of
reinforcement is the main factor affecting the bearing
capacity of reinforced granular soil and higher bearing
capacity has been observed when the depth of placement of
reinforcement is decreased [16]. The optimal position was
reported to lie at the base of the fill with a very soft subgrade
and a fill thickness less than 0.4 m [5]. It is reported that
increased bearing capacity is observed when woven and nonwoven coir geotextiles were used at the interface of silty clay
subgrade and granular base course of 150 mm thickness. It
has been found that the membrane effect of reinforcement
diminishes with an increase in the thickness of the road

aggregate layer [4].
Reinforcement placed high up in the granular layer hinders
lateral movement of the aggregate due to frictional
interaction and interlocking between the fill material and the
reinforcement which raises the apparent load-spreading
ability of the aggregate and reduces the necessary fill
thickness [13]. Coir geotextile develops good interface
friction with granular fill [1,18] which can induce tensile
stress in the reinforcement when embedded within the fill
material. Such minor changes in horizontal stress distribution
can cause significant changes in system performance. Hence,
when used as reinforcement in unpaved roads, laying of coir
geotextile must be carried out so as to take full advantage of
this biodegradable material during the early period of
construction when much of the working of membrane action
cannot be expected.
In this paper, a study is made to find out the significance of
coir geotextiles as aggregate reinforcement in unpaved road
sections. The influence of position of coir geotextile in the
pavement section is also considered for the examination. It is
done by making samples contain with coir geotextiles kept at
different position. The samples are tested by applying
monotonic loads through a circular plate.
MATERIALS USED
Coir Geotextiles
Coir Geotextile is manufactured by a series of processes viz.
retting, spinning, and weaving. The geotextile used here is
woven type. Mass per unit area is determined as per ASTM
standards (D 5261- 92).Tension tests are carried out to
determine the tensile property as per ASTM standards (D
4595-86). Tension test is performed using Tensile Testing
Machine for geotextiles. Tests are performed in both the
machine as well as cross machine direction. The Physical and
engineering properties of the woven geotextile is presented in
Table 1.
Nithin S., Sayida M K., Sheela Evangeline Y.

Table 2 Engineering Properties of Woven Coir Geotextile
Particulars
Unit
CCM 650
Mass / unit area
g/m2
681
Thickness (2kPa)
mm
7.16
Tensile Strength
Warp
kN/m
9.08
Weft
kN/m
8.12
Failure Strain
Warp
%
24.60
Weft
%
31.45
Lateritic Soil
Lateritic soil collected from Nedumangad, Trivandrum,
Kerala is used in the investigation as the subgrade material.
Sieve analysis are conducted on the soil sample as per IS:
2720 (Part 4)-1985. Liquid limit, plastic limit and shrinkage
limit are done as per IS: 2720 (Part 5)-1985. Water content
dry density relationship for the lateritic soil sample is found
out using heavy compaction (IS: 2720 (Part 8) - 1983). The
Physical Properties of the soil is given in Table 2.
Table 1 Engineering Properties of Subgrade soil
Sl No Properties of Soil
Values
1
Specific Gravity
2.33
2
Grain Size Analysis
a
Gravel
19.9%
b Course Sand
14.9%
c
Medium Sand
12.7%
d Fine Sand
15.8%
3
Hydrometer Analysis
a
Silt
13.1%
b Clay
23.4%
4
Atterberg Limits
a
Liquid Limit
45.0%
b Plastic limit
28.7%
c
Shrinkage limit
16.6%
5
a
Optimum Moisture Content
15.5%
b Maximum Dry Density
1.82 g/cc
6
CBR value
Undisturbed
a Unsoaked
3.46
b Soaked
3.07
7
Field Dry Density
1.33 g/cc
Wet Mix Macadam (WMM)
Wet Mix Macadam (WMM) construction is an improvement
upon the conventional Water Bound Macadam (WBM) and is
intended to be as an alternative and more durable pavement
layer. It consists of clean, crushed, graded aggregates
premixed with other granular materials and water and rolled
to a dense mass on a prepared surface. The Wet Mix
Macadam is prepared according to IRC: 109-1997. The OMC
of WMM is 6.5% and the Maximum dry density is 2.32 g/cc
TEST SET UP
Model tests are carried out in a circular tank of 5 mm thick
MS plate. The Circular tank is 600 mm in diameter and 400
mm deep. A schematic diagram of test setup is given in Fig.
1. Load is applied through a circular plate, 120 mm in

diameter and 25 mm thick. The vertical load is applied on the
plate through hydraulic jack having 10 T capacity using a
proving ring of 50 kN capacity which is held in the reaction
frame. The settlement of the plate is measured using dial
gauges, fitted on the plate on either side of the loading shaft.
Fig. 1 Experimental Setup (a) Schematic Diagram (b)

Laboratory Setup
TEST SECTION CONSTRUCTION
Subgrade is prepared by compacting lateritic soil in layers of
50 mm thickness. Lateritic Soil required for each layer is
weighed as per the field density and mixed with the desired
quantity of water. Uniformity of water content and density
are checked by taking samples using cylindrical tubes at
different locations within the tank.
The base course aggregate is compacted with WMM at the
Maximum dry density. Sections are constructed with base
course thickness of 75 mm to represent thin pavement
sections. Uniformity in water content and density of base
course is achieved for the different tests. To prepare
reinforced sections geotextile is placed at five different depth
ratios of 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.
TEST PROCEDURE
Monotonic load tests are conducted on reinforced and
unreinforced sections as per Indian Standards (IS 1888,
1982). The test bed is leveled and the circular plate is placed
centrally over it. Load is applied by pumping the hydraulic
jack manually. A seating pressure of 7 kPa is applied. Dial
gauge readings are taken at every load increments of 10 kN.
Each load increment is applied when the settlement become
less than 0.025 mm/min.
The Variables of the current investigation is the placement of
geotextiles at different depth ratio and measuring the Load
Carrying Capacity at different normalised settlement. Depth
ratio (u/D) is defined as the ratio of distance (u) at which
geotextile is placed from the top of the test section to the
diameter of the plate (D) used for loading. Improvement in
load carrying capacity is termed as Load Carrying Ratio
(LCR).It is defined as the ratio of pressure for reinforced soil
bed at a specified settlement (qr) to the pressure for
unreinforced bed at the same settlement (q) as shown in (1)
Experimental Investigation on Coir Geotextile Reinforced Subgrade

(1)
The beneficial effect of reinforcement for increasing the
ultimate bearing capacity has been expressed in terms of a
dimensionless quantity called the bearing capacity ratio
(BCR) as shown in (2). The Ultimate bearing capacity of
circular plate with and without reinforcement, qu and qu(R)
respectively, was obtained by drawing back tangents as per
IS 1888-1971.
(2)
The percentage reduction in settlement (PRS) is defined as
shown in (3)
(3)
Fig. 2 Bearing Pressure versus Normalised Settlement curves
Where S0= the settlement of unreinforced soil corresponding
to its ultimate bearing capacity and Sr= the settlement of
reinforced soil corresponding to ultimate bearing pressure of
unreinforced soil. Normalised settlement (s/D) is defined as
the ratio of the settlement (s) at a particular stress to the
diameter of the circular plate (D).
These parameters (BCR, LCR, u/D, s/D and PRS) have been
used throughout this text to assist in expressing and
comparing the test results. The bearing pressure and
normalised settlement curves for the unreinforced and
reinforced subgrade with different values of depth ratio (u/D)
at 0.20, 0.40, 0.60, 0.80 and 1.0 are plotted in Fig.2. As the
load settlement curves do not show marked sign of shear
failure, the approximate ultimate bearing capacity and the
corresponding settlement was determined by extrapolating
the tangents as per IS: 1888-1971.
Fig. 3 Variation of Load Carrying Capacity with Normalised

Settlement
The result shows that there is a considerable amount of

increment of the bearing capacity of reinforced subgrade with
respect to the unreinforced subgrade at a specified settlement.
When Coir geotextiles is placed at base/subgrade interface, a
significant increase in the load is observed only at higher
settlements which may be due to membrane action. The soil
has very low tensile resistance and its tensile resistance
improves with the effective bond due to interlock at the soilreinforcement interface. Whereas, placing the geotextile
within the base course resulted in a considerable increase in
load at small as well as large settlements.
Shifting of position of Geotextile at different depth ratio of
0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1 resulted in an increase in the LCR to
1.66, 1.52, 1.37, 1.22 and 1.14 respectively at a normalised
settlement of 0.4. For each value of u/D the variation of LCR
with the normalised settlement is shown in Fig. 3. The
introduction of coir geotextile reinforcement in subgrade
shows significant improvement in LCR with the increase of
normalised settlement at all depth ratios. It is observed that
geotextile at a depth ratio of 0.2 shows an overall best
performance than at other depth ratio.
The variation of LCR for different depth ratio at four
different normalised settlements is shown in Fig. 4. It is seen
that the maximum LCR is at a depth ratio of 0.2 for all
normalised settlement. Fig.5. shows the variation of BCR
with u/D. The value of BCR increases significantly from 1.09
Fig. 4 Variation of Load Carrying Capacity with Depth

Ratios
to 1.61 corresponding with the decrease of value of u/D from
1 to 0.2. Therefore, it can be observed that the maximum
value of bearing capacity ratio is obtained as 1.61 for u/D of
0.2. The variation of the percentage reduction in settlement
with depth ratio is shown in Fig.6. The PRS goes on
increases from 2% to 19%. And the maximum reduction in
settlement is obtained at a depth ratio of 0.2.
CONCLUSIONS
The comparison of the two layer subgrade behaviour (with
and without reinforcement) was enclosed. The obtained
results lead to the following conclusions.
Nithin S., Sayida M K., Sheela Evangeline Y.
Fig.5 Variation of Bearing Capacity Ratio for different type

of depth ratios
Fig.6 Variation of Percentage reduction in Settlement for

different type of depth ratios
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The load settlement characteristics of two-layer subgrade

with or without the geotextiles layer do not differ much
for the initial range of settlements. Therefore, a common
loadsettlement curve approximates the behaviour of
both kinds of structures sufficiently well for settlement
ratio lower than 0.1.
Inclusion of a geotextile layer, at the two-layer subgrade
interface, improves the load settlement characteristics at
greater footing settlements.
At a Normalised settlement of 0.4, at varying depth ratio
0.2, 0.4, 0.6 (Interface), 0.8, 1 resulted in an increase in
the load carrying capacity to 1.66, 1.52, 1.37, 1.22 and
1.14 times of that of the unreinforced section.
For the test conditions adopted in the study the optimum
depth of placement of woven coir geotextile was
obtained as 0.2 of the plate diameter below the footing
surface.
The maximum improvement in the Ultimate Bearing
Capacity of sample, whose reinforcement placed at a
depth ratio of 0.2, is about 1.61 times than that of
unreinforced sample.
The maximum PRS is about 19%, where the geotextile is
kept at a depth ratio of 0.2.
REFERENCES
1. Ajitha, B., Jayadeep, T. (1997), Interfacial frictional
properties of geotextiles and biomats, in: Proceedings of
Indian Geotechnical Conference, Vadodara, India, Vol.
1, pp. 287290.
2. ASTM D4595-86 (2001), Standard Test Method for
Tensile Properties of Geotextiles by the Wide-Width
Strip Method
3. ASTM D5261, Standard Test Method for Measuring
Mass per Unit Area of Geotextiles
4. Babu, K. K., Beena, K. S. and Raji, A.K.(2008), Design
of Coir Geotextile reinforced Roads using IRC method.
Highway Research Journal, Special Issue.
5. Cancelli, A. and Montanelli, F. (1999), In-ground test for
geosynthetic reinforced flexible paved roads.
Proceedings of Geosynthetics 99, Vol. 2, Boston, USA,
pp. 863879.
6. Chauhan, M.S., Mittal, S. and Mohanty, B. (2008),
Performance evaluation of silty sand subgrade reinforced
with fly ash and fibre. Geotextiles and Geomembranes
26 (5), 429435.
7. Fannin. R.J. and Sigurdsson, O. (1996), Field
observations on stabilization of unpaved roads with
geotextiles. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE.
26(7): 544-553.
8. IRC: 109 (1997), Guidelines for Wet Mix Macadam
9. IS: 2720(Part 16)-1979, Methods of Test for Soils:
Determination of California Bearing Ratio.
10. IS: 2720(Part 4)-1985, Methods of Test for Soils: Grain
Size Analysis.
Determination of Atterberg Limits.
Determination of Water Content-Dry Density Relation
using Heavy Compaction.
13. Perkins, S.W. (1999), Mechanical response of
geosynthetic-reinforced
flexible
pavements.
Geosynthetics International 6 (5), 347-382.
14. Rao, G.V., Balan, K. (Eds.) (2000), Coir Geotextiles
Emerging Trends. The Kerala State Coir Corporation Ltd
(Publishers), Alappuzha, Kerala.
15. Rawal, A., and Anandjiwala, R. (2007), Comparative
study between needle punched nonwoven geotextile
structures made from flax and polyester fibres.
Geotextiles and Geomembranes 25 (1), 6165.
16. Sankariah, B. and Narahari, R. (1988), Bearing capacity
of reinforced sand beds, in: Proc..on First Indian
Geotextile Conference on Reinforced soil and
geotextiles, Bombay, India, pp. C11-C13.
17. Sarsby, R.W.(2007), Use of Limited Life Geotextiles
(LLGs) for basal reinforcement of embankments built on
soft clay. Geotextiles and Geomembranes 25 (4-5), 302
310
18. Subaida, E.A., Chandrakaran, S. and Sankar, N. (2009),
Laboratory performance of unpaved roads reinforced
with woven coir geotextiles. Geotextiles and
Geomembranes. 27: 204-210.

December 13-15,2012, Delhi (Paper NoB-271. )
INTERFERANCE OF ADJOINING CIRCULAR FOOTINGS ON REINFORCED SAND

Dr. S. S. Pusadkar, Associate Professor, Government College of Engineering Amravati, pusadkar.sunil@gcoea.ac.in
S. S. Saraf ,M.Tech (Civil-Geotech)Scholar, Government College of Engineering Amravati,sachinces2007@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT: This paper focuses on the influence of two adjoining circular footings on bearing capacity and settlement
resting on reinforced sand. The effect was studied for various diameters and spacings of the footing. In order to evaluate this
effects laboratory model tests were conducted for simulating the various conditions of footing. The bearing capacity and
settlement of adjacent circular footings has been observed to be improved by providing continuous geogrid reinforcement layer
in the foundation soil under the closely spaced circular footings.
INTRODUCTION
Infinite land on the earth has becoming finite for the
construction. Many townships are developed and lot many
are proposed with higher construction density. As a common
practice several storied buildings are constructed in a series
keeping very small spacing between adjacent corner footings.
Due to heavy loads and the non availability of good
construction sites, engineers are often required to place
footings at close spacings. Therefore, the footings in the
field generally interfere with each other to some extent and
are rarely isolated. The general scenario is to design the
footings as an isolated footing. The interfering as well as
spacing effect is not considered while designing the footings.
The technique of reinforcing the soil below shallow
foundations with geosynthetic reinforcement is one of the
fastest growing techniques in the field of geotechnical
engineering. Therefore in the preset study, the influence of
two adjoining circular footing resting on reinforced sand on
bearing capacity and settlement was carried out. The effect
was studied for various diameters and spacings of the
footing on reinforced sand.
LITERATURE REVIEW
The study on ultimate bearing capacity of two interfering
strip footings using the method of stress characteristics shows
that the efficiency factor decreases continuously with an
increase in spacing.[1].The the ultimate bearing capacity of
number of strip footings using the lower bound limit analysis
in combination with finite elements shows that the failure
load for a footing in the group becomes always greater than
that of a single isolated footing [2]. The effects of multiplefooting configurations in sand on bearing capacity using field
plate load tests and finite element analyses shows that the
load responses of multiple footings are similar to those of the
single footing at distances greater than three times the footing
width[3]. The interference of surface model footings resting
on sand shows that the interference between footings was
observed to cause an increase in bearing capacity and
decrease in settlement with reduction in spacing[4]. The
interference effect on the ultimate bearing capacity of two
closely spaced strip footings, placed on the surface of dry
sand, by using small scale model tests shows that an
interference of footings leads to a significant increase in their
bearing capacity [5]. The numerical examination of bearing
capacity ratio for rough square footings located at the surface

of a homogeneous sandy soil reinforced with a geogrid was
shows the bearing capacity of interfering footing increases
with the use of geogrid layers depending on the distance
between two footings[6]. The effect of spacing between the
footings, size of reinforcement, and continuous and
discontinuous reinforcement layers on bearing capacity and
tilt of closely spaced footings was investigated by performing
total 74 tests shows that a considerable improvement in
bearing capacity, settlement, and tilt of adjacent strip footings
has been observed by providing continuous reinforcement
layers in the foundation soil under the closely spaced strip
footings[7]. The interference effect of two nearby strip
footings on reinforced sand. shows that the bearing capacity
of single footing on the reinforced soil decreases with
increase in D/B.[8]. From the literatures studied it is observed
that, the interfering effects of different sizes footings on
unreinforced and reinforced sand were studied. However, the
interfering effect of circular footing on bearing capacity and
settlement is not available for reinforced sand. This revels
that the influence of two adjoining footings on bearing
capacity and settlement for various sizes and spacing of the
footings on reinforced sand is need of the future. In order to
evaluate the effects of two adjacent footings on reinforced
sand, laboratory experiments to simulate the various
conditions of footing was performed. In each case, different
sizes and spacing of footing were applied for the purposes of
comparison among all of the results for development of
knowledge base in this regards.
TESTING PROGRAM
Foundation Material
For the model tests, cohesionless, dry sand was used as the
foundation material. The study was carried out on Kanhan
Sand as foundation material. This sand is available in Nagpur
region of Vidharabha, Maharashtra. The properties of sand
used are as shown in Table 1.
Dr.S.S.Pusadkar & S.S.Saraf

Table 1.Proprties of Sand Used
Properties
Specific Gravity
2.67
Bulk Density (KN/m3)
14.91
Angle of Internal Friction
28
Coefficient of Uniformity
2.29
Cu
Coefficient of Curvature
1.09
Cc
0.51
Effective Size D10
Model Footing
Circular model footings of diameter 5cm and 10cm were
fabricated by using cast iron material. Every footing has a
little groove at the center to facilitate the application of load.
The footings were provided with the two flanges on two sides
of footings to measure the settlement of footing under the
action of load with the help of dial gauges.
Geogrid
Commercially available continuous biaxial geogrid was used
for reinforcing the sand bed.
top surface of the sand made leveled and the biaxial geogrid
reinforcement was placed at depth 0.5D below footing.
Again, the sand was filled over this geogrid reinforcement
layer in the tank. A manually controlled hydraulic jack with
activated loading piston, installed between the sliding beam
and strong reaction beam as shown in Figure 1 was used to
provide the required load on the footings. Both the footings
will be simultaneously loaded vertically. The vertical
displacement of each test footing was measured by taking the
average of two dial gauges readings. By gradually increasing
the load, a series of tests was carried out so as to monitor the
complete load-deformation plots till the ultimate failure
occurs. Each test was carefully controlled by observing the
displacement of each footing through dial gauge reading.
TEST RESULTS
Load settlements for each testing were plotted. The curves, in
general, show a linear variation in the initial portion and
become non-linear thereafter. Figure 2 shows average load
settlement curve for isolated circular footings.
Experimental Setup
The experimental setup used for studying the performance of
adjacent footing on reinforced sand is shown in Fig. 1.The
assembly for the model plate load test setup consist of a tank
of size 0.5m x 0.5m x 0.6m. A loading frame for applying the
load to the models is assembled over the tank. The load was
applied with manually controlled hydraulic jack and
measured with the help of proving ring. Dial gauges were
placed on each flanges of each footing to measure the
settlement.
Fig. 2 Load Settlement Curve for Isolated Footings.

Load settlement curve for adjoining circular footings placed
reinforced sand bed at different spacing to diameter ratio
(S/D) are shown in Fig. 3- 4.
Hydraulic
jack
Proving
ring
Load
cell
Magnetic
stand
Dial
gauge
Test
tank
Fig. 1 Experimental Setup
Test Procedure
The sand was poured in the tank by rainfall technique
keeping the height of fall as 35 cm to maintain the constant
relative density throughout the bed. The sand was poured up
to the location of the desired layer of reinforcement, then the
Fig. 3 Load Settlement Curve for 5 cm Diameter Footing.
Interference of adjoining circular footing on reinforced sand
Load(kN)
Table 3 Efficiency Factors for Different S/D Ratio

Efficiency Factors ()
S/D Ratio
5cm dia footing
10cm dia footing
1.0
1.32
2.0
1.43
1.19
3.0
1.24
From Table 3 it can be seen that, the efficiency factor
decreases with increase in S/D ratio. This indicates that the
bearing capacity is greatly influenced by spacing between
them. As the spacing decreases, the bearing capacity is
observed to be increased.
Fig. 4 Load Settlement Curve for 10 cm Diameter Footing.

The ultimate bearing capacity was obtained by using tangent
intersection method. Tables 2 shows the bearing capacity of
corresponding model footing.
Table 2 Ultimate bearing capacity of footing for
Different S/D Ratio.
Ultimate bearing capacity(KN/m2)
S/D Ratio
5cm dia footing
10cm dia footing
1.0
105.72
2.0
79.91
95.51
3.0
69.79
Isolated
56.02
80.25
DISCUSSIONS & INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

The bearing capacity of adjoining footing resting on
reinforced sand was studied. The biaxial geogrid was kept at
0.5d below the footing. The adjoining footing was spaced to
study the interference effect on reinforced sand. Figure 3 and
Figure 4 shows that with increase in S/D the bearing capacity
decreases and the settlement was observed to be increase.
The ultimate bearing capacity was observed to be more than
that for isolated footing. The increase in the ultimate bearing
capacity may be due to existing footing acts as a surcharge
for the adjacent footing and at wider spacing no interference
takes place and each footing acts as an individual (isolated)
footing.
Efficiency Factors ()
The efficiency factor () is the ratio of average pressure on
an interfering footing of a given size associated with either an
ultimate shear failure or a given magnitude of settlement to
the average pressure on an isolated footing of a given size
associated again with either an ultimate shear failure or the
same magnitude of settlement. Table 3 shows the efficiency
factor for different S/D ratio for 5cm and 10 cm diameter
circular footings.
CONCLUSIONS
From the present study following conclusions are drawn
1. Bearing capacity of model footings increases as the size of
footing increases.
2. Bearing capacity of interfering footing is more than that of
isolated footing of the same size.
3. Bearing capacity of interfering footing increases as spacing
between them decreases.
4. The settlement was observed to be increase as spacing is
decreased.
5. The efficiency factor decreases with increase in S/D ratio.
REFERENCES
1. Kumar J and Ghosh P. (2007), Ultimate Bearing
Capacity of Two Interfering Rough Strip Footings. Int J
Geomechanics ASCE; 7(1), pp 5362.
2. Kumar and Bhattacharya P. (2010), Bearing Capacity of
Interfering Multiple Strip Footings by Using Lower Bound
Finite Elements Limit Analysis, Computers and
Geotechnics , 37, pp 731736.
3. Lee J. and Eun J. (2009), Estimation of Bearing Capacity
for Multiple Footings in Sand Computers and
Geotechnics, 36, pp10001008.
4. Khan I.N. et.al (2006), A Study on Interference of Surface
Model Footing Resting on Sand, The Institution of
Engineers, Malaysia, Vol.67, March 2006, pp 15-23.
5. Kumar J. and Bhoi M.K. (2009), Interference of Two
Closely Spaced Strip Footings on Sand Using Model
Tests, J Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engg, ASCE
2008; 134(4), pp 595604.
6. Ghazavi M. and Lavasan A.A. (2008), Interference Effect
of Shallow Foundation Constructed on Sand Reinforced
with Geosynthetics, J. Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 26
(2008), pp 404-415.
7. Kumar A. and Saran S. (2003), Closely Spaced Footings
on Geogrid-Reinforced Sand, J Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, pp. 1090-0241
(2003); 129:7(660).
8. Ghosh P. and Kumar P. (2009), Interference Effect of Two
nearby Strip Footing on Reinforced Sand. Contemporary
Engineering Science, Vol.2, 2009, No.12, pp 577-592.

IMPROVEMENT OF BEARING CAPACITY OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION BY USING

GEOGRID REINFORCED DOUBLE LAYERED SOIL
P. K. Kolay, Asst. Prof., Southern Illinois University Carbondale, pkolay@siu.edu
S. Kumar, Prof. & Chair, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, kumars@siu.edu
V. K. Puri, Prof., Southern Illinois University Carbondale, puri@engr.siu.edu
D. Tiwari, Former Graduate Student, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, aonedipak@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: The present study investigates the improvement in the bearing capacity of a local silty clay soil by replacing the
top portion with sand and placing geogrids at different depths. Several model tests were performed for a rectangular footing
resting on top of the soil to establish the load versus settlement curves of unreinforced and reinforced soil. The results show
that improvement of 8 to 61% was observed in ultimate bearing capacity depending on the location of geogrid and number of
geogrid layers.
INTRODUCTION
A conventional method to improve the bearing capacity of
problematic or soft soil is to remove a part of the existing
weak soil and replace it by granular soil [1]. The use of
geosynthetic materials to improve the bearing capacity and
settlement performance of shallow foundation has gained
attention in the field of geotechnical engineering. Several
researches [2-4] have demonstrated that the ultimate bearing
capacity and the settlement characteristics of foundation soil
can be improved by the inclusion of reinforcements in the
soils below footings. For the design of shallow foundations in
the field, the settlement becomes a governing criterion rather
than the bearing capacity. Hence, it is important to evaluate
the improvement in the bearing capacity of foundations, at
particular settlement level. The bearing capacity of soil also
changed with various factors like type of reinforcing
materials, number of reinforcement layers, ratios of different
parameters of reinforcing materials and foundations such as B
(width of foundation), u/B (1st layer of reinforcement/width
of foundation), h/B (the vertical spacing between consecutive
reinforcement layers/width of foundation), b/B (the length of
each reinforcement layer/ width of foundation), Df/B (depth
of foundation from ground level/width of foundation), type of
soil, texture of soil, unit weight (or density) of soil etc. [5-8].
Generally, all these studies are ultimately related to the
improvement in the bearing capacity of soil using reinforcing
materials and are related to the effect of various parameters
on bearing capacity. The improvement in the bearing
capacities is normally expressed in a non-dimensional form
as BCR (Bearing Capacity Ratio). Most of the studies either
used sand or clay only. The present study investigates the
bearing capacity of double layer of soil (i.e., the top of local
soil was replaced with a small thickness of sand) and also the
bearing capacity of a single layer local soil (for comparison
purposes) with varying the number of biaxial geogrid layers
at different depths while keeping other parameters constant.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
Materials Used
Two types of soils were used to conduct the experimental
study i.e., sand and local silty clay soil from Carbondale,
Illinois. Relevant properties of the local soil and sand were
determined in the laboratory by performing several tests in
accordance with respective ASTM standard. Tensar BX1100
Biaxial geogrid was used in the present study.
Test Tank
A model test tank with the dimensions having length (Lt)
762.0 mm, width (Bt) 304.8 mm and depth (Dt) 749.3 mm
was designed and fabricated to perform the test. The inside
walls of the tank were smooth to reduce the side friction.
Test Footing
A model footing, having length (l), width (b) and thickness
(d) equal to 284.48, 114.30 and 48.26 mm, respectively was
used in the experimental study. The footing dimensions were
selected based on the test tanks dimensions.
Laboratory Tests
In the present study double layer soil system was used to
conduct the experiment. The local soil was used at the bottom
part of the test tank overlain by a small thickness of sand
layer. In the geogrid reinforced model tests, the optimum
values related to the reinforcement arrangement, such as u, h
and b were adopted based on the test tank size and results
published by other researchers. The model rectangular
footing with width (B) is supported by sand as the top layer
and local soil as the bottom layer reinforced with N number
of geogrid layers having a width (b). The depth of
reinforcement (d) below the bottom of the footing can be
calculated by using Equation (1).
d = u + (N 1) h
(1)
Kolay, P.K., Kumar, S., Puri, V. K., Tiwari, D. / Southern Illinois University Carbondale
The magnitude of the bearing capacity ratios (BCR) for a

given rectangular footing, local soil, sand, and geogrid
depend on different parameters like b/B, h/B, u/B, and d/B
ratios. In order to conduct model tests with geogrid
reinforcement in double layer soil system i.e. local soil and
sand, it is important to decide the magnitude of u/B and h/B
to get the improvement of the bearing capacity for a
particular footing. The following parameter has used for the
present study:
u / B = 0.33, 0.67; h / B = 0.33; b / B = 6.444
Number of geogrid layers (N): 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
Length of each reinforcement layer (b): 73.66 cm
METHODOLOGY
To obtain uniform density, the local soil has been compacted
in 13 layers up to an approximately 673.1 mm depth of the
model test tank.
In the test tank, the local soil was compacted at 86.8% of the
maximum dry unit weight at its optimum moisture content
(OMC). After compacting the local soil in the model tank up
to 673.1 mm, a 76.2 mm thick sand layer placed above the
compacted local soil. Biaxial Geogrid reinforcement layers
were placed at pre-determined depths below the base of the
test footing.
Physical and Engineering Properties
The specific gravity (Gs) values for the local soil and sand
were measured to be 2.67 and 2.64, respectively. For the
local soil 97.9 % of the particles passed through the US sieve
# 200. The local soil consists of 30% clay-sized particle (<2
m), 67.9% silt-sized particle (2 m to 75 m) and 2.1%
sand-sized particle (75 m to 2 mm). As per USCS (Unified
Soil Classification System) the local soil falls in the category
of CL. The liquid limit and the plastic limit for the local soil
sample was measured to be 42% and 19%, respectively.
For sand, uniformity coefficient (Cu) and co-efficient of
curvature (Cc) are 1.83 and 1.89, respectively and the
effective particle size (D10) is calculated to be 0.18 mm.
Hence, the sand is classified as poorly graded sand (SP)
according to USCS.
The results of standard Proctor compaction test for local soil
shows that that the maximum dry unit weight (dmax) and
optimum moisture content (OMC) of the local soil are 16.73
kN/m3 and 19%, respectively. Based on the two UCS test, the
average value of unconfined compressive strength is equal to
90.32 kN/m2 and undrained cohesion (c) is obtained to be
45.16 kN/m2.
Determination of Ultimate Bearing Capacity
Fig. 1 shows the bearing pressure versus settlement curves
obtained from the tests conducted in this study. From Fig. 1,
it is noticed that no distinctive failure point has been
observed. If there is no distinct failure pattern of the
foundation/soil system, the ultimate bearing capacity values
based on load settlement curves are obtained from four

different methods [9, 10]. Out of available methods, we
followed 10% width of footing method (i.e., 10% BM) and
tangent intersection method (TIM) to find the ultimate
bearing capacity for each case in our experimental study.
Ultimate Bearing Capacity of the Local Soil
At first, the bearing capacity test was performed on the local
soil and sand only. It can be estimated that the ultimate
bearing capacity (qu) for local soil is about 172.37 kN/m2 and
the average ultimate bearing capacity (qu) of only sand layer
compacted at its 97% of its maximum dry density is about
174.76 kN/m2.
Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Double Layered Soil System
Using Geogrid
As no distinct failure point has been observed on bearing
capacity versus settlement curve, 10% Width method and
tangent intersection method are used to estimate the ultimate
bearing capacity for shallow foundation which is shown in
Fig. 1 and 2, respectively. From Fig. 1, it is clear that the
bearing capacity increases with the increase in the number of
geogrid layers. Out of five tests, two tests were conducted by
using one geogrid layer but at various positions i.e., the depth
of geogrid from the base of footing is different. This is the
case of varying u/B (i.e., depth of first layer of geogrid/ width
of footing) keeping the number of geogrid (equal to 1)
constant. While in other test, the u/B ratio (depth of first layer
of geogrid/ width of footing) and h/B (consecutive height of
two geogrids layers) ratio were kept constant with varying the
number of geogrid layers. 10% B (width of footing) method
is used to find out the ultimate bearing capacity for all these
cases. The ultimate bearing capacity values with geogrid can
be compared with unreinforced soil condition for single layer
and also for double layers system. The results of various tests
conducted on double layer soil system with and without
geogrids are presented in Table 1. It also shows the
percentage improvement in bearing capacity with respect to
double layer soil and Bearing Capacity Ratio (BCR) obtained
from all tests.
Improvement in Ultimate Bearing Capacity
The bearing capacity of the local soil only is considered as
the reference value to compare with the bearing capacities of
all other geogrid reinforced soil system. In all these
investigations, only one type of geogrid was used. In these
tests the u/B ratio equal to 0.33 (the depth of 1st layer of
geogrid from the footing to the width of footing) and h/B
(depth of consecutive layer of geogrid to the width of
footing) ratio remains the same except in one test where only
one geogrid was used at the interface of sand layer and local
soil with u/B ratio of 0.667

Fig. 1 Estimation for ultimate bearing capacity (qu) from bearing pressure versus s/B (%), (10% BM)
Fig. 2 Estimation for ultimate bearing capacity (qu) from bearing pressure versus s/B (%), (TIM)
Test
No.
1
2
3
4
5
Table 1 Ultimate bearing capacities for different tests for double layer under different condition
Percent (%)
BCR
Different condition of double layer soil
Ultimate Bearing
Improvement in BC
Capacity (kN/m2)
10% BM
TIM
10% BM
TIM
10% BM
Double layer soil
184.34
141.25
0.00
0.00
1.00
1 Geogrid at the interface of local soil
201.10
153.22
9.00
8.49
1.09
and sand layer
1 Geogrid in sand layer in double layer
229.83
172.37
24.67
22.03
1.24
soil condition
1 Geogrid in sand layer, and 1 geogrid in
248.98
201.10
35.06
42.37
1.35
junction of two soils
277.71
210.67
50.06
49.15
1.50
1 Geogrid in sand layer, 1 in the junction
of two soils and 1 in local soil,
respectively
1 Geogrids in sand layer, 1 in the junction
296.86
215.46
61.03
61.03
1.61
of two soils, 2 in local soil, respectively
TIM
1.00
1.08
1.22
1.42
1.49
1.52
The ultimate bearing capacities for each test were found by

using the 10% B (width of footing) method and tangent
intersection method (TIM) which is shown in Fig. 1 and Fig.
2, respectively. The result shows that for the same settlement
the ultimate carrying capacity increases with the inclusion of
sand and number of geogrids layers.
It can be observed from the results that by the replacement of
the top layer of local soil with a small thickness of sand, the
bearing capacity increases by a small magnitude (i.e., 8%).
After putting the geogrids in the double layer system the load
carrying capacity significantly increases as compared to the
bearing capacity of local soil and local soil with top layer
sand. Hence it can be concluded that bearing capacity mainly
increased due to the geogrid soil interaction. In the present
study only four numbers of geogrid layers has been used and
more study should be conducted to find out the optimum
number of geogrid layers. The results proved that the
placement of geogrid also affect the bearing capacity in the
double layer soil system i.e., u/B ratio also affects the bearing
capacity. From Table 1 it is concluded that there is significant
increase in the bearing capacity with increasing the number
of geogrid layers. Therefore, geogrid can be considered as a
good reinforcing material. Two tests were performed with the
same number of geogrids layers to evaluate the effect of the
distance (u) between the base of footing and geogrid i.e., the
distance of the 1st geogrid from the base of the footing.
Generally the distance is expressed in the form of nondimensional unit as u/B, where u is depth of first layer of
geogrid from the base of footing and B is width of footing. In
one test u/B was kept 0.33 i.e., geogrid was placed at 38.1
mm from the base of footing and the ultimate bearing
capacity of the footing supported by the double layer of soil
is measured to be 229.83 kN/m2. In the other test the u/B was
0.667 i.e., the geogrid was placed at 76.2 mm from the base
of footing in the double layer system of soil, and the bearing
capacity was measured to be 248.98 kN/m2. These results
show that if the u/B increases, the bearing capacity increases.
These results are consistent with other studies which show
the effect of u/B ratio on the bearing capacity of various
footing supported on different kinds of soils. It has been
observed that bearing capacity increases as the u/B ratio
increases and the similar trend has been observed in case of
double layer soil system.
CONCLUSIONS
The present study investigates the effects of geogrids on
double layered soil towards the improvement of bearing
capacity of a rectangular footing. The local soil and sand used
are classified as CL and SP, respectively based on the Unified
Soil Classification System. Based on the model tests, the
following conclusions are drawn:
i. The load carrying capacity of the local soil obtained
from Carbondale, Illinois, increases by 8% when the top
of the local soil was replaced with 76.2 mm thick layer
of sand.
ii. The bearing capacity for the double layer soil increased
with an average of 16.67% using one geogrid layer at
interface of soil (i.e., local soil and sand) with u/B equal

to 0.667. The bearing capacity for the double layer soil
increased with an average of 33.33% while using one
geogrid in middle of sand layer having u/B equal to 0.33.
iii. The improvement in bearing capacity for double layer
soil, maintaining u/B equal to 0.33 and h/B equal to 0.33;
for two, three and four number geogrid layers were
44.44%, 61.11%, 72.22%, respectively.
iv. Bearing capacity is also dependent on u/B ratio i.e.,
bearing capacity is higher if u/B is higher.
Based on the results of this study, it is concluded that the
bearing capacity of the local soil can be improved by using
geogrid. The finding of this research work may be useful to
improve the strength of soil for foundation and pavement
design for specific area or similar types of soils available
elsewhere.
REFERENCES
1. El Sawwaf, M. A. (2007), Behavior of strip footing on
geogrid-reinforced sand over a soft clay slope, Geotextiles
and Geomembranes, 25(1), 5060.
2. Das, B. M. and Omar, M. T. (1994), The effects of
foundation width on model tests for the bearing capacity
of sand with geogrid reinforcement, Geotechnical and
Geological Engineering, 12, 133141.
3. Adams, M. T. and Collin, J. G. (1997), Large model spread
footing load tests on geosynthetic reinforced soil
foundations,
Journal
of
Geotechnical
and
Geoenvironmental Engineering ASCE, 123(1), 6672.
4. Shin, E. C., Das, B. M., Lee, E. S. and Atlar, C. (2002),
Bearing capacity of strip foundation on geogrid-reinforced
sand, Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, 20(2),
169-180.
5. Samtani, N. and Sonpal, R. (1989), Laboratory tests of
strip footing on reinforced cohesive soil, Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering ASCE, 15 (9), 13261330.
6. Shin, E. C., Das B. M., Puri V. K., Yen, S. C. and Cook, E.
E. (1993), Bearing capacity of strip foundation on
geogrid-reinforced clay, Geotechnical Testing Journal,
17(4), 535-541.
7. Das, B. M., Khing, K. H. and Shin, E. C. (1998),
Stabilization of weak clay with strong sand and geogrid at
sand-clay interface, Transportation Research Record,
1611, 5562.
8. Alawaji, H. (2001), Settlement and bearing capacity of
geogrid-reinforced sand over collapsible soil, Geotextiles
and Geomembranes, 199(2), 7588.
9. Lutenegger, A. J. and Adams, M. T. (1998), Bearing
capacity of footings on compacted sand, Proceedings of
the 4th International Conference on Case Histories in
Geotechnical Engineering, 1216-1224.
10. Cerato, B. A. (2005), Scale effects of shallow foundation
bearing capacity on granular material, A thesis submitted
for the partial fulfillment of the Ph.D. degree at the
University of Massachusetts Amherst, USA.

STUDIES ON THE COMPACTION SAND PILES AND STONE COLUMNS IN UNIFORMLY

GRADED SANDY SOILS WITH CLAY
Sudheer K V., M.Tech Student, College of Engineering Trivandrum, sudheerkvasu@gmail.com
Arvee Sujil Johnson, Associate Professor, College of Engineering Trivandrum, arveesujil@yahoo.co.uk
Unnikrishnan N., Associate Professor, College of Engineering Trivandrum, unnikrishnan-n@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT: Uniformly graded fine sand deposits in coastal areas pose major problem to the geotechnical engineers because,
type of grading and considerably high compressibility. Presence of even small percentage of clay in this soil makes the soil as
a complex one. This paper deals with the comparison of ground improvement method of floating type compaction sand piles
and the stone columns in such situation. In order to determine which method is effective laboratory model test are conducted.
Mini Plate load test are conducted on 25mm diameter columns. Single and Group column effects are conducted with different
area of loading. The experimental result are compared with numerical results from the FEM. Finite element analysis have
been performed using 15-noded triangular elements with the software package PLAXIS.
INTRODUCTION
Among the various methods of ground improvement the
floating type (Partially penetrating) stone columns (Granular
Columns) or Compaction sand piles are the most economical
method to improve the loose top stratum. In our coastal areas
commonly found the uniformly graded sandy soils with clay
as the top stratum. To support the low-rise buildings and
structures such as abutments, embankments etc. the use of
deep foundations to transfer the load to a dense stratum are
not economical
Generally the improvement of loose sand stratum is carried
out by compaction sand piles (CSP) method. In clayey soils,
soil improvement is being carried out using stone column
(SC) method. The behavior of CSP and SC in uniformly
graded sandy soil with clay is compared with the help of
laboratory model tests are presented here. Finite element
analysis have also been performed using 15-noded triangular
element with the software package PLAXIS. A drained
analysis was carried out using Mohr-Coulombs criterion for
soils, stones and Coarse sand.
From the previous experimental studies [6] it was concluded
that even with small percentage of clay in uniformly graded
sandy soils the SC method is more effective than CSP
method and the improvement due to SC is almost steady for
the soil samples having 5 10% clay. Because of this a soil
sample having 8% clay is used for the entire test.
rather scarce on model test studies of fully penetrated

columns [1,3] and floating stone columns [4,5].
In this paper the results of load controlled fully drained
model test on single and group SC and CSP are presented.
The SC and CSP are inserted in a reconstituted soil sample
having a relative density around 50%, a known initial stress
condition of 22kPa and water content about 12.5%. The
paper also describes the numerical analysis using FEM.
TEST SET UP
All experiments are carried out on 25mm diameter columns
in a partially penetrated condition. Surrounding reconstituted
soil sample contain uniformly graded fine sand with 8% of
clay and an initial stress of 22kPa. The relative density of the
sample is kept around 50% so as to keep the soil in a medium
dense state. The tests are conducted in a cylindrical tank of
400mm height and 400mm diameter.
A typical arrangement for a single stone column test is shown
in Fig 1.The stone columns are inserted into the soil by
displacement method, which will improve the angle of
internal friction of surrounding soil. Vertical stress was
Stone columns or CSP in compressive load fails in different

modes, such as bulging [1,2], general shear failure, and
sliding. A long column having a length greater than its
critical length 4d fails by bulging irrespective of whether it is
end bearing or floating.
Model tests provide an alternative way to directly reflect the
behavior of prototype under stimulated condition and are
used to validate theoretical or empirical hypothesis. Data are
Fig. 1 Single Column Test Setup and arrangement of

Group Columns
Sudheer K V., Arvee Sujil Johnson, Unnikrishnan N.

Table 1 Properties of the Materials used.
Sample details
Density ( g/cc)
d(max)
Finesand + 8% Clay
Stone chips
Bentonite clay
Coarse sand
1.52
1.64
1.21
1.64
d(min)
1.32
1.57
0.98
1.57
Void ratio
emin
emax
0.68
0.93
0.69
0.77
1.21
1.73
0.69
0.77
Specific gravity
2.55
2.78
2.68
2.61
Values
degrees
38.39
51.20
47.33
Cohesion
kPa
8
-
E
kPa
25000
75000
50000
0.35
0.28
0.30
applied through a plate having 60mm diameter and 25mm

thick. The load was applied through a proving ring, the
displacement gauge to arrive at the axial load applied through
the ring. Another dial gauge is fixed to read the settlement of
the loading plate.
Tests were also carried out on a group of nine columns
arranged in a square pattern where the sandy soil with clay
area corresponding to an equivalent area of nine unit cells is
represented by the tank area as shown in Fig.1 to compare the
behavior with a single column and to check the stress
distribution between stone column and sandy soil. If we
consider a group of 5 columns the width of the confinement
around the center column is equal to the diameter of the stone
column. But in the case of 9 columns the width is more than
2d, the shaded portion in Fig. 1.Therefore a 9 column group
was selected for the study. The load was applied through a
plate 16 mm thick and 300mm diameter.
MATERIALS USED
The basic materials and their properties used for the study are
(uniformly graded fine sand, bentonite clay, coarse sand and
stone chips) are shown in Table 1.
Uniform graded fine sand
As per AASHTO classification the sample belongs to A3,ie
fine sand. The Cu (uniformity coefficient) value is less than 2
therefore the sample is a uniform graded. Hence the sample
is compressible. Particle size distribution of fine sand is
shown in fig. 2. Percentage of coarse sand 0.5, medium sand
36, fine sand 59 and silt is 4.5.
Bentonite clay
The clay having a plastic limit 52%, liquid limit 294%, clay
content 80%, silt content 18%, and sand content 2%.Other
details are in Table 1
Coarse Sand
The sand used is clean river sand of size less than
4.75mm.Particle size distribution shown in fig. 2.The river
sand sieved and modified to get required particle size for
making stone columns other details are in Table 1.
Stone chips
Crushed stones (aggregates) of sizes between 5mm and
1.18mm have been used to form stone columns. Particle size
distributions shown in fig.2 and the details are in Table 1.
The stones were compacted to a density of 1.50g/cc which
could be achieved while constructing the stone columns for
the experiments.
Fig. 2 Sieve Analysis Graph

MODELING CONSIDERATIONS
The model tests have not been performed with any particular
prototype in mind but are shown as a generic study.
Similitude ratio refers to the ratio of any linear dimension of
the model to the corresponding dimension of the prototype. A
typical prototype stone column diameter varies from 0.6 to
1.0 m and length from 520 m. It was observed that the
model columns can be reliably installed ensuring proper
continuity and integrity. Because of this, 25 mm diameter
columns are used in model tests, giving rise to a similitude
ratio between 0.025 and 0.042. Usually, l/d ratio in the
prototype stone columns varies between 5 and 20, in which l
and d are the column length and diameter, respectively.
Based on this, the l/d ratio in the model tests was adopted as
6 (model column length 150 mm).
PREPARATION OF TEST BED
The tests were conducted in a uniformly graded fine sand
sample with 8% of clay. The initial shear strength of sample
is fixed as 22kPa. at a water content of 12.5%. For
preparation of test bed, the fine sand sample is mixed with
8% of clay in dry condition. The required quantity of water is
added to get the desired moisture content. Apply oil to the
inner surface of tank to reduce the friction between soil
sample and tank wall. Sample was filled in to the tank in
layers with measured quantity by weight. The surface of each
layer was provided with uniform compaction with a tamper
to achieve the layer height and uniform density which keep
the relative density value around 50%.
Construction of SC and CSP
All columns were constructed by displacement method. A
thin close-ended pvc pipe of 25 mm outer diameter and wall
Studies on the compaction sand piles and stone columns in uniformly graded sandy soils with clay
thickness 2 mm was pushed into the soil bed at the center of
the tank up to the desired depth. The closed end shoe was
removed from the pipe by a gentle push to the shoe by a rod
through the pipe. Stones or coarse sand were charged into the
hole in layers with a measured quantity to achieve a
compacted height of 50 mm. The pipe was then raised in
stages ensuring a minimum of 5 mm penetration below the
top level. To achieve a uniform density 1.50g/cc, compaction
was given with a tamping rod to each layer. The procedure
was repeated until the column is completed to the full height.
parameters are given in Table 1. Along the periphery of the

tank interface between the sandy soil and the cylindrical
surface of the unit cell, radial deformation is restricted but
settlement is allowed. Along the bottom of the tank both are
restricted. No bulging of the column is seen as in the case of
model test. Analysis for a group of nine columns was also
carried out using an axisymmetric model with surrounding
eight columns replaced by a ring of stones/coarse sand.
TEST PROCEDURE
After preparing the column, the load deformation behavior of
the column/treated soil was studied by applying vertical load
in a loading frame. To load the single column, a loading plate
of 60 mm diameter was placed over the column. In the case
of the column group, a 300 mm diameter plate was placed
over the columns. The load was applied through a proving
ring up to the settlement exceeded 6 mm. After completion of
each test, the shape of the column was established by
carefully filling the voids of column with a paste of plaster of
paris. This material is in powder form and when mixed with
water, it reforms into a thick paste and eventually gets
hardened into a solid within a day. After the paste gets
hardened, the surrounding soil was removed and a typical
shape obtained is shown in Fig. 3.
Comparison of single SC and CSP

Fig. 4 Shows a typical relationship between axial stress and
settlement for non-reinforced soil bed and reinforced with SC
and CSP. The FEM analysis results are also plotted. The
improvement due to CSP in a medium dense state uniformly
graded fine sand with 8% clay having an initial stress
condition of 22kPa is less compared to SC in the same
conditions. The model test results and FEM analysis shows a
close relation. Based on this the parametric study can be
done.
FINITE-ELEMENT ANALYSIS
Axisymmetric analyses were carried out using MohrCoulombs criterion considering elastoplastic behavior for
sandy soils with clay, stones and coarse sand. A drained
behavior is assumed for all the materials. The input
Comparison of axial load conditions of group SC and

CSP
Fig. 5 shows the axial load comparison of single columns and
group columns. In the case of group columns the axial load
condition of SC and CSP are more over same. The FEM
analysis also shows the same.
Column axial stress of single and group SC and CSP
Due to the variation of loading plate area (for single column
60mm and for group column 300mm) instead of axial stress
the column axial stress of single and group SC and CSP are
compared. For this the group columns considered as a unit
cell. To convert the axial stress in to column axial stress
multiplied the axial stress by a dimension less factor area
ratio (ar). Area ratio is the ratio of column area to the loaded
area. In the case of single column area ratio becomes 0.18
and in group columns it becomes 0.06. To normalize the
column axial stress of single column multiplied it with group
factor. Group factor is the ratio of average column axial
stress of group columns to the average column axial stress of
single column at different settlements up to 6mm.Fig. 6 show
the normalized column axial stress of single columns and
column axial stress (CAS) of group columns of SC and CSP.
Radial strain of SC and CSP
The deformed shapes are mapped through plaster of paris is
used to study the bulge characteristics of columns. From the
bulge profile the radial strain in the SC and CSP due to
deformation was obtained as [rd-ro/ro]%. Where rd is the
radius of the deformed column, ro is the radius of the original
column. In the case of CSP the radial strain is maximum at
top of the column. But in the case of SC radian strain is
maximum at a distance of 25mm from the top.A typical plot
of radial strain at different depth of column is shown in Fig.7.
Fig. 3 Single and Group SC and CSP after testing
Sudheer K V., Arvee Sujil Johnson, Unnikrishnan N.
Fig. 4 Comparison of Experimental and FEM results (Single

Column)
Fig. 6 Normalized Results
Fig. 5. Comparison of Experimental and FEM results (Group

Column)
Fig. 7 Comparison of Radial stain
CONCLUSIONS
The present work describes experimental and finite-element
analysis carried out to compare the behavior of a single and
group SC and CSP. Based on this study the following
conclusions are drawn;
1. Consider as a unit cell, the column axial stress of a
group of CSP is approximately equal to 0.4 times
the column axial stress of single CSP and in the case
of SC it is 0.2.
2. In medium dense state uniformly graded fine sand
with 8% clay the axial stress of single CSP is less
than SC. But in the case of group columns the axial
stress is more over same.
3. A close relation has been obtained between the
finite-element prediction and the measured model
test results. Based on this the parametric study can
be done.
4. In the case of CSP the radial strain is maximum at
top of the column. But in the case of SC radian
strain is maximum at a distance of 25mm from the
top.
REFERENCES
1. Hughes.J.M.O. et al. (1974). Reinforcing of soft
cohesive soils with stone columns. Ground Eng.,
7(3), 42-49.
2. Hughes. J.M.O. et al. (1976). A field trial of
reinforcing effect of stone column in soil. Proc.,
Ground Treatment by Deep Compaction. Institution
of Civil Engineers. London. 32-44.
3. Lee,K.M.,Manjunath,V.R.,Dewaikar,D.M.(1999).
Numerical and model studies of strip footing
supported by a reinforced granular fill-soft soil
system. Can, Geotech,J.,36(5), 793-807.
4. Narasimha Rao, et al. (1992). Influence of bearing
area on the behaviour of stone columns. Proc.,
Indian Geotech, Conf.,Calcuta,India, 235-237.
5. Rao,S.N., Reddy,K.M.,and Kumar,P.H.(1997).
Studies on groups of stone columns in soft clays.
Geotech, Eng., 28(2), 165-182.
6. Sudheer,K.V.,A. S.Jonson., Unnikrishnan,N.,(2011).
Behaviour of compaction sand pile and stone
column in fine sand with clay. Proc, IGC-2011 pp,
409-413.

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF LATERALLY LOADED PILE IN A SLOPING

GROUND EMBEDDED IN CLAY
Kavitha.P.E (Research Scholar, Cochin University of Science and Technology , Kerala, pe_kavitha@yahoo.com)
Dr.Beena.K.S (Professor, School of Engineering,Cochin University of Science and Technology,Kerala, beenavg@cusat.ac.in)
Dr.Narayanan.K.P (HOD, Dept.of Ship Technology,Cochin University of Science and Tech., Kerala, narayanan@cusat.ac.in)
ABSTRACT: This paper describes the results of model testing of single free head piles embedded in a sloping ground
subjected to lateral load. The soil around the pile is Cochin marine clay collected from Vallarpadam area. The influence of
slope and the length of pile on the structural behaviour of pile are studied. A laboratory experimental setup is designed to
model free head single instrumented pile in a sloping ground, reduced to a model scale. The experiments were carried out by
applying static lateral load and the aluminium model pile embedded in clayey soil. The load versus deflection behaviour of pile
and the variation of bending moment along the length of the pile are plotted and studied. The variation in the deflection and
bending moment of the pile is also analyzed.
INTRODUCTION
Large structures supported on vertical piles are often
subjected to significant lateral loads due to wind, earthquake,
wave, current etc. Harbour and coastal structures are prone to
considerable amount of lateral loads [4]. For the design of
such piles ultimate lateral resistance of a pile is required. The
aim of the present study is to study the structural behaviour of
laterally loaded flexible piles in sloping ground and to
evaluate the effect of length of the pile on the structural
behaviour of the pile. A series of model tests were conducted
in the geotechnical laboratory at Cochin University of
Science and Technology and the results were analysed.
LITERATURE REVIEW
A single pile under lateral load is analysed by many
researchers but the methods available for the improvement of
lateral load capacity are not studied in depth especially when
the pile is in a sloping ground. Davisson and Gill (1963)
investigated the behaviour of laterally loaded pile in a two
layer system analytically. It was found that the surface layer
has a significant influence on pile capacity, and a stiff layer
with thickness exceeding 0.2 times the radius of the pile,
considerably improves the load-deflection behaviour and
reduces the bending moments.
Broms (1964) presented a method for the calculation of
ultimate lateral resistance and lateral deflections at working
loads for a single pile driven in cohessionless soil. Reese et.al
(1974) conducted full scale lateral load test on pipe piles
having 24 inch diameter installed in sandy soil. Based on the
literature study it is observed that not much study was done in
the field of cohesive soil and also when the pile is embedded
in a sloping ground. This leads to the requirement for the
present study to predict the methods to improve the lateral
load capacity of piles in cohesive soil.
structures, bridge abutments, large buildings, locks and dams,

among others. Piles near a slope or those used to improve
slope stability are also subjected to lateral loading. Lateral
load also occurs from eccentricity of applied vertical loads.
According to Poulos and Davis (1980) piles supporting such
structures should have the ability to resist lateral forces
typically 10% to 20% of the applied vertical load. For proper
functioning of such structures, two criteria must be satisfied:
(1) a pile should be safe against ultimate failure; and (2)
normal deflection at working loads should be within the
permissible limit[9]. For design of such piles, ultimate lateral
resistance of a pile is also required. The behavior of piles
subjected to lateral loads is governed by the interaction
between the pile and the soil.
In general, laterally loaded pile can be divided in to two
groups: (1) Short pile and (2) Long pile. A short pile is
characterized by length to diameter (or width) ratio of less
than 10 (sometimes a ratio of up to 15 is quoted in the
literature).
Fig.1 Typical laterally loaded pile

LAERALLY LOADED PILE
Pile foundations are often subjected to both axial as well as
lateral loads. Lateral loads carried by piles occur in offshore
The present study is for a long pile at the crest of a slope in

sand subjected to static lateral load. When piles are
constructed on sloping ground the lateral resistance of pile on
Kavitha.P.E, Dr.K.S.Beena & Dr.Narayanan.K.P

sloping ground is less due to the reduction of passive
resistance of soil in front of the pile compared to a pile
located on horizontal ground as shown in Fig.1.
SOIL STRUCTURE INTERACTION
When a pile is subjected to lateral forces and moments, the
pile tends to bend or deflect as illustrated in Fig.2. The
deflection of the pile causes strains in the soil mass. To
satisfy equilibrium, the soil must provide reactions along the
length of the pile to balance the applied loads and moments.
This is the mechanism of soil-structure interaction occurring
in this structural system.
subjected to overturning moments due to wind, wave pressure

and ship impact. These overturning moments transferred to
the foundation of the structure in the form of horizontal and
vertical loads. The situation is more critical when the pile is
embedded in a sloping ground.
This paper is a study of the structural significance of SSI
analysis on a single laterally loaded pile in sloping ground
embedded in clay using a model investigation for three
different length of pile.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
Dial Guage
Pulley
Pile
Slope 1:1.5
Load
Fig.3 Experimental setup for the model study (Slope 1:1.5)
Fig.2 Typical Pile Soil Response to Lateral Load

Since soil is a non-linear material, the soil reaction is not
linearly related to the pile deflection. Consequently at every
point along the length of the pile, a non-linear relationship
between soil resistance (p) and pile deflection (y) exists.
In designing laterally loaded piles, we need to know the pile
deflection, particularly the pile head deflection, to satisfy
serviceability requirement and the bending moments for
sizing the pile. The pile head deflection depends on soil type,
pile installation, pile flexibility (or pile stiffness), loading
condition and on how the pile is attached to the
superstructure and pile cap.
In this paper the pile head deflection on a single pile
embedded in clay placed at the crest of a sloping ground is
studied using a model clay bed. The mechanism of failure
depends on the length to diameter or width ratio, soil type
and the fixity of the pile head. In the present study three
length to diameter ratios, viz., 39.5, 32.5 and 29 are used. The
soil type used is clay and the fixity of the pile head is such
that the pile head is free. Two types of piles are normally
defined to distinguish failure mechanisms, which are short
and long piles. Towers and offshore structures are usually
The arrangement of the test program is shown in Fig.3. The

Loading arrangement is made in such a way that it is acting
laterally to the pile [2]. However, it is not possible to apply
continuous loading but load is applied by stepping. To
maintain a uniform density all through the tank depth,
weighed clay was placed in the tank in layers of 10cm
thickness and was tampered to the desired level to attain the
bulk density of 1.78g.cc. Predefined slope of clay was
maintained to be 1:1.5. Model pile was placed after filling a
base layer of 25cm height. Clay is filled in such a way that
pile comes at the crest of the slope. After filling the tank, the
upper surface of clay is levelled. The lateral load is applied to
the pile tip through a pulley arrangement with flexible wire.
The other end of the wire is attached to the loading apron.
Load is applied by dead weight over the loading pan starting
from the smallest with gradual increase in steps of 1kg each.
To measure the lateral deflection dial gauges with a
sensitivity of 0.01mm is used. When step by step lateral loads
are applied on the pile the corresponding strain readings from
the computer, the dial gauge readings and the corresponding
loadings are recorded. The Schematic diagram is shown in
Fig.4.
The model pile is a aluminium hollow pipe of 19mm outer
diameter and 1mm thickness. The experiment is done with
different Le/D ratios of 29, 32.5 and 39.5. The embedded
length of pile are 550mm, 620mm and 750mm. the lateral
load is applied at a height of 50mm above the ground level.
Experimental Investigation of Laterally Loaded Pile in Sloping Ground Embedded in Clay
Fig.4. Schematic diagram of the experimental setup

The soil sample used is clay with a placement density of
1.78g/cc and specific gravity 2.6. The properties of clay are
LL=45%, PL=30%, PI=15% and the undrained compressive
strength of clay is 15kPa. Since the embedded lengths are
more than 15 times the diameter (19 mm) of the pile, it is a
long pile. A slope of 1:1.5 was maintained in the tank for the
present study.
Fig.6. Bending moment variation with increase in load for a

typical pile from the model test
It is observed that the position of the maximum bending
moment remains same for all the piles with respect to its total
length.
RESULTS
Load-Deflection curve of a single laterally loaded free head
model pile resting on a sloping clay ground was plotted for
three different effective lengths to diameters (Le/D) of pile
[7]. It is observed that for a particular load, pile with Le/D
ratio 39.5 is having more deflection than the others with Le/D
ratio 32.5 and 29.
Fig.5 Load-Deflection curve for the model piles under

investigation
The strain and the corresponding bending moment in all the
piles increases as the load increases and the pattern of
variation coincides with the pattern suggested by the
theoretical methods [5].
Fig.7 Bending moment variation along the length of a model

pile with Le/D = 39.5
Kavitha.P.E, Dr.K.S.Beena & Dr.Narayanan.K.P

CONCLUSION
i) As the Le/D ratio of the pile increases from 29 to
39.5, at a particular load the lateral deflection
increases.
ii) The maximum bending moment increases with
increase in the applied lateral load.
iii) The maximum bending moment occurs at a length
of 20-30% of pile length.

pile with Le/D = 32.5

pile with Le/D = 29 at ultimate load (80 N)
REFERENCES
1. Broms B.B (1964), Laeral Resistance of Piles in
Cohesive Soils, J. Soil Mechanics and Found. Div.,
ASCE, 90(2), 309-326
2. Deepak Raj and Gandhi, S.R (2004), Improvement
of Lateral Capacity of Pile Due to Compaction of
Surrounding Soil, Indian Geotechnical Conference2004
3. Karthigeyan , S , Ramakrishna,V.V.G.S.T and
Rajagopal, K.P (2006) Influence of vertical loads
on the lateral response of piles in sand. Computers
and Geotechnics. 33, 121-131
4. Phanikanth, V.S and Deepankar Choudhury,
Response of Single Pile under Lateral Loads in
Cohesionless Soils, Electronic Journal on
Geotechnical Engineering, Vol15, 2010, Bund.H
5. Phanikanth, V.S , Deepankar Choudhury and Rami
Reddy, Behaviour of Fixed Head Single Pile in
Cohesionless Soil under Lateral Loads, Electronic
Journal on Geotechnical Engineering,Vol15,2010,
Bund.M
6. Poulos H.G and Davis E.H (1980), Pile Foundation
Analysis and Design, John Wiley and SonsInc,
Newyork,N.Y
7. Rao, S.N et.al (1996), Behaviour of Pile Supported
Dolphins in Marine Clay Under Lateral Loading,
Journal of Geotechical Engineering, Vol122, No.8
8. Reese L.C, Cox W.R and Koop.F.D (1974),
Analysis of Laterally Loaded Piles in Sand, Proc. 5th
Annual Offshore Technology Conf., Paper No.OTC
2080 473-485
9. Salini, U. and Girish, M. S., Lateral Load Capacity
of Model Piles on Cohesionless Soil, Electronic
Journal on Geotechnical Engineering,Vol14,2009,
Bund.P

SHRINKAGE BEHAVIOUR OF SOILS

M. Hussain, Assistant Professor, Civil Engg. Dept., NERIST, Itanagar 791 109, Email: monowarhussain@gmail.com
S. K. Dash, Associate Professor, Civil Engg. Dept., IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur - 721 302, Email: sujit@civil.iitkgp.ernet.in
ABSTRACT: This paper presents the shrinkage behaviour of soils with wide range of plasticity characteristics (i.e. liquid
limit varying from 45% to 460% and plastic limit 26% to 53.7%). The test results indicate that, the shrinkage responses are
generally of S-shape, indicating that there are three different stages of shrinkage i.e. initial shrinkage, primary shrinkage and
residual shrinkage. The maximum shrinkage takes place under primary shrinkage.
INTRODUCTION
Expansive soils undergo large volumetric changes with
change in moisture content. Increase in moisture content
during wet season causes swelling and reduction in moisture
content in dry season causes shrinkage in such soil. This
leads to heaving and settlement that causes distress in the
structures founded upon it such as; houses, pavements, rail
tracks, canal lining, embankments etc. Therefore, a major
concern of foundation engineer is to predict as accurately as
possible the volume change behavior (i.e shrinkage) of soil.
Shrinkage behavior is one of the important criteria with
respect to the design of back fill materials to be used in
various applications, such as nuclear waste disposal projects
[1-7]. In this paper the shrinkage behaviour of soil with wide
range of plasticity characteristic has been investigated
through a series of experiments.
Primarily an expansive soil (ES) and a residual soil (RS) that
represent the extreme types of soil are used in the present
study. Expansive soil used in this study is a commercially
available bentonite. This soil, a typical of highly expansive
clay, has montmorillonite as chief clay mineral. The specific
gravity, liquid limit, plastic limit and shrinkage limit of this
soil are found to be 2.63, 459.94%, 53.7% and 7%
respectively. As per ASTM D2487, the soil is classified as
clay with high plasticity (CH). The residual soil used consists
of 83% fines in which silt is predominant (71.74%). The
specific gravity, liquid limit, plastic limit and shrinkage limit
of this soil are found to be 2.67, 45.33%, 25.99% and 25.45%
respectively. As per ASTM D 2487, the soil is classified as
clay with medium compressibility (CI).
Shrinkage Test
Shrinkage Limit
The tests for shrinkage limit were carried out as per the
ASTM D 427. The entrapped air in the soil sample in the
shrinkage dish was carefully expelled out. Cracking during
drying was prevented by first allowing the soil pat to dry very
slowly in the air under controlled condition followed by oven
drying to a constant mass. The shrinkage limit reported is the
average of three of trials.
Volumetric Shrinkage
Soil specimens were prepared in the same procedure as in
case of oedometer swell tests. The moist soils were
transferred to PVC rings of 69 mm internal diameter and 40
mm height. The soil contained in the ring was placed on the
metallic pedestal and was statically compressed to 20 mm
thickness using a hand-operated static press. The weight of
dry soil and water content were taken such that Proctor
maximum dry density condition is attained. Dry filter paper
was placed both at top and bottom of the compacted soil
sample in the ring. Over the filter papers were placed, two
perforated Perspex sheets having 2mm holes, one at each end,
to allow free access of water. The whole assembly was placed
in a tray and a normal surcharge of 5 kPa was applied onto it
through dead weights. Distilled water was poured in the tray
that the soil sample is submerged. The submerged soil was
allowed to swell for 30 days. After this, water was taken out
from tray and the swollen soil was allowed to dry at
temperature of 30 30C, while the surcharge pressure of 5
kPa was maintained. As shrinkage of soil progressed due to
drying, the weight, height and diameter of the specimen were
measured at every 24 hours. The diameter of the specimen
was measured through vernier caliper and height through a
table top dial gauge assembly. Measurement of height and
diameter were taken at five different places, the average
value of which is used for obtaining the volume of the
specimen at different stages of shrinkage. The void ratio and
water content of the soil samples, at regular intervals during
shrinkage are obtained through the following relations.
e0 =
G w
V
e
=
V0 1 + e0
e = e0 e
w
w = w0
100
ws
(1)
( 2)
(3)
(4)
M. Hussain & S.K Dash
Where, eo = void ratio of swollen soil, G = specific gravity of

soil, w = unit weight of water, d = dry density of soil
specimens at any stage of drying (i.e. ratio of weight of soil
mass ws, which is a constant to the volume of specimen at
that stage), Vo = volume of swollen soil specimen , V =
reduction in volume of soil specimen due to shrinkage, e =
reduction in void ratio of the soil specimen due to shrinkage,
e = void ratio at any stage of shrinkage, wo = water content
of the swollen soil specimen, w = reduction in weight of
the soil specimen due to drying, w = water content of the soil
specimen at any stage of drying.
The drying process was terminated when the weight of soil
specimens became nearly constant. Depending on the type of
soil the time required for completion of shrinkage test varied
between 15 to 30 days.
Shrinkage Limit
In the process of drying there comes a stage when the soil
particles come in contact with each other thereby further
reduction in water content does not change the volume of the
soil mass that it behaves as a solid. The water content at this
stage is referred to as shrinkage limit which quantitatively
deciphers the potential of the soil to shrink. Fig. 1 presents
the variation of shrinkage limit and liquid limit with residual
soil content in the soil matrix. It could be observed that while
the liquid limit has gradually decreased with increase in the
residual soil content the shrinkage limit variation has
undergone two different phases. Initially it has increased at
relatively slower rate till residual soil content of about 60%,
beyond which it has undergone a sharp increase with further
increase in residual soil content. This indicates that it is not
plasticity of soil alone that dictates its shrinkage
characteristics, particle size distribution too plays a major
role in the shrinkage response of soils. Sridharan and Rao [1]
have reported that
the interparticle shearing resistance
influences substantially the shrinkage limit of the soils. For a
fine grained expansive soil this resistance is primarily
through the viscous resistance of the pore water while incase
of the coarse grained non-expansive residual soil it is the
intergranular frictional resistance. For relatively less
percentage of residual soil the coarse grains remain
suspended in the fine soil mass. However, beyond certain
percentage the residual soil turns to be the major constituent
that the coarse grains come in contact with each other leading
to substantial increase in interparticle resistance and hence
the shrinkage limit.
The results can further be analysed with respect to the fabric
of the soil structure, which basically is the arrangement
pattern of the soil particles. Primarily there happens three
different fabrics in soils, such as; dispersed, aggregated and
flocculated [8].
In dispersed structure the clay particles without having any
face to face association, mostly are in parallel orientation in
the soil-water system. This phenomenon takes place in case

of plastic clays where the interparticle repulsion is dominant.
In such soils the shrinkage is more and therefore the
shrinkage limit is less. However, due to large thickness of
diffuse double layer that creates repulsion, the liquid limit of
these soils is high.
In aggregated fabric the clay particles are in face to face
association that they form clusters. These clusters give rise to
apparently higher particle size leading to increased void
space and hence increased shrinkage limit. Such a
phenomenon takes place when the interparticle repulsion is
relatively less. Therefore aggregation can take place when the
diffused double layer thickness is relatively less, which is the
case for relatively low plastic soils. Hence the aggregated
fabric can be indicated by low liquid limit but high shrinkage
limit.
In flocculated structures the soils are in the edge to edge
association forming a card house like structure giving rise to
large inter granular voids and hence high shrinkage limit.
Such edge to face arrangement takes place with fine grained
soils in acidic environment. The flocculated structure is
therefore characterized by high shrinkage limit and high
liquid limit [5].
The variation of shrinkage limit with liquid limit for the
expansive soil-residual soil system indicates that initially
with 100%ES the soil is in dispersive state, characterized by
high liquid limit and low shrinkage limit (Fig. 2). With
increased residual soil content the fabric of the soil system
has changed towards aggregation indicated through low
liquid limit and high shrinkage limit. This indicates that soils
having predominately fine clay particles have a dispersed
fabric and the one dominated by coarse particles has an
aggregated fabric.
Volumetric Shrinkage
The volumetric shrinkage responses resulting from
progressive drying, as it happens in the field, were studied for
the present soils (ES, ES+RS, RS). Fig. 3 shows the void
ratio vs. water content responses for the soil specimens
during shrinkage. It could be observed that the shrinkage
responses are generally of S-shape, indicating that there are
three different stages of shrinkage. The schematic diagram
showing these three phases i.e. initial shrinkage, primary
shrinkage and residual shrinkage; are depicted in Fig. 4.
However, as the non-expansive residual soil percentage in the
soil specimen increases the shrinkage response grows flatter
indicating that the rate of shrinkage has reduced with reduced
fines content. It is the capillary pressure generated in the soil
pores that brings the particles closer during shrinkage. With
increased grain size the voids grow in size leading to reduced
capillary pressure and hence reduced shrinkage. Besides the
inter particle resistance acting against the capillary suction
increases with increased coarse fractions in the soil mass.
These two factors are believed to have retarded the rate of
shrinkage. The equilibrium shrinkage void ratio has shown an
Shrinkage behavior of soils
increasing trend with increased residual soil content,

indicating that the maximum shrinkage reduces with
increased coarse fraction.
500
Shrinkage limit
Liquid limit
25
400
20
300
15
200
10
100
0
0
20
40
60
80
2.6
100
Residual soil content (%)
2.2
2.0
Fig. 1 Variation of liquid limit and shrinkage limit with

residual soil content in expansive soil-residual soil
system.
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
30
Shrinkage limit (%)
100%ES
80%ES+20%RS
60%ES+40%RS
40%ES+60%RS
20%ES+80%RS
100%RS
2.4
Void ratio, e
Liquid limit (%)
Shrinkage limit (%)
30
residual soil it takes place in a narrow range (i.e. 14-7%).

From the above observation it can be concluded that in soils
having extremely high fines fraction the plasticity governs
shrinkage while for moderate and low fines content the grain
size distribution governs the shrinkage characteristics of the
soil.
Aggregation
0.4
Flocculation
25
0.2
0
20
15
Dispersion
10
20
40
60
Water content, w (%)
80
100
Fig. 3 Water content vs. void ratio responses for different

soils.
5
0
100
200
300
Liquid limit (%)
400
500
Initial
shrinkage
region
The shrinkage in the initial phase and residual phase are

much lesser compared to the primary stage. In fact most of
the shrinkage takes place in the primary phase. This is
because the initial shrinkage is due to loss of surface water
which is insignificant. Only when the capillary suction starts
building up in the voids [6], the soil grain start getting closer
to each other reducing the void space substantially, giving
rise to increased rate of shrinkage. However a stage reaches
when the soil particles come closest that the interparticle
resistance is high enough to stand against the capillary
suction leading to reduced shrinkage with further reduction in
water content. During this, the shrinkage is due to some
fabric re-arrangement or bending of particles [9]. This is
called residual shrinkage.
It could be observed that while for expansive soil (100%ES)
the transition from primary to residual shrinkage occurs over
a wide range of water content (i.e. 84-16%), in case of
Void ratio, e
Fig. 2 Liquid limit vs. shrinkage limit response depicting the

fabric in expansive soil-residual soil systems.
Primary shrinkage
region
Residual shrinkage
region
Water content, w (%)
Fig. 4 Schematic diagram showing the three phases of

shrinkage i.e. initial, primary and residual shrinkage
M. Hussain & S.K Dash
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results obtained, the following conclusions can
be made on the shrinkage behaviour of expansive soilresidual soil mixes.
1.
2.
3.
With increased residual soil content the fabric of the

soil system has changed towards aggregation
indicated through low liquid limit and high
shrinkage limit. This indicates that soils having
predominately fine clay particles have a dispersed
fabric and the one dominated by coarse particles has
an aggregated fabric.
The shrinkage responses are generally of S-shape,
indicating that there are three different stages of
shrinkage i.e. initial shrinkage, primary shrinkage
and residual shrinkage. The maximum shrinkage
taking place under primary shrinkage.
As the non-expansive residual soil percentage in the
soil specimen increases the shrinkage response
grows flatter indicating that the rate of shrinkage has
reduced with reduced fines content.
REFERENCES
1.
Sridharan, A. and Rao, G.V (1971), Effective stress
theory
of
shrinkage
phenomena,
Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, 8(4), 503-513.
2.
Chen F.H (1975), Foundations on expansive Soils,
Elsevier Publishing co., Amsterdam.
3.
Sridharan A, Prakash K (1998), Mechanism controlling
shrinkage limit of soils, Geotech. Test. Jl. 21(3):240
250
4.
Sridharan, A and Prakash, K (2000), Shrinkage limit of
soil mixtures, Geotech. Test. Jl, 23(1), 3-8.
5.
Sivapullaiah, P.V., Sridharan, A. and Bhaskar Raju,
K.V. (2000), Role of amount and type of clay in the
lime stabilization of soils, Ground Improvement, 4, 3745.
6.
Fredlund, D.G and Rahardjo, H. (1993), Soil
Mechanics for Unsaturated Soils, John Wiley &
Sons,In
7.
Mishra, A. K., Dhawan, S. and Rao, S. M. (2008),
Analysis of swelling and shrinkage behaviour of
compacted clays, Geotech. & Geolog. Engg. 26, 289298.
8.
Mitchell, J. K. and Soga, K. (2005), Fundamentals of
Soil Behaviour, 3rd Ed., John Wiley and Sons, New
York.
9.
Yong, R.N. and Warkentin, B.P. (1975), Introduction
to Soil Behaviour, Mc. Millan Company, NY.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge IIT Guwahati

wherein the present experiments were carried out.

December 13-15, 2012, Delhi (Paper No. B279.)
STRENGTH DEVELOPMENT OF COCHIN MARINE CLAY STABILIZED WITH FLY ASH

Sandeep M.N. Assistant Professor, IES College of Engineering, Thrissur email: sandheepmn@gmail.com
Didi Ravindran, Post-graduate Student, IES College of Engineering, Thrissur email: manasaras@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Greater parts of Cochin area have large quantities of soft marine clay deposits which exhibit high liquid limit,
low shear strength and high compressibility. This paper presents the stabilization of Cochin marine clay, using fly ash which is
a byproduct of Hindustan News Prints Kottayam. The paper presents the index and engineering properties of marine clay. To
find out the maximum dry density and optimum water content, compaction tests are carried out for soil with various percentage
of fly ash. To study the effect of fly ash on the shear strength of marine clay, a series of unconfined compression tests are
carried out, by varying the fly ash content in the soil. The tests indicate an improved strength and better properties of marine
soil, when stabilized with fly ash.
INTRODUCTION
India being a peninsular country has large area under coastal
region. The soil which is found in the coastal regions is
generally called as marine clay. Marine clays are found in
ocean bed as well as onshore. Marine clay is an uncommon
type of clay and normally exists in soft consistency. These
types of clays are generally found in the places of West
Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala,
Karnataka, Maharashtra, and some parts of Gujarat. Most of
the marine clays are highly compressive with low bearing
capacity. The natural water content of the marine clay is
always greater than its liquid limit.
In Cochin the presence of soft marine clay deposits in most
areas warrants the use of expensive deep foundations for
majority of the structures built over there. Besides the
settlement of the foundations is a challenging problem
associated with the buildings constructed in these areas. The
settlement of the structure causes heavy financial loss to the
owners. The presence of high water content in these clays
poses considerable difficulties in the construction of the
embankments and other engineering structures on these soils.
These clays are moderately sensitive with liquidity indices
ranging from the value 0.46 to 0.87.
Due to increased infrastructure activities along the coastal
lines, it has become a necessity to utilize these areas, after
suitable methods of improvement in the ground. Soil
stabilization is a well established technique for the
improvement of the desirable properties such as shear
strength, load bearing capacity etc. Mechanical stabilization
and chemical stabilization are the most commonly used
ground improvement techniques. In the chemical stabilization
various additives such as lime, cement, gypsum, rock dust,
rise husk ash or fly ash are added to the soil to improve the
engineering properties of soil. Among these fly ash is the
cheapest one. Soil stabilization by means of fly ash has
environmental benefits also. At present, in India thermal
power plants produce about 90 million tones of fly ash per
annum, and hardly 13 percent of its utilized. Fly ash is
creating lot of health hazard and requires large areas of
precious land for its disposal. The bulk utilization of fly ash
is possible only in case of civil engineering applications.
Thus the disposal of this ash is now become an urgent and
challenging task for us.
A comprehensive review of the literature indicates that
considerable amount of work related to the determination of
engineering behavior of marine soils has been carried out
worldwide. Plasticity index, activity, and swelling potential
of the samples decrease with increasing percent of stabilizer
and curing time. Addition of 20% fly ash decreases the
swelling potential obtained with 8% lime addition [1]. The
addition of fly ash reduces the plasticity, liquid limit and free
swell index. Higher the density of the clay-fly ash blend
lower would be the hydraulic conductivity [2]. Liquid limit
and plasticity index values decrease with addition of fly ash
in combination with lime to marine clay. Dry density
increases with addition of fly ash where as dry density
decreases with addition of lime. CBR value of the treated
sample gets increased with addition of fly ash and lime to the
marine clay [3]. Using unconsolidated undrained triaxial tests
confirm that shear strength of the marine soil increases with
logarithmic manner with the rate of loading. Cyclic strain
controlled tests carried out with remolded clay samples
indicate linear relation of degradation index with number of
cycles in log-log scale [4].Unconfined compressive strength
and CBR increase with addition of rise husk ash and fly ash.
Rise husk ash content of 12% and a fly ash content of 25%
are recommended for strengthening the expansive subgrade
soil while a fly ash content of 15% is recommended for
blending into rise husk ash to form a swell reduction layer
[5]. The inclusion of random fibers in marine clay increases
the shear strength significantly. The shear strength increases
nonlinearly with length up to 20mm beyond which an
increase in length of fiber decreases the shear strength [6].
Addition of fly ash increases the strength of clay. 60% fly ash
by weight gives the optimum mix [7].
Sandeep M.N, Didi Ravindran

MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
Soil
The soil used for this study is marine clay which is collected
from Cochin shipyard. The soil is collected from a depth of
10-12m from sea shore. The soil is blackish in colour.
The properties of air dried marine clay used for this study are
summarized in the table 1 below.
Table 1 Properties of Air Dried Marine Clay
Properties
Values
Specific gravity
2.16
15
Sand (%)
37
Silt (%)
48
Clay (%)
84
Liquid limit (%)
Plastic limit (%)
40
Shrinkage limit (%)
15.58
44
Maximum dry
1.295
density(g/cc)
32
Optimum moisture
content
6
Organic content (%)
Additive
The additive used in this study is fly ash. The fly ash which is
used as a stabilizing agent in this study is collected from
Hindusthan News Print Nagar Kottayam, Kerala India. The
specific gravity of fly ash used is 2.12. The class F fly ash is
used in this study.

A series of compaction test and unconfined compression test
are carried out on untreated and treated marine clay with
various percentage of fly ash.
Proctor Compaction Test
It is noticed from the laboratory test result that the marine
clay has exhibited an increase in dry density upto the addition
of 5% of fly ash and with further addition of fly ash the dry
density decreases. Also the optimum moisture content of clay
decreases with addition of fly ash till the 5% optimum and
thereafter OMC increases with increase in fly ash content.
Fig 1 Compaction Curves of marine clay with various

% of fly ash
Experimental Investigations
The experimental investigation is carried out in marine clay.
The specific gravity of soil and fly ash are 2.16 and 2.12
respectively. The specific gravity of materials is determined
using the density bottle method. The soil and fly ash are
designated as MC and FA respectively.
The maximum dry density (MDD) and optimum moisture
content (OMC) of marine clay alone and marine clay-fly ash
mixture are determined by proctor compaction tests. The tests
are done in accordance with Indian Standard Test Procedure
(IS: 2720-part 7). The quantity of fly ash to be added to the
soil is taken as a percentage of dry weight of soil. Proper care
is taken at each stage of mixing to get a uniform mixture.
Unconfined compression tests are conducted in accordance
with Indian Standard Test method (IS: 2720-part10). Each
sample has length of 76mm and diameter 38 mm. Fly ash
stabilized soil samples are prepared at their respective
optimum moisture content and maximum dry density. Load
deformation behavior of unstabilized marine clay and marine
clay stabilized with fly ash at different percentage are
studied.
Fig 2 MDD variation of marine clay - fly ash mixtures

The variation of MDD of the soil-fly ash mixes at various
percentages is shown in fig 2.The dry density of clay
increases from 1.295 g/cc to 1.353 g/cc at 5 % fly ash
content.
Strength development of cochin marine clay stabilized with fly ash
Stress Strain Variations

Figure 5 shows the stress-strain behaviour of marine clay
alone and with varying percentage of fly as. The stress strain
behaviour of soil changes from ductile behaviour to brittle
behaviour as the fly ash percentage increases. The maximum
strength is achieved at fly ash content of 5%.
Fig 3 OMC variation of marine clay - fly ash mixtures

The variation of OMC of the soil-fly ash mixes at various
percentages is shown in fig 3.
With addition of fly ash to the soil the optimum moisture
content started decreasing from 32% to 23% at 5 percent fly
ash content and thereafter the OMC increases with the
addition of fly ash.
At 15 % fly ash content there is no much effect on the soil
due to the addition of fly ash as the MDD and OMC are
almost same for the untreated clay.
Effect of Fly Ash Content on Liquid Limit
Fig 5 Stress-strain curves of marine clay stabilized with

various percentage of fly ash
Further upon adding fly ash the shear strength of the soil gets
decreased. The following mechanism explains the
improvement reasons. The chemical reaction that occurs
when fly ash is mixed with clay includes pozzolanic reactions
and cementation process. This increases the strength.
Influence of Fly Ash on Shear Strength
Figure 6 shows the shear strength variation of marine clay
alone and with varying percentage of fly ash addition. The
effect of fly ash is highest at 5% fly ash content and the
increase in shear strength is 158% than that of marine clay
alone. Thus the optimum amount of fly ash is 5%.The shear
strength of soil increases from 67.49 kN/m2 (soil without fly
ash) to 174.42 kN/m2 at optimum fly ash content.
Fig 4 liquid limit variation with fly ash content

Liquid limit decreases with fly ash content. The liquid limit
decreases from 84% to 68 % at 2.5 % fly ash content and
thereafter increases to 72% at 5% fly ash content and
thereafter remains constant..In clay fly ash blend, silt sized
fly ash particles replace clay particles. Then average size of
particles in the mix is higher than that of the clay alone. Thus
liquid limit of the blend decreases with various percentage of
fly ash addition.
Fig 6 variation of shear strength in marine clay with fly ash
Sandeep M.N, Didi Ravindran

CONCLUSIONS
To study the effect of addition of fly ash on marine clay, a
series of tests are conducted with fly ash content varying
from 0 to 15% and arrived at the following conclusions.
The addition of fly ash with marine clay
increases the maximum dry density and
decreases optimum moisture content at the
addition of optimum fly ash content. The
optimum fly ash content for Cochin Marine
clay is 5%.
The MDD of marine clay increases from
1.295 g/cc for untreated soil to 1.353 g/cc
at 5 % fly ash added clay. The OMC of
marine clay decreases from 32% for
untreated soil to 23% at the optimum fly
ash content.
The shear strength of marine clay increases
with increasing fly ash content up to 5%.
The shear strength of marine clay stabilized
with fly ash increase from 67.49 kN/m2 to
174.42 kN/m2 at 5 % fly ash content.
The percentage increase is almost 158%.
Also found out that liquid limit of soil
decreases with fly ash addition.
.
Utilization of fly ash as a stabilization material for marine
appears to be viable answer for improving the desirable
properties of Cochin marine clay and also solving the fly ash
disposal problem. Further studies must be carried to find the
effect of curing time on the stabilisation of marine clay with
fly ash.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Erdal Cocka(2001), Use of class c fly ash for the

stabilization of expansive soil, Journal of
ASCE, vol -127, no 7.
Phani Kumar B.R, Radhey. S. Sharma (2004), Effect
of fly ash on engineering properties of expansive
soils,
Journal
of
Geotechnical
and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, vol-130, no
7.
Koteswara Rao D, Sruthi M and Suryaditya R
(2011), A study on the influence of lime on fly ash
treated marine clay, IJEST Vol.3 No.8.
Basack S. and R.D. Pukayastha (2009), Engineering
properties of marine clays from the eastern cost
India, J. Eng and Technology Research Vol.1(6),
pp.109-114.
Dr. Robert M. Brooks (2009), Soil stabilization with
fly ash and rise husk ash, International Journal of
Research and Reviews in Applied Sciences vol.1
issue 3.
Bindu Sebastian, Sobha Cyrus and Babu.T.Jose
(2011), Effect of inclusion of coir fiber on the shear
7.
strength of marine clay, proceedings of Indian

Geotechnical Conference 2011, Kochi.
Emmiliani Anak Geliga and Dygku Salma Awg
Ismail (2010), Geotechnical properties of fly ash and
its application on soft soil stabilization, Journal of
Civil Engineering, Vol.1 issue 2.
Paper No B 280
Sub Theme: Development in Dealing with Difficult Ground Conditions and Geotechnical Structures
ANALYTICAL MODELING OF FLEXILE PAVEMENT RESTING

ON FIBER REINFORCED CLAYEY SOIL
Kalpana Maheshwari, Research Scholar, S V Institute of Technology, email: ges_adi@yahoo.com
Dr. A. K. Desai, Assistant Professor, S V Institute of Technology, email: dip1985@yahoo.com
Dr. C. H. Solanki, Assistant Professor, S V Institute of Technology, email: chandresh 1968@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT: Geotechnical engineers face the difficulties while designing the road on highly compressible clayey soil because
such soil is susceptible to differential settlement due to poor engineering properties. Among the various ground improvement
techniques, reinforcing the soil using the fibers is a new technique and yet not well known. In this paper series of laboratory
tests on un-reinforced and fiber reinforced soil with different amount of fibers were conducted. It was observed that there is a
significant increase in CBR value with the inclusion of fibers. As per IRC 37-2001, based on CBR values the flexible
pavements resting on fiber reinforced soil for traffic volumes of 1msa to 150msa were designed and modeled using finite
element software Plaxis 2D. It is found that there is a considerable reduction in deformation on the top of sub-grade due to
reinforcing the sub-grade soil using fibers.
INTRODUCTION
In the case of geotechnical engineering the idea of
inserting fibrous materials in a soil mass in order to improve
its mechnical behaviour has become very popular. The
concept of earth reinforcement is an ancient technique and
demonstrated abundanty in nature by animals, birds and the
action of tree roots. These reinforcement resists tensile stress
developed within the soil mass thereby restricting shear
failure. Reinforcement intracts with the soil through friction
and adhesion. The practicing engineers are employing this
technique for stabilization of thin soil layers, reparing failed
slopes, soil strengthing around the footings and earth
retaining structures. The enclusion of randomly distributed
discrete fiber increases strength parameters of the soil as in
case of reinforced concrete construction.
The concept of soil reinforcement was first
developed by Vidal (1969). He demonstrated that the
introduction of reinforcement elements in a soil mass
increases the shear resistance of the soil matrix. The primary
purpose of reinforcing soil mass is to improve its stability,
increase its bearing capacity and reduce settlements and
lateral deformation (Hausman- 1990, Prabaker & Sridhar2002). The investigations indicate that strength properties of
fiber reinforced soils are the function of fiber content, fiber
surface friction along the soil mass and fiber strength
characterises. (Hoare- 1979, Andersland & Khattak- 1979,
Gray and Ohashi- 1983, Maher- 1988, Ranjan et al.- 1996,
Nataraj & Mcmanis- 1997, Kaniraj & Havanagi- 2001,
Yestimoglu & Salbas- 2003, Praveenkumar & Swami - 2008,
Ameta- 2009).
The stabilization of sub-grade soil with radomly
distributed fibers in the flexible pavement has not been fully
investigated. Thus in the present study behaviour of flexible
pavement resting on un-reinforced and fiber reinforced
subgrade soil is analyzed through finite element method. A
general purpose finite element package, Plaxis 2D was used
for modeling the flexible pavement.
Soil Sample used
For the present study, Soil samples blackish in colour were
collected. All the preliminary tests as mentioned in Table 1
were conducted as per relevant Indian Standards. The
engineering properties of soil are listed in Table 1.
Table 1 Engineering properties of soil used
Properties
Values
Specific gravity
2.44
Gravel, %
1
Sand, %
8
Silt, %
66
Clay, %
25
Liquid limit, %
52.9
Plastic limit, %
27.5
Plasticity index, %
25.4
Shrinkage limit, %
23.5
IS classification
CH
Maximum dry density, gm/cc
1.65
Optimum moisture content, %
16.23
Soil Reinforcement used
For the improvement of engineering properties of clayey soil
polyester fibers are used as a reinforcement which is supplied
by Reliance Industry Limited. The properties of fibers are
listed as: type = Polyester, cut length = 12.1mm, cross section
= triangular, diameter = 30 40 m, tensile elongation =
>100%, specific gravity = 1.34-1.39, tensile strength = 400
600 N/m2. Due to triangular cross section fibers are better
bonded with clay particle.
California Bearing Ratio Test
To study the effects of adding polyester fibers on the strength
characteristics of highly compressible clay soil for sub grade
CBR tests were conducted. The amount of fiber content were
varies from 0 to 1.50% (by weight of dry soil). The Polyester
Kalpana Maheshwari, Dr. A. K. Desai, Dr. C. H. Solanki

fibers are mixed in dry soil by manually till it homogeneously
mixed with soil. Both un-reinforced and fiber reinforced soil
is compacted at same MDD and OMC for maintaining
uniformity. The CBR tests were conducted inside a modified
proctor mould at soaked state per ASTM D1883-92. The
mould was a rigid metal cylinder with an inside diameter of
152mm and a height of 178 mm. A manual loading machine
equipped with a movable base that travelled at a uniform rate
of 1.27 mm/min and a calibrated load indicating device was
used to force the penetration piston with a diameter of 50mm
into the specimen. The loads were carefully recorded as a
function of penetration up to a total penetration of 30mm to
observe the post-failure behaviour as well. The Figure 1
shows the effect of inclusion of polyester fibers on the soaked
CBR value of clayey soil.
the loaded area, which is more than 4 times loaded area. The
linear elastic analysis was carried out to evaluate the response
of flexible pavement resting on un-reinforced and reinforced
sub grade soils. The stress and deformation within the
pavement section and vertical strain at top of the sub grade
was obtained.
Soaked CBR Value %
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
Fiber Content %
1.25
1.50
1.75
Fig. 1 Effect of inclusion of fibers on soaked CBR value

Finite Element Analysis
The finite element method was used to analyze the pavement
section resting on unreinforced and fiber reinforced sub
grade soils. The software PLAXIS was used. The pavement
section was considered as a 2-D axisymmetric problem and
8-noded structural solid element was used for the analysis.
The thickness of each layer in the pavement section resting
on un-reinforced sub grade soil was designed as per IRC 372001 as per CBR Value.
Fig. 2 Modeling of flexible pavement resting for 150msa

Traffic on Fiber Reinforced Soil having 0.50% Fiber Content
in Plaxis 2D
The Figure 3 shows that the deformation at the top of sub
grade of fiber reinforced clayey soil is 0.35 mm.
The unconsolidated undrained triaxial tests were conducted

on un-reinforced soil, fiber reinforced soil and other
pavement layers at a confining pressure of 100 kPa. The
initial modulus Ei was calculated corresponding to the initial
tangent of the stress-strain curve.These initial modulus are
used as an input parameter for modeling different layers of
flexible pavements in the finite element analysis.
A five-layer flexible pavement system on fiber reinforced soil
having optimum fiber content i.e. 0.50% as shown in
Figure 2 for traffic volume of 150msa was considered and
analyzed. A pressure equal to single axle wheel load is
assumed to be applied at surface and distributed over a
circular area of radius 15 cm. For application of FEM in the
pavement analysis, the layered system of infinite extent is
reduced to an approximate size with finite dimension. The
right hand boundary is provided at ll0 cm from outer edge of
Fig. 3 Deformation in the form of shading
Kalpana Maheshwari, Dr. A. K. Desai, Dr. C. H. Solanki

Similarly total 50 analytical models were prepared on unreinforced and fiber reinforced soil having fiber content
0.25%, 0.50%, 1.00% & 1.50% for traffic volume of 1msa to
150msa to calculate the deformation on the top of sub-grade.
The values of settlements are listed in Table 3. The settlement
on the top of sub-grade on un-reinforced soil for 150msa
traffic volume is 0.884 mm, which is reduced to 0.350 mm
for fiber reinforced soil having fiber content 0.50%. In Figure
4, the relation between fiber content, CBR value, total
thickness of pavement and settelment on the top of subgrade
is shown.
The equation of settelement (i) using multiple regression
analysis is found in terms of fiber content (f) for cummulative
traffic volume (TV) as under.
i = 1.3865 - 0.5343f - 3.3952f2 + 5.9234f3 - 2.3193 f4 0.1090(TV) + 0.0093(TV)2 - 0.0004(TV)3 + 6.4782X 10-6
(TV)4 - 5.1747 X 10-8(TV) 5 + 1.4667X 10-10(TV) 6
The coefficient of correlation R2 for above equation is 0.985,
which is close to unity hence above equation can be
considered satisfactory.
CONCLUSIONS
Following conclusions are drawn from the above study.
There is a sharp increase in soaked CBR value was

observed with the inclusion of polyster fibers. The
soaked CBR value increases with the inclusion of
fiber content up to 0.50%, with further inclusion of
fibers beyond 0.50% decrease in soaked CBR value
was observed.
The settlement on the top of sub grade soil is
decreases with the inclusion of polyester fibers in
clayey soil up to 0.50% and then increases with
further inclusion of fiber content.
The settlement on the top of sub grade for unreinforced soil for 150msa traffic volume is 0.884
mm, which is reduced to 0.350 mm for fiber
reinforced soil having fiber content 0.50%.
REFERENCES
1. O. B. Andersland and A. S. Khattak. (1979), Shear
strength of kaolinite/fiber soil mixtures, Proc.
International Confrence on Soil Reinforcement, Paris,
France. 1, 11-76.
2. D. J. Hoare. (1979), Laboratory study of granular soils
reinforced with randomly oriented discrete fibers, Proc.
Int. Conf. on Use of Fabrics in Geotech., Paris, France.
1, 47-52.
3. D. H. Gray, and H. Oshashi. (1983), Mechanics of fiberreinforcement in sand, Jl. of
Geotechnical
Enggineering, ASCE, 109 (3), 335-353.
4. R. L. Michalowski, and A. Zhao. (1960), Failure of
fiber-reinforced granular soils, Jl. of Geotechnical
5. S. R. Kaniraj and V. G. Havanagi Behaviour of cementstabilized fiber-reinforced fly ash-soil mixtures, , Jl. of
Geotechnical and Geoenviromental Engineering, ASCE
127 (7), pp.574-584, 2001.
6. J. S. Tingle, R. L. Santoni and S. L. Webster. (2002),
Full scale field tests of discrete fiber reinforced sand, Jl.
of Transportation Engineering, 128(1).
7. T. Yetimoglu and O. Salbas. (2005), A study on shear
strength of sands reinforced with randomly discrete
fibers, Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 21(2), 103-110.
8. G. L. Shivkumar Babu, A. K. Vasudevan and M. K.
Sayida. (2008), Use of coir fibers for improving the
engineering properties of expansive soils, Jl. of Natural
Fibers, 5 (1), 61-75, 2008.
Table 2 Settlement on the top of subgrade soil for cumulative traffic volume of 1msa to 150msa
Settlement on the top of sub-grade (i), mm
Fiber
content
Cumulative traffic volume, msa
(f),%
1
2
3
5
10
20
30
50
1.300
1.150
1.050
1.010
1.000
0.915
0.914
0.905
0.00
100
0.890
150
0.884
0.25
1.140
1.000
0.920
0.855
0.750
0.711
0.693
0.672
0.653
0.634
0.50
0.748
0.648
0.581
0.519
0.427
0.408
0.391
0.377
0.364
0.350
1.00
1.020
0.889
0.794
0.702
0.617
0.588
0.567
0.542
0.531
0.514
1.50
1.150
1.010
0.925
0.858
0.751
0.755
0.699
0.671
0.655
0.639
Paper No B 280
Sub Theme: Development in Dealing with Difficult Ground Conditions and Geotechnical Structures
Fig. 4. The relationship between fiber content, CBR value, total pavement thickness and settlement on the top of sub-grade
soil of CH type

PERFORMANCE OF GEOSYNTHETIC REINFORCED STONE COLUMNS

Kausar Ali, Research Scholar, Dept. of Civil Engg., Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, kausarali786@rediffmail.com
J.T. Shahu Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil Engg., Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, shahu@civil.iitd.ac.in
K.G. Sharma Professor, Dept. of Civil Engg., Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, kgsharma@iitd.ac.in
ABSTRACT: Stone columns have proved to be the most suited technique for improving the bearing capacity of weak or soft
soils. However, when very soft soil improved with stone columns is loaded; stone columns undergo excessive settlement due
to low lateral confinement provided by the soft soil. The excessive settlements may be avoided or at least reduced to a great
extent, when the columns are reinforced with geosynthetic either as an encasement or in the form of horizontal strips. In this
study, the effect of reinforcement on bearing capacity of composite soil has been investigated by conducting laboratory model
tests on floating and end bearing stone columns by providing geosynthetic encasement over varying column length. Tests were
also performed by providing reinforcement in the form of horizontal strips of geosynthetic at different spacing over different
column length. The tests indicate that the encasement over the full column length gives higher failure stress as compared to the
encasement over the top one-half column length for both floating and end bearing columns. The best configuration of
geotextile strips is the placement of the strips over full column length at d/2 spacing.
INTRODUCTION
Use of stone columns is a common ground improvement
technique used worldwide for the construction of flexible
structures such as embankments, oil storage tanks etc. on soft
soils with undrained shear strength (cu) 510 kPa [1]. When
the stone columns are installed in very soft soils with
undrained shear strength less than 5 kPa, the lateral
confinement offered by the surrounding soil may not be
adequate to check the column failure due to radial expansion
(bulging) of the stone column. In such situations, the bearing
capacity of composite ground can be improved by reinforcing
the stone columns with geosynthetic. The stone columns can
be reinforced either by encasement (Fig. 1a), i.e., enveloping
the columns with a geosynthetic or by placing horizontal
strips of a geosynthetic within the column body at a regular
interval (Fig. 1b).
Laboratory model tests on geosynthetic reinforced stone
columns have been performed by [2-5]. However, each study
focuses on only one case of the reinforcement, (i.e., either
encasement or horizontal strips) and hence, no information is
as such available on relative increase in the load carrying
capacity of the two cases. Also, most of the above work is
limited to fully penetrating columns and very little
information on the reinforcement of floating columns is
available. In the present study, laboratory model tests on
floating as well as end bearing geosynthetic reinforced stone
columns installed in a soft clay bed were performed. The
model tests were conducted on both forms of the
reinforcement, namely, the encasement and the horizontal
strips, and an optimum configuration in each case is
determined.
Materials, Instrumentation and Test programme
The model tests were conducted on soft soil bed reinforced
with stone columns. The soft soil bed was made up of fully
saturated remolded kaolin clay. The properties of the kaolin

clay are given in Table 1. The undrained shear strength cu of
the soft soil bed was obtained by conducting vane shear tests.
The columns were made up of stone chips of size varying
from 1 mm to 4.75 mm compacted at a relative density Dr =
60% and having an angle of internal friction = 45 as
determined by the direct shear test.
Table 1 Properties of clay used in the model tests
Parameter
Value
Specific Gravity
2.64
Liquid Limit (%)
54
Plastic Limit (%)
23
31
Saturated unit weight (kN/m3)
18.59
14.5
Dry unit weight (kN/m3)
Water content (%)
401
Shear strength (kPa)
67
Clay (%)
55
Silt (%)
35
Geotextile/Geogrid
s
x
l
d
Stone Column
(a)
(b)
Fig. 1 Different modes of reinforcement of stone columns
Kausar Ali, J.T. Shahu, K.G. Sharma

A 20 mm thick mat was provided below the footing area in
all model tests. The mat consisted of sub-angular Badarpur
sand of predominantly quartz particles of sizes passing
through 1 mm sieve and retained on 600 micron sieve having
an angle of internal friction = 38. The grain size
distribution of kaolin clay, Badarpur sand and stone chips is
shown in Fig. 2. A woven geotextile of tensile modulus =
97.5 kN/m was used to reinforce the model stone columns as
encasement and a rough non-woven heat bonded geotextile
with tensile modulus = 120 kN/m as horizontal strip
reinforcement.
100
Percentage finer (%)
90
80
70
Sand for mat
60
50
40
Kaolinite clay
30
Stone chips
20
10
0
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
Diameter (mm)
Fig. 2 Grain size distribution of kaolin, sand and stone chips

The model tests for floating columns were conducted in a
perspex cylindrical tank of 300 mm diameter and 600 mm
depth and for end bearing columns a tank of 300 mm
diameter and 300 depth was used. The diameter and length of
floating as well as end bearing columns were kept as 30 mm
and 300 mm respectively. Stone columns were reinforced to
their upper half and full column lengths for both the
reinforcement modes (encasement and horizontal strips). A
summary of the model tests is given in Table 2.
Table 2 Summary of the model tests conducted
Test
s
x
d
l
Column Reinf.
No. (mm) (mm) Type
Type (mm) (mm)
1.
Clay
2.
30
300
FL
UR
3.
30
300
FL
EN
150
4.
30
300
FL
EN
300
5.
30
300
FL
HS
15
150
6.
30
300
FL
HS
15
300
7.
30
300
EB
UR
8.
30
300
EB
EN
150
9.
30
300
EB
EN
300
10.
30
300
EB
HS
30
300
11.
30
300
EB
HS
15
150
12.
30
300
EB
HS
15
300
d = Diameter of column
l = Length of column
s = Horizontal strips spacing
x = Reinforcement length
EN = Encased
HS = Horizontal strips
Preparation of Soft Clay Bed

The soft clay bed was prepared for undrained shear strength
of 67 kPa. The moisture content (40%) required for the
desired shear strength was determined by conducting several
vane shear tests on a cylindrical specimen of 76 mm height
and 38 mm depth. After adding the water to the clay powder
it was thoroughly mixed to a consistent paste and then left for
48 hours covered with wet gunny cloth for moisture
equalization. This paste was then filled in the tank in 10 mm
thick layers to the desired thickness by hand compaction such
that no air voids are left in the soil. Before filling the soil in
the tank, the inner surface of the tank wall was first coated
with silicon grease and then covered with a polythene sheet
to minimize the friction. The tank filled with soil was then
again left for 48 hours for thixotropic gain.
Construction of Stone Columns
After finishing the top surface of the clay bed the position of
column was marked and three vane shear tests were
conducted at different depths within the column length for
assessing the undrained shear strength of the clay bed. After
conducting the vane shear tests, an open-ended perspex tube
of external diameter of 30 mm and 1 mm thick was pushed to
15 mm into the soft soil at demarcated location. The soil from
inside the casing pipe was then taken out with the help of an
augur. The pipe was then again pushed into the soil by 15
mm and the soil was again removed from the pipe. The
process was continued till the casing pipe to full column
length is pushed into the soil. The inner surface of the casing
pipe was then properly cleaned off and then the stone column
was casted in steps. The whole column length was first
divided into a number of equal parts, each part being equal to
either column diameter or half column diameter as per
requirement. The stone chips for the first part were then
charged into the pipe and the pipe was withdrawn gently to a
height equal to the first part. After withdrawal, the stone
chips were compacted uniformly using a 12 mm diameter
steel rod until the required thickness equal to the first part
was obtained. The stone chips for the second layer then
charged and compacted in the same manner. This process
was continued till the full column length was constructed.
Next, the composite soil with the column inside was again
left covered with a wet jute fabric in the controlled conditions
for 24 hours to develop proper bonding between the stone
chips of the column and the soft soil.
For constructing an encased stone column, after removal of
the soil from inside the casing pipe, the casing pipe was
gently pulled out of the soil completely. Then the stitched
geotextile sack was then placed inside the cavity formed due
to pulling out of the casing pipe such that the geotextile sticks
to the soil. Stone columns reinforced with horizontal strips
were also constructed in the same manner as the unreinforced
columns except that in this case, circular horizontal strips of a
reinforcement material were placed at desired levels inside
the column during the compaction of stone chips. Sand mat
of 20 mm thickness was then constructed by pouring
Badarpur sand of required gradation over the footing area.
Performance of geosynthetic reinforced stone columns

Test Procedure
After construction of stone column, sand mat of 60 mm
diameter was compressed at a constant strain rate of 1
mm/min to ensure the undrained condition and the
corresponding load was observed through a proving ring. The
stone column and its tributary soft soil area were loaded
through a 12 mm thick perspex plate of diameter double the
column diameter, representing a 25% area replacement ratio
(Ar). The composite soil was compressed to a maximum
footing settlement of 60 mm. A complete test set up
arrangement and schematic view of typical stone column
foundation for test has been shown in Fig. 3.
Loading plate
60
50
Sand mat
Stone column
300
Soft soil
550
Tank
All dimensions
are in mm
Fig. 3(a) Test set up ready

for loading
30
300
Fig. 3(b) Schematic view of

stone column

To study the relative performance of composite soil improved
with reinforced stone columns, non-dimensional charts were
prepared with the help of normalized applied vertical stress
and footing settlement. The applied vertical stress () was
normalized by dividing it with undrained shear strength (cu)
of soft clay bed and footing settlement () by dividing it with
the column length (l). Thus in the ongoing text, the word
failure stress stands for normalized failure stress.
Effect of Encasement
Figure 5 shows the effect of encasement length on the failure
stress of composite ground improved with floating columns.
The failure stress of composite ground improved with
floating columns encased to their upper half column length
increased by 26% as compared to the composite ground
improved with unreinforced stone columns. In case of full
column length encasement, the increase in failure stress was
found to be 46%. Thus the load carrying capacity of the
composite ground improved with encased floating stone
columns increases as the encasement length increases.
Though the encasement increases the load carrying capacity
of the composite soil but the increase is not much
encouraging.
0
10
/cu
15
20
25
30
0.00
0.05
0.10
/l
Post Test Analysis

After completion of the test, the stone chips from the column
were carefully picked up and a thin paste of plaster of Paris
was poured into the cavity to establish the deformed shape of
the column. The hardened plaster of Paris representing the
deformed column shape was isolated by removing the
surrounding soft soil. Some of the photographs of deformed
columns have been shown in Fig.4.
0.15
0.20
0.25
Plain clay
Unreinforced
x = l/2
x=l
Fig. 5 Effect of encasement for the composite ground

improved with floating columns (d = 30 mm, l = 300 mm, Dr
= 60%, Ar = 25%).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 4 Deformed shapes of columns (d = 30 mm, l = 300
mm): (a) Ordinary floating column; (b) End bearing single
column reinforced with horizontal strips of geotextile at 30
mm spacing for full column length; (c) Fully encased end
bearing column; (d) Fully encased floating column
Figure 6 shows the effect of encasement length on the failure

stress of composite ground improved with end bearing
columns. Here also the failure stress of composite ground
increases as the encasement length increases. The increase in
failure stress of the composite ground improved with end
bearing columns encased to their upper half and full column
length was found to be 48% and 242% respectively higher
than that in case of the ground improved with the
unreinforced stone columns. The percentage increase in
failure stress in case of end bearing columns is much higher
than the corresponding floating columns. In case of end
bearing columns, the bottom of the column being on hard
strata, there is no chance of any punching on loading as in
case of floating columns and hence higher resistance against
bulging is obtained due to mobilization of hoop stresses in
the geosynthetic during the loading of the column.
Kausar Ali, J.T. Shahu, K.G. Sharma

0
10
/cu
15
20
25
30
0.00
strips at d/2 spacing embedded to full column length are most

suitable. Similar to encasement, in case of horizontal strip
reinforcement also, the end bearing columns proved much
better than the floating columns.
0.05
0.10
/l
Plain clay
Unreinforced
x = l/2
x=l
/cu
15
20
25
30
0.25
0.05
0.10
/l
0.20
Fig. 6 Effect of encasement for the composite ground

improved with end bearing columns (d = 30 mm, l = 300 mm,
Dr = 60%, Ar = 25%).
Figure 7 shows the effect of horizontal strips on the failure
stress of composite ground improved with floating columns.
When the horizontal strips were provided at d/2 spacing for
upper half column length, an increase of 22% was observed
in failure stress of the composite ground improved with
reinforced columns as compared to that of the ground
improved with the unreinforced columns. In case of full
embedment length at d/2 strip spacing, the increase in failure
stress was only 27%. Thus in case of floating columns the
increased stiffness of the column due to provision of
reinforcement is utilized in punching of the column instead of
increasing the load carrying capacity.
10
/cu
15
20
25
30
0.00
0.05
/l
0.10
0.15
0.25
10
0.00
0.15
0.20
Plain clay
Unreinforced
s = d/2, x = l/2
s = d/2, x = l
Fig. 7 Effect of horizontal strips for the composite ground

improved with floating columns (d = 30 mm, l = 300 mm, Dr
= 60%, Ar = 25%).
Figure 8 shows the effect of horizontal strips on the failure
stress of composite ground improved with end bearing
columns. The geotextile strips provided at d spacing for full
column length increased the load carrying capacity of
composite ground by 35%. However, the failure stress of the
ground improved with columns reinforced with horizontal
strips provided at d/2 spacing for upper half and full column
length increased by 62% and 138% respectively as compared
to the ground improved with unreinforced columns. Thus
0.15
0.20
0.25
Unreinforced
Plain clay
s = d, x = l
s = d/2, x = l/2
s = d/2, x = l
Fig. 8 Effect of horizontal strips for the composite ground

improved with end bearing columns (d = 30 mm, l = 300 mm,
Dr = 60%, Ar = 25%).
CONCLUSIONS
1. End bearing columns are more effective than floating
columns, irrespective of mode of reinforcement.
2. Encasement is the best mode of reinforcement for floating
as well as end-bearing columns.
3. Whether a column is floating or end-bearing, the
encasement over the full column length gives higher failure
stress as compared to the partial encasement.
4. For floating columns, the best configuration for horizontal
strips of geotextile is the placement of the strips over upper
half column length at d/2 spacing.
5. For end bearing columns, the best configuration for
horizontal strips of geotextile is the placement of the strips
over full column length at d/2 spacing.
REFERENCES
1. Gniel, J. and Bouazza, A. (2009), Improvement of soft
soils using geogrid encased stone columns, Geotextiles
and Geomembranes, 27, 167-175.
2. Sharma, R.S., Kumar, B.R.P. and Nagendra, G. (2004),
Compressive load response of granular piles reinforced
with geogrids, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 41, 187192.
3. Malarvizhi, S.N. and Ilamparuthi, K. (2007),
Comparative study on the behaviour of encased stone
column and conventional stone column, Soils and
Foundations, 47(5), 873-885.
4. Ayadat, T., Hanna, A.M. and Hamitouche, A. (2008),
Soil improvement by internally reinforced stone
columns, Ground Improvement, 161(2), 55-63.
5. Murugesan, M. and Rajagopal, K. (2010), Studies on the
behaviour of single and group of geosynthetic encased
stone columns, Jl. of Geotech. and Geoenv. Engineering,
ASCE, 136(1), 129-139.

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF LOAD-SETTLEMENT RESPONSE OF BLACK COTTON SOIL

USING STONE COLUMNS WITH AND WITHOUT ENCASEMENT OF GEOSYNTHETICS
K.V.S.B.Raju, Assistant Professor, UVCE, Banglore University, Bangalore, email: kvsbraju.2007@gmail.com
A.S.Chandrashekhar, PG student, UVCE, Banglore University, Bangalore, email: cvshekar31@gmail.com
N.G.Chidanand, PG student, UVCE, Banglore University, Bangalore, email: naik.aec@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Stone column are extensively used to improve the bearing capacity of poor ground and to reduce the settlement
of structures built on them, it improves the shear strength of soil. The stone column technique is widely used to strengthen the
ground so as to support various geotechnical facilities like embankments and oil tanks on poor ground. In the present
investigation, load versus settlement response of the stone column and reinforced stone column i.e. geotextile encased stone
column were studied in the laboratory. It is found from the literature not much studies were conducted on geosynthetic encased
stone columns Load tests were performed on black cotton soil bed stabilized with four columns in square pattern and
reinforced stone column for different L/D and S/D ratios. The L/D ratios adopted are 10 and 8 and S/D ratios adopted are 1.5, 2
and 2.5. The settlements in reinforced stone columns are found to be lower than the unreinforced stone columns and the
settlement decreased with the increasing stiffness of the encasing material.
Key Words: Stone Column, settlement, geosynthetics, load tests.
1. INTRODUCTION
Among the various methods for improving in situ ground
conditions, stone columns are considered one of the most
versatile and cost-effective ground improvement techniques.
Stone columns have been used extensively in weak deposits
to increase the load carrying capacity, reduce settlement of
structural foundations and accelerate consolidation
settlements due to reduction in flow path lengths. Another
major advantage with this technique is the simplicity of its
construction method.
Stone column construction involves the partial replacement of
existing subsurface soils with a compacted vertical column of
stone that usually completely penetrates the weak strata. The
presence of the column creates a composite material of lower
overall compressibility and higher shear strength than the
native soil alone. Confinement, and thus stiffness of the
stone, is provided by the lateral stress within the weak soil.
An axial load applied at the top of a single stone column
produces a large bulge to a depth of 2 to 3 times the diameters
beneath the surface. This bulge, in turn, increases the lateral
stress within the clay which provides additional confinement
for the stone. At equilibrium state vertical movement reduces
when compared to that of the unimproved soil. Stone column
groups loaded over the entire area undergo less bulging than
for a single stone column. Stone columns are ideally suited
for improving soft silts and clays and loose silty sands.
The improvements in bearing capacity via stone columns are
achieved through the inclusion of a stronger granular
material. In response to a vertical load, an expanded stone
column will squeeze the native soil, and result in an
additional confining pressure onto the column. This in turn
leads to an increase in the stiffness and strength of the
column. However, insufficient lateral support at shallow
column depth (top portion) frequently causes bulging failure
at the top portion of the column. Therefore, reinforcement in
granular columns, especially over the top few meters is
needed to provide lateral support to enhance the lateral
confinement of column. The reinforcement can be achieved

by enveloping a stone column with a flexible fabric or by
placing horizontally laminated reinforcing sheets on the stone
column either in full or partial height.
Several researchers have worked on theoretical, experimental
and field study on behaviour of stone columns. Ambily and
Gandhi(2004) carried out experiments to evaluate the
behaviour of stone column by varying spacing, shear strength
of soft clay, moisture content etc. Wood et al., (2000)
conducted comprehensive laboratory model investigations of
large groups of columns. The results suggest that the prefailure mechanisms and failure modes of column groups are
different from those of an isolated column. Dipty Sarin Isaac
and Girish M S (2003) studied the influence of column
material on the performance of stone column through
laboratory experiments on model stone columns installed in
clay. Five reinforcement materials were studied: stones,
gravel, river sand, sea sand and quarry dust. Load versus
settlement response was obtained. The grain size of the stone
column material is one of the prime controlling parameters in
the design of stone columns. It was found that stones are the
most effective stone column material. Quarry dust, though a
waste product is effective in improving the load deformation
characteristics of the soil used. Malarvizhi and Ilamparuthi
(2008) studied load versus settlement response of the stone
column and reinforced stone column i.e. geogrid-encased
stone column in the laboratory. Load tests were performed on
soft clay bed stabilized with single stone column and
reinforced stone column having various slenderness ratios
and using different type of encasing material.
In the present study modifications to existing stone column
technique are proposed. The modification is in the form of
introducing marginally small percentage of Stone/Quarry
Dust to the conventional granular material in addition to this
the Encasement of Geosynthetic is suggested for enhancing
the load carrying capacity of the Stone Column in treated
ground.
K.V.S.B.Raju , A.S.Chandrashekhar , N.G.Chidanand
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS
2.1 Properties of materials

The clay used was collected from Harpanahalli, Davanagere
district, Karnataka state. In order to maintain uniformity of
test results block sample was taken at a depth below 2m.
Particle size distribution is shown in Fig. 1.The other
properties are specific gravity=2.72, liquid limit=83%, plastic
limit=32.5%, maximum dry density=14.4 kN/m3, and
optimum moisture content=28.5%.
Crushed stones (aggregates) of sizes between 10 and 2mm
have been used to form stone column. The stones were
compacted to a density of 16.6kN/m3 while constructing
stone columns for the experiments. Quarry dust is also used
as stone column material to fill the voids between the
aggregates. Quarry dust is a cohesionless material which
consists mainly of sand size particle. Properties of quarry dust
are specific gravity=2.79, D10=2.7mm, Cc =0.9, and Cu
=1.37.
The geotextile used was Polyester woven multifilament TFI
3000, with the net of 1mm x 1mm aperture size as the
encasement material of the stone column.
2.2 Procedure
All experiments were carried out on a 30 mm diameter stone
column surrounded by the required soil in a rectangular tank
of 300 mm side and 360 mm height to represent the required
unit cell area of clay around each column. Clay was filled in
the tank at field water content. Care was taken to ensure that
no significant air voids were left out in the test bed. A thin
coat of grease was applied along the inner surface of tank
wall to reduce friction between clay and tank wall. The centre
of the cylindrical tank was properly marked and a PVC pipe
of 30mm diameter was placed at the centre of the tank.
Around this pipe clay bed was formed. The clay layer was
tamped frequently and gently to expel air during the process
of filling. Slight grease was applied on both inner and outer
surface of the pipe for easy withdrawal without any
disturbance to the surrounding soil. Required stone column
material was carefully charged in the tube in three layers to
achieve required density. The PVC tube was withdrawn to
certain level and charging of stones for the next layer was
continued. The operations of charging of stones, compaction
and withdrawal of tubes were carried out simultaneously.
For installation of group of columns, same procedure was
adopted. Enough care was taken to keep the pipes in vertical
position. In clay bed the stone columns were prepared from
edges towards the centre.
For reinforced stone columns the reinforcement/Geotextile
was stitched and placed around the PVC tube. After preparing
the clay bed, the tubes were charged with stone chips and
compacted in layers. The PVC tube was withdrawn to certain
level and charging of stones for the next layer was continued.
The operations of charging of stones, compaction and
withdrawal of tubes were carried out simultaneously.
Experimental setup of End bearing and floating stone column
is shown in Figure 1.
Fig.1(a)
Fig.1(b)
Fig.1(a) and Fig.(b) Schematic diagram showing End bearing
and Floating Stone Column.
Figure 1(a) and (b) shows the setup of end bearing and
floating columns respectively. The tests were conducted on
both single column and four columns. The stone column was
extended to the full depth for a height 300mm so that l/d ratio
(length of column/diameter of the column) is 10 which are
required to develop full limiting axial stress on the column.
Also load tests were carried out on the stone columns of
height 240 mm so that l/d ratio is 8. Vertical stress was
applied through bearing plate of size 150mm X 150mm. The
load was applied through a proving ring at a constant
displacement rate of 1.2 mm/min. A proving ring was used to
measure the load and a dial gauge is used to measure the
deformation. Load was applied through a 10 mm thick mild
steel plate.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The loads obtained by various composite columns are
presented in Table 1. The yield load of these columns are
estimated by plotting load-settlement curves and the load
corresponding to 30 mm settlement is taken as the yield load.
Table 1.The load carrying capacity of stone columns at
various L/d and S/d ratios corresponding, to single and group
of stone columns, for the case of unreinforced and reinforced
stone columns.
S.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Type of
bed
C
C+1SC
C+1RSC
C+4SC
C+4RSC
C+4SC
L/d
10
8
10
8
10
10
10
10
10
10
8
s/d
1.5
2
2.5
1.5
2
2.5
1.5
Load at 30mm
settlement
2.
1.51
2.0
1.76
2.35
2.06
3.56
4.76
4.3
4.24
5.87
4.3
3.54
A comparative study of load-settlement response of black cotton soil using stone columns with and without encasement of geosynthetics
13
8
2
14
8
2.5
15
C+4RSC
8
1.5
16
8
2
17
8
2.5
C refers loading claybed alone.
SC refers stone column .
RSC refers Reinforced stone column.
3.83
3.6
3.97
4.5
4.16
3.1 Load Settlement Response of Clay bed and

Single Stone Column Treated Bed
In Figure 2 , load-settlement behavior of untreated soft clay
bed C, bed treated with stone column C+SC and also
encased stone column C+RSC with varying slenderness
ratios is presented.
Figure 2,Shows the load settlement curves for clay alone and
clay treated with single stone column for the cases of
L/D=10 and 8 ,with and without encasement of geotextile
using square loaded area. It can be observed that the load
carrying capacity of the treated ground, with end bearing
column is higher compared to that of floating and both these
arrangements exhibits higher load carrying capacity
compared to the untreated ground. Further it can be observed
that encased stone columns exhibits higher load carrying
capacity compared to the both untreated soil and soil treated
with stone columns. The load carrying capacities are
tabulated in Table 1.
For end-bearing columns, load carrying capacity is more than
floating columns. This is because the loads are transferred to
a stiffer stratum in the case of end-bearing columns.
can be observed that the group of stone columns exhibits

higher load carrying capacity compared to the untreated
ground and single stone column with L/d=10. Further it can
be observed that encased stone columns exhibits higher load
carrying capacity compared to the both untreated soil and soil
treated with stone columns.
Fig 3. The variation of load settlement response of, single and

group of stone columns for L/d ratio of 10 for both the cases
of clay alone unreinforced and reinforced group of stone
column.
Figure 4, Shows the load settlement curves for clay alone and
clay treated with group of stone columns for the cases of
L/D=8 and S/d=1.5, 2, and 2.5, using square loaded area. It
can be observed that the group of stone columns exhibits
higher load carrying capacity compared to the untreated
ground and single stone column with L/d=8. . Further it can
be observed that encased stone columns exhibits higher load
carrying capacity compared to the both untreated soil and soil
treated with stone columns. As spacing increases, axial
capacity of the column decreases due to loss of group action.
Also carrying capacity decreases on reducing the spacing;
this may be attributed to the intersecting pressure bulbs.
Fig. 2.The variation of load settlement response of, single

column for L/d ratio of 8 and 10 for both the cases of clay
alone, unreinforced and reinforced single stone column.
3.2 Load Settlement Response of Clay bed and
group of Stone Columns Treated Bed
In Figure 3 , load-settlement behavior of untreated soft clay
bed C, bed treated with stone column C+SC and also
encased stone column C+RSC with varying slenderness
ratios and spacings are presented.
Figure 3 ,Shows the load settlement curves for clay alone and
clay treated with group of stone columns for the cases of
L/D=10 and S/d=1.5, 2, and 2.5, using square loaded area. It
Fig 4.The vaiation of load settlement response of, single and

group of stone columns for L/d ratio of 8 for both the cases of
K.V.S.B.Raju , A.S.Chandrashekhar , N.G.Chidanand
clay alone unreinforced and reinforced group of stone

column.
4. CONCLUSIONS
1. Inclusion of stone columns considerably improves the load
deformation characteristics of Black cotton soil.
2. The load carrying capacity was found more for l/d ratio
equal to 10 (End bearing stone columns) than when compared
to 8 (Floating stone columns).
3. A group of four stone columns takes up more loads when
compared to single stone column and untreated soil.
4. As s/d ratio increases from 1.5 to 2, the load carrying
capacity increases for floating and end bearing stone columns
and the same trend was observed for both the cases of
unreinforced and reinforced stone columns. As the s/d ratio
further increases to 2.5 the load carrying capacity decreases
for all the cases.
5. As compared to different configurations of unreinforced
stone column the geosynthetic encased stone column has
taken more load for the same settlement indicating the
increase in stiffness of stone coulum encased with
geosynthetic material.
7. Quarry dust, though a waste product helps in filling the
voids between stone aggregates in the column used in
improving the load deformation characteristics of the soil and
hence quarry dust can be economically and effectively used
and safely disposed.
REFERENCES
1. Ambily, A.P., and Gandhi, S.R.,Behaviour of Stone
Columns Based on Experimental and FEM Analysis,
Engineering, vol.133, 2007, pp.405-415.
2. Ambily, A.P. and Ganghi, S.R. (2006). Effect of sand
pad thickness on load sharing in stone column. Proc.
Indian Geotechnical Conference, Chennai, 555-556.
3. DiptySarin Isaac and Girish M. S. (2009) Suitability of
Different Materials for Stone Column Construction. The
Electronic Journal of Geotechnical Engineering.Vol,
14. Bund M.
4. IS 15284 (Part I): 2003 "Indian Standard Code of
Practice on. Design and Construction for Ground
Improvement - Guidelines, Part 1 - Stone Columns"
5. Prakash, C., Ramakrishna, V.V.G.S.T., Sharma, A.K.
and Rastogi, P.c. (2002) "Strengthening of Alluvial
Soils by Rammed Stone Columns for LPG Mounded
Storage Facilities", Proc. 4th Int. Conf. on Ground
Improvement Techniques. Kualalumpur, Malaysia.
6. Saha, A. and Das, S.C. (1999): "Parametric Study of
Settlement
Reduction
in
Soil-Stone
Column
Interaction", Proc. Indian Geotechnical Conference
(IGC-99), Calcutta, Vol.1, pp.173-179.
7. Singh, A., Soneja, M.R. and Sharma, A.K. (1988):
"Ground Improvement of a Residential Complex by
Granular Piles", Proc. Indian Geotechnical Conference
(IGC-88), Allahabad, Vol.1, pp.185-190.
8.
Sundaram, R. and Gupta, S. (1994): "Small Diameter

Rammed Stone Columns in Fine Sands", Proc. Indian
Geotechnical Conference (IGC-94), Warangal Vol.1,
pp.345- 348.

BULGING BEHAVIOR OF A FLOATING GRANULAR PILE

Jancy Fathima, M. Tech. Student, IIT Hyderabad, jancyfathima.s@gmail.com
Umashankar Balunaini, Assistant Professor, IIT Hyderabad, buma@iith.ac.in
Madhav R Madhira, Visiting Professor, IIT Hyderabad, madhavmr@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Granular pile (GP) is an economical ground improvement technique to treat wide range of soils. Bulging failure
of GP is the most common failure criterion among the possible failure mechanisms- punching failure, shear failure and bulging
failure. Finite element modelling is performed to study the bulging behavior of single- floating granular pile in a clay deposit.
Elastic-perfectly plastic response (Mohr-Coulomb material) is used to model both the granular pile and the soft clay.
Parametric study is carried out by varying the properties of clay and GP to understand and quantify bulging along the depth of
the pile.
INTRODUCTION
Granular pile/ Stone column, made up of granular materials
compacted in long cylindrical bore holes, is an economical
and efficient ground improvement technique for wide range
of soils. In early 1960, this technique was first adopted in
Europe and thereafter it has been used successfully for 1)
increasing bearing capacity of weak deposits, 2) improving
slope stability of both embankments and natural slopes, 3)
reducing the liquefaction potential of sands, 4) reducing the
total and differential settlement, and 5) increasing the time
rate of settlement. In practice, granular piles are constructed
as end bearing or floating piles. GP may fail individually or
as a group. The possible failure mechanisms of single
granular pile include bulging failure, shear failure, and
punching failure [4]. This study is focused on bulging
behavior of single-isolated floating granular pile. To
understand the bulging behavior of a GP, many studies based
on numerical modeling, laboratory testing and field testing
have been carried out. If the length of granular pile is greater
than 4 to 6 times its diameter, the failure mechanism will be
the bulging mode, irrespective of whether it is end bearing or
floating pile [10]. The bulging failure is the most common
failure criterion, since most of constructed GPs in the field
have lengths equal to or greater than 4 to 6 times its diameter
[6]. The lateral confinement from the surrounding soil
influences the overall bulging behavior of the pile. Since the
lateral confinement from the surrounding soil increases with
the depth, bulging occurs near the surface and is suppressed
away from the surface, except for cases such as the presence
of intermediate layer of very weak soil like peat with
thickness greater than about one pile diameter [4]. According
to studies conducted by Barkdale and Bachus (1983) and
Nayak et al (2010), bulging depth will be equal to 2 to 3
times the pile diameter [4,12]. Bulging depth is defined as the
depth over which the lateral deformations of the granular
material pile occur. Nayak et al (2010) proposed that the
maximum bulging occurs at a depth of 0.5 to 0.8 times the
diameter of pile from surface [12]. Ambily and Gandhi
(2007) reported that maximum bulging will occur at a depth
of 0.5 times diameter of the granular pile, if the GP is loaded
alone [1]. These studies consider the group effects of GPs
using unit cell concept. Deb et. al (2011) observed that the
maximum bulging occurs at a depth of 1.2 times of column
diameter in the case of the granular pile embedded in clay
and bulging diameter has a magnitude of 1.24 times the pile
diameter [6]. Since these observations are based on small
scale model tests, limitations of scale and boundary effects
exist [6]. Field test findings on the bulging behavior of GP
are also reported in the literature [2,3,8,9]. In this study, the
soil and GP parameters such as angle of shearing resistance
and dilatancy angle of granular material, undrained shear
strength of soft clay, deformation moduli of granular material
and soft clay, etc. are varied to study their influence on
bulging behavior of GP. For this, finite element modeling
was performed using commercially available software
PLAXIS 2D.
PROBLEM DEFINITION
The objective of this paper is to study the bulging behaviour
of a single-floating granular pile embedded in a semiinfinite
medium of clay (Fig. 1). Mohr-Coulomb criterion is used to
model the elastic-perfectly plastic response of clay and GP.
q
Granular Pile
Elastic Properties- Ep, p
Unit weight - p
Shear strength Properties- c, ,
Clay
Elastic Properties- Ec, c
L
Unit weight - c
Undrained Shear Strength - cu
Fig. 1 Schematic of granular pile in semi-infinite medium of

clay
FINITE-ELEMENT MODELLING AND ANALYSIS
Finite Element (FE) software PLAXIS 2D v9 was used to
model and study the behavior of granular pile in a semiinfinite medium. Firstly, the FE model in PLAXIS was
Jancy F, Umashankar B & MadhavM R

validated by comparing the results from linear stress-strain
analysis of granular pile with that of the results from Madhav
et al. (2009) [11] obtained by solving the elasticity solutions
using finite difference method. Axisymmetry was considered
to model granular pile of diameter 1 m and length of 10 m.
Lateral and bottom boundaries were taken as 35 m and 20 m
from the centre of the pile and from the surface, respectively.
Elastic properties of GP and clay are taken as Ep=30,000 kPa,
p=0.3 and Ec=3000 kPa, c=0.5, respectively. 15-noded
triangular elements were used for the finite element
discretization with finer refinements within and near the pile
geometry (Fig. 2). Different values of modular ratio K (ratio
of deformation moduli of granular pile to that of clay, Ep/Ec)
are considered in the analysis. The results from the present
study show good agreement with Madhav et al. (2009) [11],
as shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 2 Meshed geometry of granular pile and clay
pile surface. Drained and undrained behavior is assumed for

granular pile and clay, respectively. Table 2 provides the
input parameters (Ep, Ec, p, c, p, p, p, c, Cu) for the
model. The influence of pore water is not considered in the
present study.
Table 2 Properties of granular pile and clay
Entity
Material
Nominal Range adopted
Properties
Value
3750
2000-8000
Ec (kN/m2)
c
0.5
Soft clay
cuc (kN/m2)
25
15-40
c (kN/m3)
16
37500
20000-50000
Ep (kN/m2)
p
0.3
cup kN/m2
0
0
Granular
Pile
p
380
300 -500
0
p
8
50- 150
3
p (kN/m )
20
Interface elements are not used at the interface between
granular pile and clay. The typical deformed mesh is shown
in Fig. 4. Bulging at top portion of granular pile can clearly
be noticed. A parametric study was carried out to study the
effects of various properties of granular material and soft clay
on the bulging depth, maximum bulging and the
corresponding depth. Values given as nominal value in Table
2 are used in the parametric study.
300
Load (kN)
250
200
150
PLAXIS Result
100
Madhav et al. (2009)
50
0
0
100
200
K (Modular Ratio)
300
400
Fig. 3 Effect of modular ratio on load taken by pile for 13

mm prescribed displacement
Since linear stress-strain response can only be applied for
strains within linear elastic regime, elastic-perfectly plastic
response of GP and clay are considered to model more
realistic behavior. Granular pile of diameter 1 m and length
10 m is considered in the study. Incremental prescribed
displacement of 10 cm is applied on the top of GP. The
influence of distance of boundaries and mesh size were
studied. Lateral and bottom boundaries were fixed as 35
times diameter of pile and 2 times the length of pile. 15noded triangular elements are used and the initial stress is
simulated by using K0 procedure. The average element size
varied from 2.48m to 0.97m with finer refinement near the
Fig. 4 Deformed mesh of granular pile (enlarged view)

Effect of angle of shearing resistance of granular material
The influence of angle of shearing resistance of granular
material, p, on the bulging behavior is studied by varying p
from 30o and 50o. According to Brauns (1978) [5], bulging
depth can be calculated using the equation
h = D.tan (/4 + p/2)
(1)
From this equation, it can be inferred that bulging depth will

increase with increase in p. Similar trend is noticed for
granular pile modelled in the present study (Fig. 5). Bulging
depth varies from 3.75 m to 5.30 m with increase in p.
Bulging Behavior of a Floating Granular Pile

Maximum bulging is reduced from 20.7 mm to 10.61 mm as
p increases from 30o to 50o. This means that the tendency of
bulging is reduced by increasing the angle of shearing
resistance of granular pile. This is because as the angle of
shearing resistance increases, shear resistance at the interface
increases and hence, the lateral deformation of granular pile
is reduced. Maximum bulging for various p values occurs at
a depth of 0.54 m to 0.97 m.
Lateral Displacement (mm)
-5
10
15
20
25
Effect of loading
Instead of applying load, incremental prescribed
displacement (up to 10 cm) is applied on the top of granular
pile. Maximum bulging increases from 1.54 mm to 15.55 mm
(Fig. 8) corresponding to a prescribed vertical displacement
of 1 cm and 10 cm, respectively. But, depth of maximum
bulging is not affected by load increment. Bulging depth
increases from 2.04 m to 4.31 m. Equation [Eq. (1)] proposed
by Brauns (1978) does not consider the load effect on bulging
depth. Zhang et al. (2012) [13] reported that values of
maximum bulging increases with increase in load on the GP.
Similar behavior of granular pile is observed in this study.
-5
=30 deg.
=35 deg.
=40 deg.
=45 deg.
=50 deg.
10
15
20
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
Fig. 5 Influence of angle of shearing resistance of granular

pile on lateral displacements of GP
Cuc=15 kPa
Cuc = 25 kPa
4
Cuc = 40 kPa
Effect of dilatancy angle of granular material

Fig. 6 shows the bulging behavior for various dilatancy
angles of granular material (p= 5o to 15o). The bulging depth
is not affected by dilatancy angle of granular material. The
maximum bulging increases from 14.8 mm to 18.4 mm as p
increases from 5o to 15o (Fig. 6). The depth at which the
maximum bulging occurs varies from 0.827 m to 0.685m for
= 5o and = 8o, respectively.
Fig. 7 Influence of undrained shear strength of clay on lateral

displacements of GP
-5
10
15
20
-5
10
15
20
Depth (m)
1
2
1 cm
2.5 cm
5 cm
=5 deg.
=8 deg.
=10 deg.
Depth (m)
Horizontal Displacement (mm)
=15 deg.
Fig. 6 Influence of dilatancy angle of granular material on

lateral displacements of GP
Effect of undrained shear strength of clay deposit
The influence of the undrained shear strength cuc of the
surrounding clay on the performance of the granular pile is
studied by varying cu from 15 kPa to 40 kPa. As undrained
shear strength increases, maximum bulging is found to
decrease (Fig. 7). This is because of its contribution towards
the improvement of the column-soil interfacial shear
resistance. Depth of maximum bulging ranges from 0.67 m to
0.76 m. The effect of cuc on the bulging depth is found to be
insignificant.
7.5 cm
10 cm
Fig. 8 Lateral displacements for various prescribed vertical

displacement at the top of GP
Effect of deformation moduli of granular pile and clay
The influence of deformation modulus of granular pile, Ep, is
studied for Ep=25,000 kPa to 50,000 kPa. The effect of Ep on
the maximum bulging is found to be insignificant, the
difference in the maximum bulging is found to be only 1 mm
as Ep increase from 25,000 kPa to 50,000 kPa. The depth of
maximum bulging and bulging depth is not affected by
deformation modulus (Fig. 9). To study the effect of
deformation modulus of clay, Ec, is varied from 2500 kPa to
7500 kPa. The maximum bulging varies from 17.59 mm to
20.06 mm as Ec increases from 2500 kPa to 7500 kPa. But
the effect of Ec on the depth of maximum bulging and
bulging depth is found to be insignificant (Fig. 10).
Effect of diameter of granular pile
The diameter of granular pile is varied from 40 cm to 100 cm
to study its effect on the bulging behaviour of GP. The
Jancy F, Umashankar B & MadhavM R

maximum bulging is not affected by variation of diameter of
granular pile, as shown in Fig. 11. But depth of maximum
bulging and bulging depth are found to vary with the pile
diameter. Bulging depth varies from 2.36 m to 4.2 m,
whereas the depth at which maximum bulging occurs varies
from 0.28 m to 0.67 m. According to Brauns equation [Eq.
(a)], bulging depth varies linearly with the diameter of
granular pile. Similar behavior is observed in study.
-5
10
15
20
0
1
Depth (m)
2
Ep=25000 kPa
Ep=35000 kPa
4
Ep=50000 kPa
5
6
Fig. 9 Influence of deformation modulus of granular pile on

lateral displacements of GP
-5
10
15
20
Depth (m)
1
2
3
Ec=2500 kPa
Ec=5000 kPa
Ec=7500 kPa
Fig. 10 Influence of deformation modulus of clay on lateral

displacements of GP
-5
10
15
20
0
1
Depth (m)
D=40 cm
3
4
5
6
D=60 cm
D=80 cm
D=100 cm
Fig. 11 Influence of diameter of granular pile on lateral

displacements of GP
CONCLUSIONS
The effects of angle of shearing resistance and dilatancy
angle of granular material, granular pile diameter,
deformation moduli of granular pile and clay, and undrained
shear strength of clay on bulging behavior of granular pile are
studied. From this study, it is found that the angle of shearing

resistance of granular material, diameter of granular pile and
amount of loading have a significant effect on the bulging
depth of granular pile. Since Brauns equation does not
consider the load applied on the granular pile, this equation
may not produce the actual value of bulging depth for a given
loading condition.
REFERENCES
1. Ambily, A.P. and Gandhi, S.R. (2007), Behavior of stone
columns based on experimental and FEM analysis, Jl. of
Geotech. And Geoenv. Engg., ASCE, 133(4), 405-415.
2. Bergado, D.T., Rantucci, G. and Widodo, S. (1984), Full
scale load tests on granular piles and sand drains in the
soft bangkok clay, Proc. Intl. Conf. on In situ Soil and
Rock Reinforcement, Paris, 111-118.
3. Bergado, D.T., and Lam, F.L. (1987), Full scale load
tests on granular piles with different densities and
different proportions of gravel and sand in the soft
Bangkok clay, Soils and Foundations, 27(1), 86-93.
4. Barkdale, R.D. and Bachus, R.C. (1983), Design and
construction of stone columns, FHWA/RD-83/026,
Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C.
5. Brauns, J. (1978). Die anfangstraglast von schottersulen
im bindigen untergrund. Die Bautechnik, 55 (8), 263271.
6. Deb, K., Samadhiya, N.K. and Namdeo, J.B.(2011),
Laboratory model studies on unreinforced and geogridreinforced sand bed over stone-column-improved soft
clay, Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Technical note,
190-196.
7. Elsawy, M., Lesny, K. and Richwien, W. (2010),
Performance of geogrid- encased stone columns as a
reinforcement, Numerical Methods in Geotechnical
Engineering- Benz & Nordal (eds) 2010 Taylor &
Francis Group, London, ISBN, 875-880.
8. Hughes, J.M.O. and Withers, N.J. (1974), Reinforcing of
soft cohesive soils with stone columns, Ground
Engineering, May, 42-49
9. Hughes, J.M.O., Withers, J.N. and Greenwood, D.A.
(1975), A field trial of the reinforced effect of stone
column in soil, Geotechnique, 25(1), 31-44.
10. IS 15284 (Part 1) (2003), Design and construction for
ground improvement- Guidelines Part 1 Stone columns,
11. Madhav, M.R., Sharma, J.K. and Sivakumar, V. (2009),
Settlement of and load distribution in a granular piled
raft, Geomechanics and Engineering, 1(1), 97-112.
12. Nayak, S., Shivakumar, R. and Babu, M.R.D. (2011),
Performance of stone columns with circumferential nails,
Ground Improvement, Proceedings of the Institution of
Civil Engineers, 164(G12), 97-106.
13. Zhang, L., Zhao, M., Shi, C. and Zhao, H. (2012),
Settlement calculation of composite foundation
reinforced with stone columns, to appear in Intl. Jl. of
Geomechanics, ASCE.

AN INNOVATIVE TECHNIQUE OF IMPROVING THE SOIL USING HUMAN HAIR FIBERS

Renju R Pillai, M.Tech Student, Dept. of Civil Engg, IIT Delhi, New Delhi16, renju003@gmail.com
Ramanathan Ayothiraman, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engg, IIT Delhi, New Delhi16, ayothiraman@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT: The main objective this study is to investigate the suitability of solid waste materials such as human hair fibers
in the process of soil stabilization as a reinforcement which can replace conventional commercial fiber materials. The influence
of reinforcement parameters i.e. fiber content on Kaolinite clay was observed through a series of laboratory tests such as
consistency limit tests, compaction tests, unconfined compression tests and splitting tensile tests. The test results reveal that the
inclusion of randomly distributed human hair fiber in soil significantly improves the engineering properties of soil. It can be
concluded that human hair fibers can be effectively used to improve the strength properties of soil in filling earth works,
embankments and pavement sub grade. However, ensuring the uniform mixing of human hair fiber with soil in a large scale
during the actual field works may be a challenge and must be investigated through field studies.
Keywords: Clay, Ground Improvement, Human Hair Fiber.
INTRODUCTION
The broad methods of soil stabilization includes: mechanical
stabilization, hydraulic stabilization, physical & chemical
stabilization and stabilization by inclusion and confinement.
Of these methods, last two methods are by which we can
effectively use solid waste materials. Substitution of natural
soils, aggregates, and cement with solid industrial or natural
wastes is highly desirable. Although the concept of randomly
reinforced soil is relatively new in geotechnical engineering
but the reinforcement of clay soils with natural fibers has
been practiced from the time of Pharaohs (Estabragh et al.
2011). Recently soil reinforcement with short, discrete,
randomly oriented fibers is getting more attention from many
researchers around the world. Extensive studies were carried
out on the stabilization of soft clays and expansive clays
using various additives such as lime, cement, synthetic and
natural fibers. Ranjan et al. (1994) conducted a series of triaxial tests to study the behavior of Plastic Fiber Reinforced
sand. Maher and Ho (1994) investigated the mechanical
properties of a Kaolinite/fiber composite in unconfined
compression tests. Kaniraj et al. (2003) conducted an
experimental study to investigate the influence of randomly
oriented fiber inclusions on the geotechnical behaviour of
two Indian fly ashes. Akbulut et al. (2007) evaluated the use
of waste materials such as scrap tire rubber, polyethylene,
and polypropylene fiber for the improvement of strength and
dynamic behaviour of clayey soils. The effect of
polypropylene fiber inclusion into soil in the improvement of
soil behaviour through a series of experimental investigations
was established by many scholars (DallAqua et al. 2010;
Jiang et al. 2010).
Estabragh et al. (2011) investigated the effects of fiber on the
consolidation and shear strength behaviour of a clay soil
reinforced with nylon fibers. The effective use of natural
fibers as reinforcement was proved by several researches.
Basha et al. (2004) conducted study on stabilization of
residual soils by chemically using cement and rice husk ash.
Akhtar et al. (2008) studied the influence of Fly ash mixed
with lime having varying percentage of human hair fibers in
California Bearing Ratio values.

Akhtar and
Ahamad (2009) studied the effect of hair fiber on mechanical
properties of fly ash based hollow block for masonry
structures. Ramesh et al. (2010) described the compaction
and strength behaviour of black cotton soil (BC soil)
reinforced with coir fibers. However, it is found that studies
on the use of human hair fibers in the stabilization of soils as
reinforcement have not been reported so far, which is
attempted in this study.
Materials Used
Soil
The soil used the present study is Kaolinite clay. Laboratory
tests to determine various index and engineering properties of
Kaolinite clay were conducted according to Indian Standard
methods of testing. Table 1 summarizes the various index
and engineering properties of the soil. The soil can be
classified as clay with high plasticity (CH) according to
Indian Standard Classification System.
Hair Fiber
The lightweight, strength and deformation properties of
fibers make them effective materials in various
foundation-engineering applications. Human hair fibers
were used throughout this study to reinforce the soil.
They are considered as valueless solid wastes which are being
dumped to waste landfills. They consist of fibers of varying
length (440 mm) and diameter (40111m). Scanning
Electron Microscope analysis was conducted to obtain the
average diameter of human fiber. The parameter of concern in
fiber selection was fiber content by weight of soil. Samples
were prepared by adding fiber content of 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%,
2.0% and 2.5% by weight of soil. Fig. 1 show typical fibers
used in this study. Fig. 2 gives the SEM images of human hair
fibers from which the diameter of human hair fiber was
measured.
Renju R Pillai & Ramanathan Ayothiraman

Table 1
Property
Specific gravity
Liquid limit
Plasticity index
Maximum dry density
Optimum moisture content
% Clay
% Silt
% Sand
Note: Properties of Kaolinite clay
Value
2.57
51%
27%
1.64 g/cc
20.41%
68 %
32 %
0%
Fig. 1 Human hair fibers
Fig. 2 SEM image of Human hair fibers

Sample Preparation
Different values of fiber content adopted for present study
were 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0% and 2.5% by weight of soil. The
mixing of soil was felt very difficult beyond 2.5%, as the
same stick together to form lumps. This also caused pockets
of low density. So, it was decided to stop with 2.5% fiber
content. Fibers were added to the moist mixture soil at
different percentages and were tested as per IS specifications.
When fibers were mixed in dry soil segregation and floating
occurred. All mixing was done manually and proper care and
time were spent for preparing homogenous mixture at each
stage of mixing. It was found that the fibers could be mixed
with soil more effectively in the moist state than in dry state.
Laboratory Tests and Program
The Atterbergs consistency limits (Liquid limit & Plastic
limit) were determined as per standard procedure using
Casagrandes apparatus. Oven-dried soil samples were used
for the test. The tests were carried out on the soil with
different proportions of human hair fibers. Proctors standard
compaction test was carried out to determine the maximum
dry density (MDD) and the optimum moisture content

(OMC) of both unreinforced and reinforced soils. The soil
mixtures, with and without fibers, were thoroughly mixed
with various moisture content. The first series of compaction
tests were aimed at determining the compaction properties of
the unreinforced soils. Secondly, tests were carried out to
determine the compaction properties of the clay upon mixing
with varying percentage of human hair fiber. Samples were
prepared as described earlier. Unconfined compressive
strength tests were conducted for various mix proportions of
Kaolinite clay and human hair fibers compacted to their
maximum dry density (MDD) and optimum moisture content
(OMC). Cylindrical specimens with a slenderness ratio 2 (38
mm diameter 76 mm length) were prepared in Harvard
miniature compaction mould using spring hammer in three
equal layers by giving 25 blows per layer. Axial strain rate of
0.5 mm/min was chosen in order to complete the test within
10 minutes to prevent loss of water content during test. All
the specimens were prepared at an average MDD and OMC
of 1.6 g/cc and 22.5 % respectively since the MDD and OMC
of various mix proportions do not vary substantially and for
comparison purpose. Splitting tensile strength tests were
conducted on all soil-fiber composite specimens using
Brazilian test method. Since Brazilian test is used for testing
brittle materials, a correction factor was applied to account
for the reduction in cross sectional area under compression.
The same sample preparation method was adopted for
unconfined compression test was used in splitting tensile test
and samples were cut at a slenderness ratio as per standards
(0.2-0.75).
Effects on the Consistency Limits
The effect of inclusion of randomly oriented hair fibers into
soil on the liquid limit (LL), plastic limit (PL) and plasticity
index (PI) on the different soils mixes are shown in Figure 3.
Fig. 3 Effect of fiber inclusion on consistency limits

It was observed from Fig. 3 that there was a slight increase in
the liquid limit due to the addition of fibers which is
attributed to the fact that hair fibers absorb moisture content
within the moist soil. Also it was observed that there was a
slight decrease in plastic limit with the addition of
reinforcement. In this context, it is illustrated that increase in
plasticity of human hair fiber reinforced Kaolinite clay as a
result of increase in LL and reduction in plastic limits. But
An innovative technique of improving the soils using human hair fibers

the as a whole the effect of fiber inclusion on consistency
limits is very less.
Effects on Compaction Characteristics
Proctor compact tests were conducted in order to find the
moisture content-density relationship for both unreinforced
and reinforced Kaolinite clay. From the test for unreinforced
Kaolinite clay the MDD and OMC were found out to be
1.64 g/cc and 20.64% respectively. The effect of inclusion of
hair fibers in the clay was found out by adding various
amount of fiber content (0.5-2.5% by weight). The standard
Proctor tests were conducted with an initial target moisture
content of 18% with an increment of 3% at the beginning
followed by 2% at the peak densities. Two trials of test for
each composition were conducted in order to get more
reliable results for comparison. The effects of fiber inclusion
on MDD & OMC of Kaolinite clay are shown in Fig. 4 and
Fig. 5.
study by Ramesh et al. (2010) on Black cotton soil- Coir fiber

mixtures.
Effects on Compressive Strength
The typical stress-strain behaviour of unreinforced clay and
reinforced clay measured from unconfined compression test
is presented in Fig. 6 (although three trials were carried out).
Fiber inclusion affected the stress-strain relationship of
Kaolinite clay under static load by increasing the peak
compressive strength, reducing the post-peak reduction in
compression resistance, and increasing the absorbed strain
energy (ductility). From the failure pattern it is observed that
unreinforced specimens failed in shearing thorough a plain at
45o i.e. brittle failure and reinforced specimens failed in
compression with bulging of specimen.
Fig. 6 Typical stress-strain curve of Kaolinite-Fiber mix
Fig. 4 Effect of fiber inclusion on MDD of clay-fiber mix
Table 2 Compressive strength of clay-fiber mix

Max.
Axial
UCS
Mix details
(kg/cm2) Strain
(%)
100%Kaolinite
1.20
7.46
100%Kaolinite+0.5%Fibre
1.51
9.87
1.84
10.09
2.12
9.87
2.29
9.65
2.26
11.18
Increm
-ent
Factor
(%)
1.00
1.25
1.53
1.76
1.90
1.88
Fig. 5 Effect of fiber inclusion on OMC of clay-fiber mix

It has been observed that addition of randomly distributed
hair fiber to Kaolinite clay with different percentages reduces
MDD and increases OMC. The reduction in MDD and
increase in OMC in the case of Kaolinite clay specimen
reinforced with hair fiber is due to the fact that lighter
material replaces heavy soil mass and also due to
rearrangement of particles with reinforcement reduces MDD
(Ramesh et al. 2010). The trend observed is that both OMC &
MDD was decreasing with the increasing content of fiber
except 2.5%. Somewhat similar variation was observed in the
Fig. 7 Effect of fiber inclusion on compressive strength of

clay-fiber mix
Renju R Pillai & Ramanathan Ayothiraman

The unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of unreinforced
and human hair fiber-reinforced clay for different mix
proportions determined from the stress-strain curve for
various trials are presented in Table 2 and its best fit curve
(cubic) showing variation with percent fiber content is
plotted as Fig 7. It is seen from the Fig. 7 that UCS of the
mixture reinforced with the hair fiber reaches its maximum
strength almost at 2.0 % inclusion. The strength increment
factor was 1.25, 1.53, 1.76, 1.90 and 1.88 corresponding to
fiber inclusion ratio from 0.5 2.5% (Table 2). Similarly the
peak axial strain of reinforced clay increases with increase in
percentage of hair fiber, which proves the reinforced
mixture, tends to behave in a ductile manner compared to
that of unreinforced clay.
Effects on Tensile Strength
Table 3 gives the gives the strength increment factors
corresponding to different hair fiber content.
Table 3 Tensile strength of clay-fiber mix
Splitting
Max.
Tensile
Axial
Mix details
Strength Strain
(kg/cm2)
(%)
100%Kaolinite
1.61
6.21
2.43
8.60
2.57
8.46
2.42
8.11
2.35
7.59
2.74
8.77
Increm
-ent
Factor
(%)
1.00
1.51
1.60
1.51
1.46
1.70
From the failure pattern of failed specimen, single crack

occurrence and brittle failure is observed in unreinforced
specimens where as failure occurred with formation of local
cracks in reinforced specimen. It is also found that the fiber
inclusion affected the tensile properties of the soil with
addition of hair fibres. The best fit curve (cubic) for splitting
tensile test obtained from three trials of testing is shown in
Fig. 8.
Fig. 8 Influence of fiber content on tensile strength of

clay-fiber mix
It is observed that the tensile strength improved to a
maximum factor of 1.7 times that of unreinforced soil at a
fibre inclusion ratio of 2.5%. The strain at failure of soil also
increased with increase in fibre content. The failure of the
sample was delayed with the addition of Human hair fibre.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are drawn on the basis of test
results obtained and discussion made in this study:
From Consistency limits tests, it is found that the effect
of fiber inclusion on consistency limits were minimal.
From Proctor compaction tests, it is observed that
inclusion of human hair fibers marginally affects the dry
density-moisture content relationships of Kaolinite clay.
The UCC strength of unreinforced and reinforced soils is
substantially different; reinforced soil+fiber mixtures
show higher strength than unreinforced clay. With
addition of 2.0% fibers by weight, the unconfined
compressive strength increased up to 1.9 times that of
unreinforced soil. From the stress-strain curve it is clear
that the ductility of composite is also improved. This
clearly indicates that the human hair fiber could be used
in the improvement of cohesive soils.
Significant improvement in tensile strength was observed
in splitting tensile test with the addition of Human hair
fibres. For Kaolinite clay, tensile strength improved to a
maximum of 1.7 times that of unreinforced soil at 2%
fiber inclusion.
REFERENCES
1. Akbulut, S., Arasan, S. and Kalkan, E. (2007). Modification of clayey soils using scrap tire rubber and synthetic
fibers. Applied Clay Science, 38, 2332.
2. Akthar, J.N., Alam, J. and Ahmad, Sh. (2008). The
influence of randomly oriented hair fiber and lime on the
CBR value of Dadri fly ash. Asian Jl. of Civil Engg.
(Building and Housing), 9(5), 505-512.
3. Akthar, J. N.,Ahmad, Sh. (2009). The effect of randomly
oriented hair fiber on mechanical properties of fly ashbased hollow block for low height masonry structures.
Asian Jl. of Civil Engg, 10(2), 221-228.
4. Dallaqua, G. P., Ghataora, G. S. and Ling, U. K.
(2010). Behaviour of fiber-reinforced and stabilized
clayey soils subjected to cyclic loading. Studia
Geotechnica et Mechanica, Vol. XXXII (3).
5. Estabragh, A. R., Bordbar, A. T. and Javadi, A. A.
(2011). Mechanical behaviour of a Clay soil reinforced
with Nylon fibers. Geotech Geol Eng, 29, 899908.
6. Jiang, H., Cai, Y. and Liu, J. (2010). Engineering
Properties of Soils Reinforced by Short Discrete
Polypropylene Fiber. Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, ASCE 22(12), 1315-1322.
7. Kaniraj, S. R. and Gayathri, V. (2003). Geotechnical
behavior of fly ash mixed with randomly oriented fiber
inclusions. Geotextiles & Geomembranes, 21, 123149.
8. Maher, M. H. and Ho, Y. C. (1994). Mechanical
properties of Kaolinite/Fiber soil composite. Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering ASCE, 120(8), 1381-1393.
9. Ramesh, H. N., Krishnan, K. V. M. and Mamatha, H. V.
(2010). Compaction and strength behaviour of lime-coir
fiber treated Black Cotton soil. Geomechanics and
Engineering, 2(1), 19-28.
10. Ranjan, G., Vasan, R. M. and Charan, H. D. (1994).
Behaviour
of
Plastic-Fiber-Reinforced
Sand.
Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 13, 555-565.

STRENGTH AND CONSOLIDATION CHARACTERISTICS OF SOFT CLAY STABILIZED

WITH CEMENT
Naveena P.C, Senior Geotechnical Engineer, ATKINS India Pvt. Ltd, Bangalore-560052, Naveena.C@atkinsglobal.com
Md. Zuber Inamdar, Postgraduate Student, Dept. of Civil Engg, SIT, Tumkur-572103, mohammedzuber29@gmail.com
H. Devasharma, Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil Engg, SIT, Tumkur-572103, India, hdevasharma@yahoo.co.in
S.V. Dinesh, Professor, Dept. of Civil Engg, SIT, Tumkur-572103, India, dineshsv2004@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Construction on soft ground poses many problems due to low shear strength, differential settlement,
construction pore pressure development etc., it has been challenging task to improve the soft grounds. The increased land use
pattern has put pressure to develop techniques for ground improvement of soil deposit. The ground improvement techniques
are generally based on densification, inclusion of reinforcement, cementation and provision of drainage etc., Generally Lime
and cement are widely used to improve soft clays having high water content and compressibility
INTRODUCTION
For many decades, engineers and researchers have
attempted to solve problems posed by various types of soft
ground. Constructions on such grounds are generally
unstable due to low shear strength, substantial total and
differential settlement, excessive seepage and liquefaction.
Therefore, various methods of ground improvement have
been developed in order to improve such unfavourable
properties. The developed techniques are based on the
basic concepts of ground improvement which include the
effects of densification, cementation, reinforcement, and
drainage. Among many successful projects, it has been
reported that ground improvement method using cement
and lime is suitable to improve soft clayey ground having
high water content and high compressibility. The
techniques such as deep cement mixing method and soil
cement columns have become widely used recently.
Cement is commonly used as a cementing agent. The
resistance to compression and consequent strength
development of the cement and lime admixed clay
increases with curing time. The main objective of the
present paper is to analyse the strength development of the
cement admixed clay using the Wc/C as a prime parameter
to develop its generalized strength prediction equation. [1]
conducted studies on engineering behaviour of cement
treated soft clay. [1] observed that the water content of the
treated samples was lower than the untreated ones and the
unconfined compressive strength of the treated samples
increased. Cement content in the range of 10% to 20% was
found to be most effective in terms of hardening effect.
Recently the stabilization of soft soil is assuming great
importance. The effect of different stabilizing agents used
may be different for soft soils. For the effective application
of the stabilizing techniques in the field and to use proper
mix proportions, it is necessary to have a basic
understanding of the strength development in the form of
laboratory tests on soft clays admixed with stabilizing
agents. In this paper, it is intended to study the effect of
cement as stabilizing agent for stabilization at high water
contents and develop methods to predict the strength.

Materials
Locally available clayey soil was used in this study. Upon
visual inspection, the soil had greenish to dark gray colour,
Further the data on physical, and engineering properties
are given in Table 1. The soil can be classified as clay with
intermediate compressibility (CI) according to the Unified
Soil Classification System. The chemical properties are
given in Table 2
Table 1 Physical and engineering properties of untreated
soil
Properties
values
Specific Gravity
2.65
Liquid limit (%)
45
Plastic limit (%)
23.8
21.20
Shrinkage limit (%)
21.21
Maximum dry density (g/cc)
1.85
Optimum Moisture content (%)
17.29
Fine Sand (%)
39.2
Silt and Clay (%)
60.8
IS Classification
CI
Table 2 Chemical properties of untreated soil

Parameter
Values
Sio2
Fe2o3
Al2o3
Cao
Mgo2
Others
pH
Specific surface
cat ion exchange capacity
organic matter
68.30%
6.20%
13.3%
3.10%
7.5%
1.6%
7.53
30m2/gm
49.35milli equivalence/100gm
1.86%
Naveena P.C, Md Zuber Inamdar,H Devasharma, S.V. Dinesh
Preparation of Specimens
Researchers like [2],[3], [4] and [5] have studied the
behaviour of cement stabilized soft soils by conducting
laboratory experiments on cement stabilized soils at high
water content. In the present study soft soils were
artificially prepared in the laboratory by mixing locally
available soils with water, to form soils at high water
content. For this purpose, a split mould of cast iron of size
38mm x 80mm was designed and fabricated. The
specimens were prepared by placing the stabilizer treated
soils at high water content, in three equal layers into the
split mould and gently tapping it on a rubber pad to
remove the entrapped air. Since high water contents were
used in the present study enough care was taken to prevent
leakage of water from the split mould. The specimens
along with the split mould were kept in desiccators for
curing. After the specimens gained enough strength, they
were taken out of the split mould and once again kept in
desiccators for curing. The duration of keeping the
specimens along with the split mould depends on the type
of soil, initial water content, the type of stabilizer and the
stabilizer content.
The specimen of soil cement mixture was prepared by
initially mixing the oven dried clay soil of required
quantity, with necessary amount of water separately to
form a soil paste. When cement is added to the soil, it
absorbs water due to the hydration and the cement
consumes water equal to 40% of its mass [6]. This may
mask the role of high water content used in the present
study. Hence, the cement paste was prepared separately by
mixing cement with water equal to 0.4 times the mass of
cement. Finally, both the soil paste and the cement paste
were mixed thoroughly and put into the split mould. The
specimens along with the split mould were kept in
desiccators for curing. After the specimens gained enough
strength, they were taken out of the split mould and once
again kept in desiccators for curing. The duration of
keeping the specimens in split mould depends on the type
of soil, initial water content and cement content.
Moulding water content of 1, 1.5, 2 times of liquid limit
was chosen for the present study and the cement content
was varied over a wide range as detailed in Table 3.
Consolidation test
One dimensional consolidation tests were performed using
fixed ring consolidometers, 3% cement was mixed with
cement to stabilize the soil. Analysis was carried out by
relating the effects of 3% cement addition to the base clay.
Unconfined compressive Strength
Figures 1 and 2 show the variation of unconfined
compressive strength versus cement content for curing
periods of 7 and 28 days for initial water contents of 1LL,
1.5LL and 2LL. The optimum cement contents are 4.5%,
6.75% and 9% for strength gain for initial water content of
1LL, 1.5LL and 2LL respectively.
The results of unconfined compressive strength for various

initial water content and cement content and for curing
periods from 7 to 56 days are reported in Table 3. The data
indicates that for considerable strength gain the cement
content shall be 4.5%, 6.75% and 9% for initial water
content of 1LL, 1.5LL and 2LL. For specimens moulded
with 2LL as initial content the optimum water cement ratio
is 9%.
Fig. 1 Variation of unconfined compressive strength of

clay at different cement content after 7 days of curing.
Fig.2 Variation of unconfined compressive strength of clay

at different cement content after 56 days of curing
Strength and Consolidation Characteristics of Soft Clay Stabilized with Cement
Table 3 Experimental programme and Summary of UCS

Strength for different water and cement and cured for
different days.
Water
content
1LL
1.5LL
2LL
Cement
Content
(%)
2.25
3
4.5
9
Unconfined compressive Strength (kPa)

7
14
28
56
DAYS
DAYS
DAYS
DAYS
55.4
120.51
210.9
276.64
84.22
157.99
226.74
302.5
395.56
562.6
736.89
975.89
424.78
590.73
706.89
1006.3
3.38
36.09
98.52
188.56
221.2
4.5
6.75
51.55
153.91
115.36
327.68
189.89
684.96
286.56
901.65
13.5
271.65
412.72
609.93
980.12
4.5
6
9
28.67
41.24
151.2
68.52
110.32
320.75
135.96
172.16
496.38
199.47
231.98
855.59
18
252.55
391.54
585.62
959.9
Consolidation Characteristics of the Stabilized Soils

Figures 3 and 4 show the plot of void ratio versus log p
for specimens at moulding water contents of OMC, 1LL
and 2LL. Table 4 shows the consolidation data for
untreated and treated soils. The consolidation data
indicates that samples at OMC has Cc = 0.214 and when
the initial water content is at liquid limit and greater, soil
samples show greater compression index (Cc = 0.38/0.39).
But with addition of cement Cc has greatly reduced
irrespective of initial water content and Cc has further
decreased when the treated samples are cured. This is
indicative of the fact that cement stabilization increases the
1-D stiffness and is very effective to reduce settlements
and volume change.
Fig.4 Void ratio versus log p for treated samples at OMC,

1.0 LL and 2.0 LL (Clay+3% Cement)
Fig.5 Void ratio versus log p for treated samples at OMC,

1.0 LL and 2.0 LL(Clay+3% Cement) cured for 14 Days.
Table 4 Details of Consolidation characteristics
Water
content
(%)
Only Clay
Clay (3%
cement)
without
curing
Clay(3%
cement &
cured for
14 days
Fig.3 Void ratio versus log p for untreated samples at

OMC, 1.0 LL and 2.0 LL
e
Change
in void
ratio
0.455
0.86
1.156
0.107
0.09
Cc
Compression
index
Cv
Coefficient of
consolidation
OMC
1 LL
2.0 LL
OMC
1 LL
0.214
0.3800
0.3900
0.080
0.0893
0.0660
0.0550
0.04545
0.06604
0.08803
2.0 LL
0.0944
0.07701
0.07
OMC
1 LL
0.062
0.072
0.0510
0.07215
0.11
0.363
2.0 LL
0.056
0.0613
0.069
Strength prediction of the Stabilized Soils

The compressive strength data in terms of compressive
strength at any day to the 28 days strength (qD/q28) is
reported for curing days from 7 to 56 days for varying
initial water contents and cement content in table 4. The
data indicates that the clay water cement ratio (Wc/C)
Naveena P.C, Md Zuber Inamdar,H Devasharma, S.V. Dinesh
plays a major role, lower Wc/C ratio higher the strength

and yield stress.
Table 5 Summary of strength prediction for clay soil
stabilized with cement and curing period
Water
content
Wc/C
Ratio
1LL
1.5LL
1LL
1.5LL
Cement
Content
(%)
20
15
20
15
10
2.25
3
3.38
4.5
4.5
10
5
6.75
13.5
qD/q28=0.46ln(x) 0.63 ------------ (2)

qD/q28=0.39ln(x) 0.38 ---------- (3)
Where: D is the curing time(days) and qD is strength at D
days of curing.
qD/q28
7
DAYS
0.27
0.40
0.17
0.25
14
DAYS
0.58
0.76
0.47
0.56
28
DAYS
0.96
1.00
0.81
0.89
56
DAYS
1.29
1.21
1.06
1.36
0.37
0.65
0.93
1.14
0.51
0.26
0.77
0.51
1.00
0.76
1.30
1.02
0.32
0.60
1.05
1.16
Figure 6 shows an analysis of laboratary strength

development in the cement admixed clay for different days
It is found that Wc/C can be applied to analyse the strength
development of cement admixed clay with different
cement content and water content at a specific curing time.
The test data are represented well by a power function in
the form:
B
qu=A/(Wc/C)
-------------------(1)
Where,
qu= Unconfined compressive strength, A and B are
empirical constants.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Based on the results of this study, it could be
concluded that strength of the stabilized soil
significantly increases when mixed with cement.
2. For the cement stabilization of soft clay in which its
water content varies in the range of liquidity index of
1 and 2 the Wc/C is the prime parameter governing
the strength.
3. It was also found that the strength hardening effect of
the stabilized clay was substantially influenced by the
cement content.
4. The results indicate that the compression index (Cc)
greatly reduces with cement stabilization.
5. Prediction on strength could be accomplished using
the proposed correlations with the predetermined
cement content.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Fig 6 Anaysis
of strength Development in Cement-Admixed clay
using Wc/C.
As such it is possible to generalize the strength

development using the 28-days strength (q28) of cementadmixed clay as a refrence value
A linear regression analysis gives the following
relationships with a high degree of correlation 0.94 and
0.9. Equation (2) is applicaple for Wc/C ratio of 20 and 15
and equation (3) is applicable for 10 and 5.
Uddin, K., Balasubramaniam, A.S., and Bergado, D.T.

(1997) Engineering Behavior of Cement-Treated
Bangkok Soft Clay, Geotechnical EngineeringSEAGS, Vol. 28, No. 1, 89-119.
Miura N, Horpibulsuk S and Nagaraj TS. 2001.
Engineering behavior of cement stabilized clay at
high water content, Soils Found. 41(5): 33-45.
Horpibulsuk S, Miura N and Nagaraj TS. 2003.
Assessment of strength development in cement
admixed high water content clays with Abrams law
as a basis, Geotechnique. 53(4): 439-444.
Horpibulsuk S, Bergado D T and Lorenzo G A. (2004)
Compressibility of cemented-admixed clays at high
water content, Geotechnique, 54(2),151-54
Horpibulsuk S, Miura N and Nagaraj T S., (2005)
Clay-water/cement ratio identity for cement admixed
soft clays, Journal of Geotechnical and Geo
Environmental, ASCE, 131(2), 187-192Geotechnique,
54(2),151-54
Neville A M (1996) Properties of concrete Fourth
Edition, Prentice Hall.

DESIGN OF CAPILLARY CUTOFF USING LOCALLY AVAILABLE GRANULAR

MATERIALS
V. K. Kanaujia, Senior Technical Officer, GTE Division, Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, email: vkk.crri@nic.in
Vasant G Havangi, Scientist, Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, email: vasanthavanagi@yahoo.co.in
A. K.Sinha, Scientist, Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, email: sinha.crri@nic.in
Sudhir Mathur, Scientist, Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, email: sudhirmathur.crri@nic.in
ABSTRACT: Traffic of NH-71 and two State Highways is plying on a diversion road of length 4.2 km causing heavy traffic
in the Jhajhar district, state of Haryana. A canal is flowing parallel to the road and saturating the sub grade layer by capillary
rise. As a result, diversion road is frequently getting damaged. To rectify the problem, it was decided that the height of
embankment may be raised and a capillary cutoff layer may be provided. For this, locally available materials commonly
known as Tibba sand, granular material-I passing 13.2 mm and granular material-II passing 4.75 mm were investigated for the
construction of embankment, sub grade and capillary cutoff. In this paper, results of geotechnical characteristics of these
materials were given. Suitability of these materials for the construction of embankment, sub grade and capillary cutoff are
presented. It was observed that Tibba sand may be used for the construction of embankment and a mix of Tibba sand and
suitable soil for sub grade construction. Both granular materials did not satisfy the required filter/drainage specifications for
capillary cutoff. However, these materials may be used as a capillary cut off with a geotextile layer. .
INTRODUCTION
Traffic of NH-71 was diverted on a diversion road of length
4.2 km in the district of Jhajaar, Haryana. The traffic of two
State Highways namely Jhajjar- Jahazgarh- Dadri road and
Jhajjar- Subana -Kosli are also plying on this diversion road
causing heavy traffic. A canal is flowing parallel to the road.
The diversion road is observed to be frequently getting
damaged under heavy traffic and saturated sub grade. To
asses this problem and to provide a suitable solution, it was
decided that the height of embankment may be raised with
local available materials and then to provide a suitable
capillary cutoff layer. For this, three locally available
materials were collected and geotechnical investigation was
carried out. Suitability of these materials in the construction
of embankment, sub grade and capillary cut off were
investigated. The paper discusses the results of geotechnical
characteristic, capillary rise estimation with or without
capillary cut off, and thickness with filter efficiency of local
available material
MATERIALS
The Tibba sand which is locally available natural sand was
collected from district Jhajjar, Haryana, The granular
materials-I (G-I) & II (G-II) were collected from nearby
quarry. Figures 1 & 2 show the pictorial view of Tibba sand,
G-I & G-II respectively,
Fig. 1 Pictorial view of Tibba sand
Fig. 2 Pictorial view of G-I & G-II

GEOTECHNICAL CHARACTERISATION
Geotechnical characterization of Tibba sand and G-I & G-II
were carried out to evaluate their suitability in the
construction of embankment, sub grade and capillary cutoff.
Different laboratory investigations which were carried out
includes: (a) Grain size analysis (b) Proctor compaction test
(c) CBR test and (d) Permeability test.
Grain Size Analysis
The grain size analyses of materials were carried out as per
standard procedure [1]. Grain size distribution curves of the
materials are shown in the Fig. 3. All materials were observed
to be coarse grained. Tibba sand has 85 % sand and 15 % silt
size particles. The G-I has 97 % gravel and 3 % sand size
particles while G-II has 1 % gravel and 99 % sand size
particles. Based on grain size analysis, materials were
classified as per standard procedure [2] namely SM (Tibba
sand) i.e. silty sand, GP (G-I) i.e. poorly graded gravel and
SP (G-II) i.e. poorly graded sand
V K Kanaujia, Vasant G. Havangi, A. K. Sinha & Sudhir Mathur
Proctor Compaction Test

Modified Proctor compaction test was carried out of Tibba
sand as per standard procedure [3]. The Maximum Dry
Density (MDD) and Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) were
observed to be 16.6 kN/m3 and 12% respectively. The
Maximum dry density of G-I & G-II were determined by
manual compaction at saturated water in 5 layers as standard
procedure [3] and values were obtained 16.7 kN/m3 & 16.1
kN/m3 respectively. The lower dry density values of these
materials may be due to poor gradation of particles.
100
Tibba sand
G-I
G-II
Percentage finer, %
80
60
40
20
0
0.01
0.1
10
the non-cohesive characteristics of these materials, side cover

of 1m to 2 m each side with suitable soil (Plasticity Index, PI
= 5 - 9 %, density > 17.5 kN/m3) may be provided on the
embankment slope [7]. Accordingly, all materials are suitable
for the construction of embankment as per the MORTH
specification [8]. The density of the material is less than 17.5
kN/m3, which is required minimum value for the construction
of sub grade as per MORTH specifications. Therefore,
materials shall be blend with suitable soil to increase the
density of resulted composite material. A typical proportion
of the mix material having density of 17.5 kN/m3 is prepared
with proportion of 60 % Tibba sand and 40 % soil to achieve
the required density before recommending the same for sub
grade construction.
As Capillary Cutoff Layer Construction
To stop the capillary rise in the sub grade, it was decided that
capillary cutoff of G-I & G-II materials may be provided. To
evaluate their suitability, capillary rise was determined with
and without capillary cutoff. Thickness and drainage of
capillary cutoff using both materials were also determined.
To check the clogging of these granular materials, geotextile
was proposed and discussed below.
Sieve size, mm
Fig. 3 Grain size distribution curves for

Tibba sand and G-I & G-II
California Bearing Ratio Test
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test was carried out of Tibba
sand as per standard procedure [4]. Three specimens were
prepared by static compaction at 97 % of maximum dry
density and optimum moisture content. The average CBR
value was found to be 7 %. The lower CBR value may be due
to high porosity and poor gradation of the material.
Permeability Test
Permeability test was carried out as per standard procedure
[5] of compacted samples at 97% of maximum dry density.
Permeability was observed to be 6.85 x 10-5 m/s for Tibba
sand, 4.98 x 10-4 m/s for G-I & 1.34 x 10-4 m/s for G-II. The
value of the permeability indicates that these materials have
good drainage and have the potential for utilization as
drainage layer in road construction.
SUITABILITY OF MATERIALS
Considering the highest flood level and economy of the
construction, it was proposed that the top of the sub grade
layer shall be kept at a height of 0.7 m above HFL and
capillary cutoff may be provided as per IRC 34 [6]. The
results of different geotechnical characteristics of Tibba sand
and G-I & G-II were investigated to evaluate the suitability of
the materials for the construction of embankment, sub grade
and for capillary cut off layers.
As Embankment and Sub grade Construction
Considering the cohesionless, non-plastic, density (16.1
16.7 kN/m3) and permeability of materials, these materials
have potential for construction of embankment. Considering
Height of capillary rise (hc): The height of capillary rise was

determined with and without capillary cutoff from the
equation 1 [9] as given in Table 1.
(1)
Where, hc = height of capillary rise is in meter,
(obtained from the Fig. 3)
Table 1 Height of Capillary rise
Value of
Materials
d10(mm)
Without capillary cutoff
0.07
With capillary cutoff (G-I)
5.2
With capillary cutoff (G-II)
2.3
Height of Capillary
rise, mm
430
6
13
Capillary rise significantly reduces from 430 mm to 6-13 mm

with capillary cutoff. The value indicates that both granular
materials may be used as a capillary cut off.
Thickness of capillary cutoff (t): Thickness of capillary
cutoff was determined as per IRC- 34 [6] from the equation 2
as given in Table 2.
Thickness of capillary cutoff
(2)
Where, t = thickness of capillary cutoff in cm
d = (2d1xd2)/(d1+d2)
d = mean particle diameter in mm
d1= aperture size of sieve (mm) through which fraction passes
d2=aperture size of sieve (mm) on which the fraction is
retained
Suitability of granular materials for capillary cutoff
Table 2 Thickness of capillary cutoff

Materials
d1 (mm) d2 (mm) d (mm)
6.14
G-I
13.2
4.0
G-II
4.75
1.652
1.0
t (mm)
13
43
The thickness of 13 mm or 43 mm may be provided as

capillary cutoff for G-I & G-II respectively. Considering the
practical aspects and as per IRC 34 [6], 100 mm thickness of
capillary cutoff layer may be laid.
Filter/Drainage of capillary cutoff: The capillary cutoff
layer should acts as a drainage/filter layer. To prevent the
escape of finer material through the voids of cutoff layer as
well as to allow free movement of water without creating any
uplift head, filter/drainage criteria (equations 3 to 5) should
be satisfied as per MORTH specifications [8].
(3)
(4)
(5)
Where, Filter = G-I & G-II, Soil = Tibba sand
Accordingly, the G-I & G-II were checked for their filter
efficiency using the equations 3 to 5. The results are given in
Table 3.
Table 3 Filter criteria as per MORTH specification.
Filter criteria
G-I
G-II
31.1
13.3
74.7
32
66.7
26.7
The results indicate that both G-I &G-II did not satisfy the
above filter criteria. Hence there is possibility of migration of
Tibba sand particles into the capillary cutoff layer from either
side. This leads to chocking of voids of granular materials
which may further reduce the drainage capacity of the
capillary cutoff. As the capillary rise in both G-I & G-II is in
the range of 6-13 mm, geotextile layer may be laid only
above the both materials as shown in Fig 3. The specification
of geotextile is given in Table 4 as per IRC 34[6].
Table 4 Specification of Geotextile
S. No. Properties
1
2
3
4
Apparent opening size

EN ISO 12956
GSM
Tensile strength - EN ISO 10319
Permeability - EN ISO 11058
Specification
0.15 mm
410 g/m2
8 kN/m
100 l/m2.s
RECOMMENDATION OF FIELD CONSTRUCTION

About 0.5 of exiting ground with clayey soil needs to be cut
and shall be filled with Tibba sand. From the ground level (or
HFL), 100 mm thick capillary cutoff with G-I or G-II shall be
laid on the ground. A layer of geotextile of stipulated
specification (Table 4) shall be laid before layer of sub grade
soil. Tibba sand shall be mechanically stabilized with good
soil in a definite proportion to a density > 17.5 kN/m3. This
material shall be laid as a sub grade material (0.6 m) above
the capillary cutoff. The proposed cross section is shown in
the Fig. 4.
Geotextile
Tibba sand + Suitable soil, 600 mm, Sub grade
Capillary cutoff (G-I or G-II, 100 mm)
Tibba sand, 500 mm
HFL/GL
Fig. 4 Proposed cross section with capillary

cut off layer and geotextile
CONCLUSIONS
Three different locally available materials viz. Tibba sand
and G-I & G-II were collected from Jhajjar, Haryana and
investigated in the laboratory for their suitability for
embankment, sub grade and capillary cutoff construction.
Brief conclusions are summarized below.
All collected materials were observed to be coarse grained
and non-plastic in nature. They were classified as SM
(Tibba sand), GP (G-I) and SP (G-II).
The Maximum Dry Density (MDD) and Optimum
Moisture Content (OMC) were observed to be 16.6 kN/m3
and 12% for Tibba sand. Maximum dry density was
observed to be 16.7 kN/m3 & 16.1 kN/m3 for G-I & G-II
respectively. The lower dry density values of these
materials may be due to poor gradation.
The average CBR value of Tibba sand was found to be 7
%.
Permeability was observed to be 6.85 x 10-5 m/s for Tibba
sand, 4.98 x 10-4 m/s for G-I and 1.34 x 10-4 m/s for G-II.
This value of the permeability indicates that these
materials have good drainage and have the potential for
utilization as drainage layer in road construction.
All the materials are suitable for the construction of
embankment. A blend of Tibba sand and suitable soil in
definite proportion (60:40) may be used for the sub grade
construction.
Low capillary rise 6- 13 mm and permeability of G-I &
G-II indicate their suitability as capillary cutoff material.
Capillary cutoff of 100 mm thickness of G-I or G-II may
be laid above HFL with geotextile to stop the migration of
Tibba sand particles as both materials did not satisfy the
filter criteria.
V K Kanaujia, Vasant G. Havangi, A. K. Sinha & Sudhir Mathur
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are thankful to Director, Central Road Research
Institute, New Delhi for kind permission to publish this
research paper.
REFERENCES
1. IS 2720-Part 4 (1985), Methods of test for soils: Part 4
Grain size analysis, Published by Bureau of Indian
standard, New Delhi, India.
2. IS 1498(1970), Classification and identification of soils
for general engineering purposes, Published by Bureau
of Indian standard, New Delhi, India.
3. IS 2720-Part 8 (1983), Methods of test for soils: Part 8.
Determination of water content- dry density relation
using heavy compaction, Published by Bureau of Indian
standard, New Delhi, India.
4. IS 2720-Part 16(1979), Methods of test for soils: Part
16, Laboratory determination of CBR, Published by
Bureau of Indian standard, New Delhi, India.
5. IS 2720-Part 36(1987), Methods of test for soils: Part
36, Laboratory determination of permeability of
granular soils (constant head), Published by Bureau of
Indian standard, New Delhi, India.
6. IRC:34 (2011), Recommendations for road construction
in areas affected by water logging, flooding and/or Salt
Infestation (First Revision), Published by Indian Road
Congress.
7. IRC: SP 58 (2001), Guidelines for use of fly ash in road
construction, Published by Ministry of Road and
Highway Transport, New Delhi, India.
8. MORTH (2001), Specifications for road and bridge
works, Published by Ministry of Road and Highway
Transport, New Delhi, India.
9. Henry, K.S (1995), The Use of Geosynthetics Capillary
Barriers to reduce moisture migration in soils,
International Journal of Geosynthetics, Vol.-.2 (5), 883888.

BEHAVIOUR OF SOFT SOIL REINFORCED WITH ENCASED STONE COLUMNS

S. Dutta, Research Scholar, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, sushovan@iitb.ac.in
J. N. Mandal, Professor, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, cejnm@civil.iitb.ac.in
ABSTRACT: In the present study, axisymmetric numerical analysis has been performed using finite element software
PLAXIS 2D on end bearing stone columns without and with geogrid encasements. Axial stiffness and length of encasement is
varied in order to analyze their effects on the behaviour of reinforced soft clay foundation. Results indicate improved load
carrying capacity with increase in the length of encasement. It is also observed that increase in the stiffness of the encasement
enhances the behaviour of the encased stone column.
INTRODUCTION
Encased stone column is an excellent soft ground
improvement technique as it helps the soil to achieve
sufficient bearing capacity in consequence with increased rate
of drainage so that constructions can be executed over it in
short time duration. The problem with ordinary stone column
(OSC) is that it fails by bulging due to insufficient lateral
confinement from the surrounding soft soil. Encasing the
stone columns with suitable geosynthetics material
accomplishes the necessity of lateral confinement and
prevents bulging of stones. Various investigators performed
finite element analysis as well as laboratory investigations to
hunt for the efficacy of encased stone columns. The
reinforcing effect of a stone column in soil was investigated
to derive the ultimate load carrying capacity of ordinary stone
column [1]. The ultimate load carrying capacity of encased
stone column was derived [2] and later modified [3] keeping
in view that stone columns failed by bulging before the stress
in the geosynthetic material had reached its failure point.
Parametric study on encapsulated stone column using the
finite element program GEOFEM was carried out extensively
[4] as well as model tests were conducted on single and group
of stone columns without and with different geosynthetic
encasements to investigate the effect of encasements on stone
columns of different diameters [5,6]. More robust
encasements made of uni-axial and bi-axial geogrid of higher
strength were also used for model studies [7]. Finite element
software Abaqus (2006) was extensively used by many
authors to model the encased granular columns with different
approaches [8]. The optimum length of encasement was
found as a function of the stress applied [9]. Analytical study
on non-encased and encased stone columns was carried out
by some authors considering the column as an elasto-plastic
material, soil as an elastic material and geosynthetic
encasement as a linear-elastic material as well as very good
agreement with elasto-plastic finite element analyses was
achieved [10].
In the present study, finite element analysis has been carried
out using PLAXIS 2D [11] on end bearing encased stone
columns by varying the length and stiffness of the
encasement to find out the efficacy of encased stone column
installed in very soft clay.
FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

The dimensions of the test tank considered are 850 mm
diameter and 500 mm height. End bearing stone column of
100 mm diameter and 500 mm height with surrounding clay
is loaded with a 200 mm diameter rigid plate so as to obtain
uniform settlement. The plate diameter is chosen such so as
to simulate the single stone column with its surrounding
influence zone. The tank is modeled large enough to avoid
the boundary effect. 15-node triangular elements are used to
model the deformations and stresses in the soil. In the
analysis, un-drained (B) Mohr-Coulomb model is used for
soft clay and drained Mohr-Coulomb model is used for stone
column. The geogrid elements are modeled as elastic
material. Short term plastic analysis is used as calculation
procedure. The axisymmetric model for encased stone
column with generated very fine mesh is shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 Finite element model of encased stone column with

generated fine mesh
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Linear elastic geogrid of stiffness 200 kN/m, 300 kN/m, 1000
kN/m and 2000 kN/m of length varying as 2D, 4D and full
length are used to model the encasement where D is the
diameter of stone column. The partial encasements are
S. Dutta & J. N. Mandal
provided from the top of the stone column. Properties of

stone and clay are presented in Table 1.
Table 1 Properties of clay and stone
Parameters
Properties
Clay
Stone
Elastic modulus, E (kPa)
4000
50000
Poissons ratio,
0.4
0.3
10
0
Cohesion, cu (kPa)
Angle of internal friction,
0
45
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
The analysis has been carried out keeping in view the radial
deformation of stone column without and with encasement,
relative shear stress distribution, pressure - settlement
response as well as effect of length and stiffness of
encasements on the ordinary stone column.
Radial Deformation
A huge radial displacement of about 13 mm has been
observed in case of ordinary stone column (OSC) from the
analysis whereas providing a full length encasement of
stiffness 300 kN/m the maximum radial displacement gets
reduced to 4 mm. The encasement provides sufficient lateral
confining pressure to prevent the lateral bulging of stones.
Figure 2 shows the radial deformation of (a) ordinary stone
column and (b) fully encased stone column having 300 kN/m
encasement stiffness. It can be observed that ordinary stone
column fails due to radial deformation mainly within 2D (D =
diameter of the stone column) length of the column whereas
for encased stone column (ESC), the load is transferred to the
whole length of the column producing almost uniform and
lesser lateral deformation.
2000 kN/m the maximum radial deformation gets reduced to

2 mm and 1.4 mm respectively. As the stiffness of the
encasement increases, more hoop tension force gets
developed in the stiffer encasement at the same applied load
resulting more confining pressure to the stone column. The
lateral deformation also becomes more uniform throughout
the length of the column. The maximum hoop tension force
obtained from the analysis for encasement stiffness of 200
kN/m, 300 kN/m, 1000 kN/m and 2000 kN/m are 18.13
kN/m, 23.81 kN/m, 44.49 kN/m and 56.21 kN/m
respectively. Figure 3 shows the radial deformation of
encased stone columns (ESC) with encasement stiffness of
(a) 1000 kN/m and (b) 2000 kN/m.
Fig. 3 Radial deformation of encased stone column with

stiffness (a) 1000 kN/m and (b) 2000 kN/m
Relative Shear Stress Distribution
Relative shear stress is defined as the ratio of mobilized shear
stress to the maximum shear stress. Figure 4 shows the
relative shear stress distribution of (a) ordinary stone column
as well as (b) encased stone column with encasement
stiffness of 2000 kN/m installed in soft clay.
Fig. 2 Radial deformation (a) ordinary stone column (b)

encased stone column (300 kN/m)
It is also observed that stiffness of encasement plays an
important role. For full length encasement of 1000 kN/m and
Fig. 4 Relative shear stress distribution (a) ordinary stone

column (b) encased stone column (2000 kN/m)
The mobilized shear stress zone is more for encased column
when compared with ordinary stone column for the
Behaviour of Extremely Soft Soil Reinforced with Stone Column without and with Encasement
prescribed settlement. As a consequence load carrying

capacity of encased stone column is more.
Pressure - Settlement Response
Influence of stiffness of encasement
The load carrying capacity of the encased stone column
increases as the casing stiffness is increased. The pressure settlement response of the encased stone column for different
encasement stiffness values compared to only clay and
ordinary stone column is shown in Fig. 5.
development, the column behaves like ordinary stone column

as it fails by bulging occurred beneath the end of the
encasement and the load cannot get distributed to the whole
length of the column. For encasement length of 4D, same
scenario occurs although the load gets distributed to a larger
depth providing better performance. As the partial
encasement is stiffer than the surrounding clay, it will punch
through the soil with increasing pressure long before the
generation of maximum hoop tension in the encasement. The
maximum hoop tension developed in the partial encasement
of 2D and 4D length are 7.462 kN/m and 44.64 kN/m
respectively while the maximum hoop tension is 56.21 kN/m
in the full length encasement for the same prescribed
displacement.
Influence of stiffness on length of encasements
It has been found from the analysis that for encasement of
2D length, the role of stiffness is negligible. For higher
length of encasements as the encasement stiffness increases,
the load carrying capacity of stone column gets increased.
For the generation of maximum hoop tension in the
encasements, a hard support at the end of the encasement is
required. Otherwise it will punch through the soil much
before the generation of maximum hoop strain. Figure 7
shows the effect of encasement stiffness (300 kN/m and 2000
kN/m) on its various lengths.
Fig. 5 Pressure - settlement response of stone column without

and with encasement of different stiffness values
Influence of length of encasement
The length of encasement has also been varied in the analysis
and it has been observed that full length encasement is
required to achieve the maximum bearing capacity. The
pressure - settlement response of encased stone column with
different lengths of encasement (2000 kN/m) compared to
ordinary stone column (OSC) is shown in Fig. 6.
Fig. 7 Influence of encasement stiffness on its various lengths
Fig. 6 Pressure - settlement response of encased stone

column with different encasement lengths
It can be observed that as the length of encasement increases,
the load carrying capacity gets increased. For encasement
length of 2D (D = diameter of the column), after certain
When the encasement length is 4D, the encasement with

stiffness 2000 kN/m produces better results although
maximum benefit is obtained for full length of encasements.
With increasing stiffness more hoop tension will be
developed in the encasements before failure though it may be
lesser than the maximum hoop tension. The encasements with
stiffness of 300 kN/m and 2000 kN/m for partial 4D length
generates maximum hoop tension as 22.90 kN/m and 44.64
kN/m respectively.
CONCLUSIONS
The following major conclusions can be made from the
present study.
S. Dutta & J. N. Mandal
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The stone column without encasement (Ordinary stone

columns) is unable to improve the bearing capacity of
clay sufficiently due to lesser lateral confinement from
the surrounding soft clay. However, encasing the stone
column with suitable full length encasement can increase
the bearing capacity of clay many times than that of the
ordinary stone column. Encasement provides extra
confining pressure to the stone columns and prevents the
lateral bulging of stones.
Encasement of higher stiffness provides more confining
pressure to the stone column due to the generation of
higher hoop tension force in it. As a consequence, using
encasement of higher stiffness the radial deformation can
be reduced significantly as well as the bearing capacity
gets improved enormously.
When the stone column is encased, the applied load is
distributed to the whole length of the column whereas
the ordinary stone column fails due to the lateral bulging
of the stones within 2D length of the column from the
top.
The mobilized shear stress zone is more in encased
column when compared with ordinary stone column for
the prescribed settlement.
For an encasement with certain stiffness, the load
carrying capacity gets improved with the increase in
length of the encasement. However, for any encasement
length the encased stone column produces better results
than the ordinary stone column.
The effect of encasement stiffness is negligible when the
encasement length is very short. However, as the length
of encasement is increased, the stiffer encasement
produces better results and it is more pronounced for full
length of encasements. As the stiffness of the
encasement is increased, higher hoop tension force gets
developed in the encasement before failure though it may
be lesser than the maximum hoop tension. For end
bearing stone columns, the maximum hoop tension force
can be developed in the full length encasement.
REFERENCES
1. Hughes J.M.O. and Withers N.J. (1974), Reinforcing of
soft cohesive soils with stone columns, Ground
Engineering, 1 (3), 4249.
2. Briaud, J.L. (1991), The pressuremeter: some special
applications, Proce. of the Geotechnical Engineering
Congress, Boulder, CO, ASCE, Geotechnical Special
Publication, 27, 2637.
3. Ayadat, T and Hanna, A.M. (2005), Encapsulated stone
columns as a soil improvement technique for collapsible
soil, Ground Improvement, 9 (4), 137147.
4. Murugesan, S. and Rajagopal, K. (2006), Geosyntheticencased stone columns: numerical evaluation,
5. Murugesan, S. and Rajgopal, K. (2010), Studies on the
behaviour of single and group of geosynthetic encased
stone columns, Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 129-138.
6.
Mandal J.N. and Kamble S.M. (1998), Geosynthetics

encased stone column, Proce. of the Geosynthetics - 99
Conference, April 28-30, Boston, USA,Vol.1, 101-113.
7. Gniel, J. and Bouazza, A. (2009), Improvement of soft
soils using geogrid encased stone columns, Geotextiles
and Geomembranes, 27, 167-175.
8. Yoo, C. and Kim, S.B. (2009), Numerical modelling of
geosynthetic-encased stone column reinforced ground,
Geosynthetics International, 16(3), 116-126.
9. Khabbazian, M., Kaliakin, V.N. and Meehan, C.L.
(2010), Numerical study of the effect of geosynthetic
encasement on the behaviour of granular columns,
Geosynthetics International, 17 (3), 132-143.
10. Pulko, B., Majes, B. and Logar, J. (2011), Geosyntheticencased stone columns: analytical calculation model,
11. Brinkgreve, R.B.J., Swolfs, W.M. and Engin, E. (2011),
Plaxis 2D 2011 Reference Manual, 111p.

GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF SAND REINFORCED WITH RANDOMLY

DISTRIBUTED TYRE SHREDS
N.H.Joshi, Associate Professor, Applied Mechanics Department, M.S.University, Baroda, nhjmsu@yahoo.co.in
Rachna J. shah, Post Graduate student, Applied Mechanics Department, M.S.University, Baroda, rachujits@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Present study is carried out to investigate modulus of subgrade reaction(k), bearing capacity and co-efficient of
elastic uniform compression(cu) of sand foundation reinforced with wasted rubber tire shreds by keeping constant width and
varying aspect ratio and concentration i.e 10,20,30 & 40% by volume of sand. Addition of tire shreds to sand increases bearing
capacity. Considering the Ultimate bearing capacity, the optimum tire shred size is 2x4x1 cm, which gives 271.43%
improvement in bearing capacity. Maximum BCR have been obtained at aspect ratio of 2 and minimum at aspect ratio 4.
INTRODUCTION
Reinforced soil technique has become one of the main fast
growing technique. Today, many waste materials such as
rubber tire shreds, high density polyethylene (HDPE) strips,
polyethylene fibers, jute fibre, have been used in reinforced
soil technique. So, there has been a growing interest in recent
years in evaluating the potential use of recycled materials in
civil engineering construction.Today tires are one of the
aspects for reinforcing soil. Rao and Dutta (2006) reported
112 million discarded tires in India per year. Disposal of used
tires in landfills and stockpiles increases the risk of accidental
fires and improper storage of used tire poses direct threat to
public health.So, it is essential to find beneficial ways of
recycling or reusing tires. Rubber tire is a thermoplastic
material predominantly composed of monomers.It is elastic,
ductile & possesses energy dissipation properties. Tire shreds
have various shapes and sizes typically varying between 50 &
300 mm. There are several advantages of tire shreds in civil
engineering application. Tatlisoz et al (1997) evaluated
mechanical properties and behavior of waste tire chips and
mixtures with fine and coarse grained soils. Results of the
tests showed that tire chips and soil tire chips mixtures
behave like soil but are more compressible and also require
more deformation to mobilize their ultimate shear strength.
Several investigations have been carried out to study the
possibilities of using waste tire chips in civil engineering
applications, such as in constructing roads (Bosscher et al.
1997; Nightingale and Green 1997; Heimdahl and Druscher
1999), in controlling ground erosion (Poh and Broms 1995),
in stabilizing slopes (Poh and Broms 1995; OShaughnessy
and Garga 2000a),as a lightweight material for backfilling in
retaining structures (Bosscher et al.1997; Sumanarathna et
al. 1997; Tatlisoz et al. 1997; Allman and Simundic 1998;
Lee et al. 1999; Garga and OShaughnessy 2000;
OShaughnessy and Garga 2000a), as aggregates in leach
beds of landfills (Hall 1991; Ahmed and Lovell 1992; Park et
al.1993).
SCOPE AND OBJECTIVE:
Present study is carried out to investigate pressure settlement
behavior of sand foundation mixed with wasted tire shreds
and to evaluate geotechnical parameters, viz.bearing

capacity, Modulus of subgrade reaction(k),coefficient of
elastic uniform compression (cu). The main objective is 1)To
study the load-Settlement characteristics using static plate
load test 2) To study the load-settlement characteristics for
determination of Modulus of subgrade reaction 3) To
determine coefficient of elastic uniform compression by
performing cyclic plate load test on sand foundation
reinforced with tire shreds by changing different percentage
of tire shreds i.e. 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% by volume of sand
and by keeping constant width of 2 cm with aspect ratio of
tire shreds i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4.
Material Tested
Soil : Medium fine Normal River (near sankheda) sand is
used as foundation soil in all bearing capacity test. The
physical, textural and engineering properties of sand have
been mentioned in Table. The grain size distribution curve is
shown in Fig1.
Rubber Shreds: Rubber shreds having unique property, have
been collected from Halol nr. Baroda. Shreds have been cut
into pieces by manually using special cutter shown Fig 2.
Fig. 1 Particle size distribution curve
Fig 2 Typical Tire Shreds Used in Study
Dr.N.H.Joshi, Associate. Professor,M.S.U Baroda, Rachna J. Shah ,P.G student ,M.S.U, Baroda
Table 1 Properties of sand

Sr.No Properties
.
1
Specific Gravity
2
Maximum
density,
dmax
(gm/cm3)
3
Minimum
density,
dmin
(gm/cm3)
4
Gravel (>4.75mm)%
5
Coarse Sand (24.75 mm)%
6
Medium Sand(0.425-2mm)%
7
Fine Sand (0.075-0.425mm)%
8
Uniformity Coefficient Cu
9
Coefficient of Curvature Cc
10
Angle of Internal friction
11
Cohesion Kg/cm2
Specific
value
2.64
1.78
1.49
0
6.9
74.1
19
2.22
1.14
35
0
Test setup and Procedure

The bearing capacity tests, k value tests and
tests to
determine Cu have been performed in the circular tank of size
90 cm diameter and 60 cm deep.. The bearing capacity tests
have been performed using M.S circular footing with 18 cm
diameter and 2 cm thick under static loading. Load is applied
through mechanical hand operated screw jack. Load applied
is recorded using proving ring.Settlement is observed by
three dial gauges of least count 0.01mm placed at an angle
120 each on the footing. For test on virgin sand, the sand is
filled in 3 layer with each layer compacted of 18 cm
thickness up to 54 cm ,which is three times the footing
diameter. The sand was compacted by surface vibrator for
one minute vibration time. For preparing reinforced sand bed,
the tire shreds mixed with sand in appropriate volume
proportion i.e. (10%, 20%, 30%,40%) of sand volume and
mixing is done manually. For determination of bearing
capacity,First sitting load applied equivalent to 7 kPa
pressure and it is kept till settlement of footing becomes
negligible. Then all the three dial gauges are setback to read
zero reading. Then first load increment equivalent to 50 kPa
or 1/5th of the estimated ultimate bearing capacity
(whichever is less) applied till settlement of rate becomes
negligible. Likewise successive loading increment applied
and settlement of footing is recorded in dial gauge. The test is
stopped when there is foundation failure, which cannot take
further load or progressive settlement of footing is observed.
For determination of k value, The footing plate first be seated
by applying a seating load of 7 kPa, and released it after few
seconds. A load sufficient to cause approximately a 0.85 mm
settlement and note down the dial gauge reading. The load
should be increased until there is an additional settlement of
approximately 0.25 mm and deflection again noted until total
settlement not less than 1.85mm. The results usually give a
curve which is convex upwards and which has no straight
portion even initially, so k value is taken as the slope of the
line passing through the origin and the point on the curve
corresponding to 1.25 mm settlement.
For determination of cu value, the setup has been done and
after the initial reading of dial gauges should be noted and
first increment of static load should be applied to the plate.
The final reading of the dial gauges should be taken and

recorded After that entire load was removed and the plate
allowed to rebound. When no further rebound occurs or the
rate of rebound was negligible, the reading of dial gauge
again noted. The load was applied gradually. Load increment
was carried out 20 kPa for unreinforced sand and 30 kPa for
reinforced sand. Each load increment was applied for 10
minutes. The cycles of loading and unloading was done until
soil fails. From the data obtained during cyclic plate load test,
the graph of bearing pressure v/s elastic rebound plotted for
evaluation of cu value.
RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
The results are analysed in the terms of bearing capacity ratio
(BCR) and settlement reduction factor (SRF).Also the
evaluation of Modulus of subgrade reaction (k), co-efficient
of elastic uniform compression (Cu) and ultimate bearing
capacity (UBC) is done in this study. These all terms are used
for comparison of reinforced and unreinforced foundation
condition. SRF is measured at three bearing pressure equal to
55,110,220 kPa. BCR is measured at settlement equivalent to
2%, 4%, 6% of width of footing.Where, BCR and SRF is
calculated as under.
BCR=qr/q0
1)
Where, q0= average contact pressure of footing on
unreinforced bed for a given settlement
qr=average contact pressure of footing on reinforced bed for a
given settlement
.
SRF= (1-Sr/S0) x100%
2)
Where, Sr=settlement of reinforced soil for a given bearing
pressure
S0=settlement of unreinforced soil for a given bearing
pressure
Fig 3 Bearing Pressure V/S Settlement characteristics of

circular footing on reinforced soil (tire shred size 2x4x1cm)
Geo technical properties of sand reinforced with randomly distributed tire shreds
Fig.4 Ultimate bearing capacity v/s diff. % of tire shreds
Fig.5 BCR v/s aspect ratio of tire shreds for reinforced soil
for reinforced soil
Fig.6 Bearing pressure v/s settlement ratio for Reinforced soil

of size 2x4x1 cm
Fig.8 Bearing Pressure v/s Settlement for Modulus of Sub

Grade Reaction on virgin sand
Fig 9 Modulus of subgrade reaction v/s different size

% variation
Fig 10 Bearing pressure v/s elastic S ettlement for virgin soil
Fig 11 coefficient of elastic uniform compression for

virgin/reinforced soil
Fig.7 Settlement reduction factor (%) v/s Bearing Pressure
of reinforced soil for tire shred size 2x4x1cm
and
Dr.N.H.Joshi, Associate. Professor,M.S.U Baroda, Rachna J. Shah ,P.G student ,M.S.U, Baroda
DISCUSSION
Fig 3&4 shows that bearing capacity has been increased as
increase of tire shreds, up to optimum value after that it has
been decreased. Max UBC is found at 30%, which is
optimum value. It is about 221.43 % compared to
unreinforced sand .From and Fig 5. We concluded that max
BCR have been observed at aspect ratio of 2 and minimum at
4.Fig 6 shows that Curves are linearly and also slightly
concave upward in nature. Max BCR is at 10% of tire shreds,
which is 2.14. Fig 7 shows that SRF is maximum at 10% tire
shreds by volume of sand, it is 69.56%.Fig 8 shows
relationship of Bearing pressure v/s settlement for evaluation
of Modulus of subgrade reaction, For unreinforced sand, it
was obtained 84,000kN/m3.Fig 9 shows comparison of K
value.It is clearly seen that k value is maximum of shred size
2x4x1 with 10% tire shreds by volume of sand. Fig 10 shows
Bearing Pressure v/s elastic settlement relationship. Fig. 11
shows the graph of elastic uniform compression (Cu) v/s
different % of tire shreds with different size of shreds. Graph
shows that value of (Cu) is maximum at tire shred of size
2x2x1 cm with 10% tire shreds by volume of sand. It is 2,
87,950 kN/m3, but it is less than unreinforced sand.cu is
decreases by adding % of tire shreds.
CONCLUSION
As the % of tire shreds increases, ultimate bearing capacity
also increases at some specific value (optimum value), after
further increasing tire shreds, it decreases. Ultimate Bearing
Capacity (UBC) have been obtained maximum at rubber
shred of size 2x4x1 cm with 30% of tire shreds, gives
271.43% improvement in bearing capacity.
As the optimum mixing ratio depends on shape and size of
tire shreds.
For a constant width of tire shred i.e 2 cm , maximum BCR
have been obtained at aspect ratio 2 and 10 % content of tire
shreds and minimum obtained at aspect ratio 4, because of
the fact that further increase in length, greater than optimum
length decrease in area ratio, which is an important parameter
for reinforced soil behaviour.
From the BCR and settlement reduction factor (s/d) %, it
was concluded that, maximum BCR have been obtained at
6% of width of footing for rubber shred of size 2x4x1 cm and
at 10% of tire shreds.
Modulus of subgrade reaction (k) increases as further
increases tire shreds. It has been increased up to 195.23 %
than virgin soil at rubber shred size of 2x4x1 cm, with 10 %
of tire shreds, after that further increase of tire shreds, it has
been decreased.
Maximum SRF have been obtained at rubber shred of size
2x4x1 cm and at 10% of tire shreds.
The co-efficient of elastic uniform compression have been
obtained less compared to unreinforced sand. Therefore, in
seismically zones and structures likely to be subjected to
vibration, the tire reinforced soil to be cautiously and
judiciously used taking into consideration the decrease of cu.
REFERENCES
1. Keun Soo Kim, Yeo Won Yoon, and Gil Lim Yoon
(2010 )Pullout Behaviour of Cell-Type Tires in
Reinforced Soil Structures KSCE Journal of Civil
Engineering (2011) 15(7):1209-1217
2. S. Thenmozhi, V.K. Stalin (2010) Suitability Of
Geogrid Reinforced - Rubber Waste In Pavements
International Journal of Engineering Science and
Technology Vol. 2(10), 2010, 5462-5472.
3. Sungmin Yoon , Monica Prezzi , Nayyar Zia
Siddiki, Bumjoo Kim (2006 )Construction of a test
embankment using a sandtire shred mixture as fill
material .Waste Management 26 , 10331044.
4. N Hataf
and M.M.Rahimi (2006)Experimetal
investigation on bearing capacity of sand reinforced
with randomly distributed tire shreds construction
and building materials 20( 910-916)
5. Yeo Won Yoon, sung Han Cheon, Dae Seong Kang
(2004) Bearing capacity and settlement of tirereinforced sands Geotextile and Geomembranes
22(439-453)
6. Nilay Tatlisoz,l 'funcer B. Edil,2 and Craig H.
Benson,3 Members,(1998) ASCE
Interaction
Between Reinforcing Geosynthetics And Soil-Tire
Chip Mixtures Journal of Geotechnical and Geo
environmental Engineering, Vol. 124, No. 11,
7. Nainan P. Kurian/ K. S. Beena/ and R. Krishna
Kumar (1997) Settlement Of Reinforced Sand In
Foundations Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering,ASCE Vol. 123.
No.9.
8. Gary J. Foose/ Craig H. Benson/ and Peter J.
Bosscher,3 Members (1996) Sand Reinforced With
Shredded Waste Tires

BUILDING A MEGA POWER PLANT ON LIQUEFIABLE SANDS A CASE STUDY

Sanjay Gupta, Managing Director
Ravi Sundaram, Director
Sorabh Gupta, Sr. Project Engineer, Cengrs Geotechnica Pvt. Ltd., cengrs@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Geotechnical investigations for a major power plant in Punjab indicated the likelihood of liquefaction of the
loose sands to about 7.5-11 m depth. To mitigate the liquefaction potential, ground improvement by vibro-compaction was
done for the light to medium-loaded facilities. Piles extending well below the liquefiable zone were used to support heavilyloaded facilities. The paper presents data and analysis for the Boiler-I area where ground improvement was successfully
carried out and raft foundations for the boiler were provided.
INTRODUCTION
A 540 MW capacity supercritical thermal power plant is
being constructed in the state of Punjab, along the banks of
the Beas River. The site covers an area of over 500 acres.
Various facilities planned include Power House, Boiler,
Cooling Tower, Chimney, ESP area, etc.
A vicinity map showing the location of the site is presented
on Fig. 1.
Project Site
(CPT), 1 plate load test, 13 test pits, 6 cross-hole seismic

tests, 4 field California bearing tests, 2 field permeability
tests and 19 electrical resistivity tests. This paper presents
data collected from the proposed Boiler-I location.
Regional Geology
The project site is located in Punjab on the banks of the Beas
River. The soils at the project site belong to the IndoGangetic Alluvium and are river deposits of the Beas and its
tributaries. The Pleistocene and Recent Deposits of the IndoGangetic Basin [1] are composed of gravels, sands, silts and
clays. The newer alluvium, deposited in the areas close to the
river, is locally called Khadar and consists primarily of
fine sand that is often loose in condition at shallow depths.
Site Stratigraphy
The investigations confirmed the presence of clean river
sands at the site to the maximum explored depth. In the
Boiler-I area, field SPT values indicated loose conditions
(N<10) to about 3-5 m depth. The SPT values range from 11
to 16 to 10 m depth and from 17 to 27 to 15 m depth. Below
this, SPT values range from 32 to 51 to 24 m depth and from
55 to 77 to 30 m depth. Typical borehole data is presented on
Fig. 2.
Groundwater was encountered at 1.9-4.3 m depth
(RL 216.0~220.0 m) and may rise to ground level during
rains. In view of the proximity of the site to the Beas River,
the design groundwater level was taken at the ground level.
SCPT results indicate cone tip resistances (qc) of 25 to
70 kg/cm2 to 4.5 m depth, and 33 to 67g/cm2 to about 10 m
depth. Below this, qc values range from 70 to 120 kg/cm2 to
12 m depth, and meet refusal at 14-15 m depth.
Fig. 1 Vicinity Map

GENERAL SITE CONDITIONS
Scope of Geotechnical Investigation

The geotechnical investigations at the project site included 71
exploratory boreholes to 30 m depth, 9 cone penetration tests
Shear wave velocities (Vs) are less than 200-220 m/s to about
10 m depth and increase gradually with depth. Fig. 3 presents
plots of corrected SPT values, qc values and P & S-wave
velocities with depth.
Plots of corrected SPT values, qc and Vs with depth are
presented on Fig. 3.
Sanjay Gupta Ravi Sundaram and Sorabh Gupta
Fig. 3 SPT, qc and S Wave velocities profile

Fig. 2 Typical Borehole Data
DETAILED LIQUEFACTION ANALYSIS
A detailed liquefaction susceptibility assessment (based on

SPT, CPT and shear wave velocity profiles, as shown on Fig.
3) was done as per the simplified procedure presented in the
NCEER Summary Report [2]. As per the project
specifications, the analysis was done for an earthquake
magnitude of 6.7 and a peak ground acceleration of 0.24 g.
Ground Improvement
Ground improvement was done by vibro-compaction. The
vibro-probe was inserted into the ground and penetrated to
about 10-12 m depth. A water jet was used to assist the
densification process. The depression formed by the
compaction process was filled with sand and compacted
using a 10 ton vibratory roller.
Fig. 5 presents a photograph of the vibro-compaction in
progress.
As per the analysis, the computed depth of liquefaction

varied from 9 m to 11.5 m (RL 208.4 m to RL 210.0 m)
across the site. In the Boiler-I area, the depth of liquefaction
was estimated as 10 m.
Fig 4 presents the computed cyclic stress ratio (CSR) and
cyclic resistance ratio (CRR) (based on SPT, qc and Vs)
versus depth, together with the safety factor against
liquefaction.
ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS
In view of the liquefaction potential, it is not feasible to

support the power plant facilities on the natural soils. To
densify the soils, extensive ground improvement was carried
out by vibro-compaction method in order to mitigate the
liquefaction potential and justify the use of open foundations.
Structures such as the TG, Chimney, etc. are very heavily
loaded. It was decided to support these structures on deep
piles extending well below the liquefiable zone.
Fig. 4 CSR, CSR and Factor of Safety against Liquefaction
Building a Mega Power Plant on Liquefiable Sands: A Case Study
Fig. 7 Plate Load Tests before and after compaction

Fig. 5 Vibro-compaction in progress
Results of plate load tests conducted on a 60 x 60 cm size test

plate before and after compaction are illustrated on Fig. 7.
Extent of Improvement Achieved

The vibro-compaction was successful in densifying the loose
sands and in mitigating the liquefaction potential. There was
substantial increase in the SPT and qc values. Fig 6 presents
the SCPT cone tip resistance (qc) values before and after the
compaction process.
The test results indicate substantial improvement after the

compaction process. The liquefaction potential has been
successfully mitigated. Analysis for liquefaction potential
after the densification process indicated a factor of safety
exceeding 1.2 thereby confirming that the soils shall not
experience liquefaction under the design earthquake.
After the compaction was done, a vibratory roller was used to
compact the soils at the founding level. Raft foundations
bearing on the improved ground at 2 m depth were designed
for a net allowable bearing pressure of 220 kPa for a
permissible total settlement of 25 mm.
Pile Foundations
RCC bored cast-in situ piles were used to support very
heavily loaded facilities such as TG, Chimney, etc. The pile
capacity analysis was done ignoring the skin friction in the
top 10 m of soil that is prone to liquefaction. The calculations
were done in accordance with IS: 2911 (Part 1)-Section 2 and
include a factor of safety of 2.5.
Table-1 presents the safe compressive and pullout capacities
used for design of 600 mm diameter RCC bored cast-in-situ
piles with cut-off level at 3.5 m depth below the ground level:
Fig. 6 Cone tip resistance before and after compaction

(Boiler-I)
Table 1: Safe Pile Capacities (ignoring skin friction in

liquefiable zone)
Safe Pile Capacity, Tonnes
Pile length below
COL, m
Compression
Pullout
20
83
27
23
95
33
26
108
39
Sanjay Gupta Ravi Sundaram and Sorabh Gupta
The test load for pile load test was worked out considering
the skin friction in the top 10 m so as to simulate the normal
condition. However, the safe load for design was restricted to
the values given in Table 1 so as to ensure that the piles are
safe during earthquake.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The construction of the heavily-loaded facilities of the mega
power plant was done after thorough evaluation of the
geotechnical data. Detailed analysis indicated the potential
for liquefaction. The ground improvement by vibrocompaction could successfully mitigate the liquefaction
potential and also ensure a high safe bearing capacity for
design of the structures. Piles were used in areas where the
loadings were very heavy.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to M/s. Punj Lloyd Ltd. and GVK
Power Ltd. for giving Cengrs Geotechnica Pvt. Ltd. an
opportunity to perform the geotechnical investigation as well
as tests before and after improvement.
REFERENCES
1. Krishnan, M. (2008), Geosynthetics Practices, 3rd Ed.,
Prentice Hall, New Delhi, India.
2. Youd, T.L., and Idriss, I.M., (2001), Liquefaction
Resistance of Soils: Summary Report from the 1996
NCEER and 1998 NCEER/NSF Workshops on
Evaluation of Liquefaction Resistance of Soils, Jl of
Geotech and Geoenv Engineering, April 2001, pp. 297313.

December 13-15, 2012, Delhi (Paper No.B-301)
TEST TRACK STUDIES ON REINFORCED FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

OVER EXPANSIVE CLAY SUBGRADE
C.N.V. Satyanarayana Reddy, Professor of Civil Engg., Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, cnvsnreddy@rediffmail.com
K. Chinnapa Reddy, Research Scholar, Dept. of Civil Engg., Andhra University,Visakhapatnam, kchinnapareddy@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT: Premature failures are common in flexible pavements constructed over expansive clay sub grade. In rainy
season, the sub grade soil gets softened and as a result, punching of sub base material into subgrade occurs under the traffic
and also sub soil intrudes into sub base, and thereby leads to failure of flexible pavements. Reinforcement placement at
subgrade, particularly geotextiles help in stiffening the base layer and reducing the normal stress on sub grade. In the present
paper a reinforced flexible pavement design methodology for expansive subgrades using Geotextile has been presented
ensuring safety against shear and settlement failures besides controlling swelling of sub grade. Based on the design
methodology, test track has been laid over expansive clay sub grade. The reinforced flexible pavement section is observed to
show better stiffness under traffic and swell control over the control section.
INTRODUCTION
Efforts are made by researchers (Katti, 1979; Nataraj and
shanmukha Rao, 1979; Steinberg, 1992) from time to time to
improve stability of the expansive soils by stabilization,
reinforcement, moist control and soil replacement
techniques. Placement of Geotextile reinforcement held in
position can reduce the normal stress on sub grade through
membrane action. But only limited studies are available on
design of geotextile reinforced flexible pavement over
expansive sub grade (Satyanarayana Reddy and Rama
Moorthy, 2005; Satyanarayana Reddy and Chinnapa Reddy,
2011) without much practical evidence.
In the present paper, design methodology for reinforced
flexible pavement over an expansive subgrade has been
presented with safety against risk of shear and settlement
failures, besides controlling swelling of sub grade. Based on
the design, test track has been laid over expansive sub grade
under study for performance appraisal against swelling
of sub grade and vehicular loading.
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Subgrade Soil: The subgrade soil used in the study is
subgrade soil of part of NH-18 passing through Kurnool city,
opposite to More Market near Nandyal check post. The
subgrade soil is expansive clay soil with black in color. The
engineering properties of sub grade soil determined from
laboratory investigations are presented in Table 1. The
compaction characteristics are determined from IS light
compaction test. The soaked CBR value and the shear
parameters are determined by testing the specimens prepared
at optimum moisture content (OMC) and respective
maximum dry density (MDD).
Woven Geotextile : The woven geotextile used in the study
is procured from M/s Garware Wall Ropes Limited, Pune.
The geotextile has a thickness of 0.57 mm and weight of 240
g/m2. The tensile strength of the fabric determined from wide
width tension tests in warp and weft directions are presented
in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2
Moorum: The locally available moorum soil with liquid

limit of 24.5%, plasticity index of 5.5% and soaked CBR
value of 20.5% is used as sub base material of pavement. The
moorum soil has an optimum moisture content of 6.5 percent
and maximum dry density of 2.01g/cc, determined from IS
heavy compaction test. The Moorum soil has cohesion of
1.5 t/m2 and angle of internal friction of 350. The shear
parameters are determined from shear box tests in undrained
condition using saturated specimens prepared at O.M.C and
respective M.D.D.
Aggregate: The gradation of aggregate used in test track
study is of grade-II with specific gravity of 2.80, Crushing
value 23.2% and Impact value of 20.9%.
Table 1. Engineering properties of sub grade soil
Engineering Property
Value
Specific gravity
2.70

a) Gravel (%)
b) Sand (%)
c) Fines (%)
1
20
79
Plasticity Characteristics
a) Liquid Limit (%)
b) Plastic Limit (%)
c) Plasticity Index (%)
68
33
35
IS Classification
CH
Differential Free Swell (%)

a) Optimum Moisture Content (%)
b) Maximum Dry Density (g/cc)
80
25.8
1.55
Shear Parameters
a) Cohesion (kN.m2)
b) Angle of Internal Friction
26
90
Soaked CBR Value (%)
2.0
C.N.V. Satyanarayana Reddy & K. Chinnapa Reddy
1981) and by taking actual wheel loads & by increasing

wheel load by 15% (Leonard et al., 1974) and considering
SBC of soil. The thickness requirement is observed to be
high when SBC is reduced rather than increased wheel load
approach. The design pavement thickness has been obtained
as 900mm.
CBR method of design: The Design thickness (h) of
pavement is determined using US Army Corps of Engineers
formula (1961) given below.
h = (0.447log10C + 0.305){ P/ (3.6045 CBR )
----------- (2)
A/ (6.45) }0.5
Fig.1Tensile strength of woven geotextile in warp direction
Where,
h is the design pavement thickness in cm
C is anticipated number of vehicle passes
in terms of standard axles.
P is Equivalent Single Wheel Load in kg.
A is Contact area in cm2
For calculation of design pavement thickness, 30 million
standard axles were considered as vehicular traffic and a
standard axle load of 10.2 t with dual wheel configuration
and a tyre contact pressure of 5.62 kg/cm2 has been taken.
The value of design pavement thickness has been worked to
be 760 mm. The value is less in comparison to the value
obtained from SBC concept, which means that the pavement
will have risk for undergoing shear failure if designed is
based on CBR method only.
Fig.2 Tensile strength of woven geotextile in weft direction
DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT UNREINFORCED CASE

The required pavement thickness (h) has been worked out by
equating vertical stress due to wheel load and overburden to
permissible bearing capacity of soil using the Eq. 1
P
+ av.h = qs
(B + 2h tan)(Le + 2h tan)
.. (1)
Where, P is equivalent single wheel load in kN.

B is width of load contact area = b+s
b is contact width of single tyre and s is
center to center spacing of tyres.
Le is length of contact area of equivalent
rectangular section.
qs is permissible bearing capacity of subgrade soil
By considering a standard axle load of 10.2 t with tyre
contact pressure of 5.62 kg / cm2, the values of B and Le have
been worked out to be 47.7 cm and 25.7 cm respectively.
In the above equation, the thickness h is determined by
equating the vertical stress to safe bearing capacity of clay
sub grade thus ensuring safety against shear failure which is
lacking in CBR method of design. The pavement thickness
has been also worked out by reducing SBC by 20% (Prakash,
DESIGN OF REINFORCED FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

Design for Wheel Load
The woven geotextile is considered as reinforcement at the
interface of subgrade and sub base and is proposed to be held
in position by anchorage in longitudinal trenches. Due to
induced vertical stress from traffic loads, the overlying
pavement material tend to get punched into underlying soft
subgrade and as a result geotextile gets strained and derives
required tensile strength to support wheel loads. The
required tensile strength of geotextile reinforcement is
evaluated by using the Eq. 3, obtained by considering
equilibrium of forces in vertical direction from free body
diagram of deformed fabric at subgrade level. The
deformation has been considered to be uniform.
T=
(q 0.8qs )( B + 2hR tan )

2
. (3)
The stain induced in fabric has been worked out using the
equation 4 given below.
2s
=
100
B + 2hR tan
. (4)
Where hR is the desired thickness of pavement. Depending

on the values of hR , Design requirement of geotextile fabric
for different pavement thickness is presented in Table 2.
Test Track Studies on Reinforced Flexible Pavement over Expansive Clay Subgrade
Table 2. Design Requirement of Fabric based on wheel load

hR
(cm.)
T
(kN/m)
q
(kN/m2)
B is spacing of anchorage trenches
(%)
s=10
mm
S=15
mm
s=20
mm
s=25
mm
50
80.02
13.62
2.05
3.07
4.09
5.12
60
68.52
8.82
1.85
2.78
3.70
4.60
70
60.53
4.52
1.69
2.54
3.39
4.20
80
55.38
1.75
1.57
2.35
3.13
3.92
Design for Swell

For reinforced flexible pavement test track study, a thickness
of 70 cm is selected. By taking the thickness of moorum sub
base as 45cm and considering effective subgrade depth to be
1m, Cushion to Expansive soil ratio becomes 0.45, for which
the percentage of swell control is obtained as 62.5 percent
from laboratory swell study. The remaining 37.5% swell is
proposed to be controlled by Geotextile fabric due to
restraining effect.
The tensile strength of geotextile is mobilized only upon
straining. The requirement of tensile strength of fabric is
calculated for different permissible swells. To cut down the
requirement on stiffness of fabric, in the present study it is
proposed to anchor geotextile as shown in Fig. 3 for a single
lane pavement.
The strain induced in the fabric against different permissible

amounts of swell has been calculated by considering uniform
swell in subgrade between anchored trenches using Eq. 6
= (2s / B) x 100 ----------- (6)
The design requirement of fabric to control the swell has
been worked out for different permissible values of
settlement at subgrade and is presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Fabric Requirement for Swell Control
Permissible
Swell
(mm)
Swell
controlled by
Geotextile (%)
Upward swell
pressure on
fabric (p)
T
(kN/m)
(%)
10
15
20
27
21.5
16
24.3
19.4
14.6
21
16.5
12.4
1.2
1.7
2.3
Design of Anchorage Trench:

The frictional resistance on geotextile fabric surfaces at
anchorage trenches is calculated using normal pressures as
indicated in Fig.4
0.4m
1.7m
Dense Bituminous Macadam
WMM Layer
0.4m
P1
P2
P2
P1
P1
WBM Base
P3
P3
Fig.4 Normal pressures acting on geotextile surfaces
Moorum sub base
[{
F =d Cae + p1 tane } +{ Cam + p1 tanm } + Cae + p2 tane } +{ Cam + p2 tanm

0.4m
+b Cae + p3 tan e
0.2m
1.6m
0.2m
1.6m
0.2m
Fig.3 Designed geotextile reinforced flexible pavement

The tension developed in the fabric as a result of swell
control has been worked out using the Eq. 5 obtained from
free body diagram of reinforcing fabric subjected to upward
swell pressure.
T = 0.5pxB
----------- (5)
Where, p is pressure exerted by expansive soil on geotextile

due to swell control
} + {Ca
+ p3 tan m
} .(7)
Where,
p1 = Percentage swell controlled in central portion x swell
pressure (ps)
p 2 = Percentage swell controlled in edge region x ps
p3 = Effective overburden pressure at geotextile

fabric in anchored trench
b, d are the width and depth of trench for anchoring
geotextile fabrics
Cae , e are the adhesion and interfacial friction angle of
expansive soil with geotextile
}]
C.N.V. Satyanarayana Reddy & K. Chinnapa Reddy
Cam , m are the adhesion and interfacial friction angle of

moorum with geotextile
The required size of trench has been worked out by equating
mobilised frictional resistance to induced tension due to
swell control. By adopting depth of trench as 0.4m, the
minimum width of trench has been obtained as 0.21m.
DETAILS OF TEST TRACK STUDIES
To validate the reinforced flexible pavement design, test
tracks have been laid over expansive clay subgrade under
study. The details of reinforced and unreinforced test tracks
laid for performance appraisal are given below
A. Unreinforced Flexible Pavement
Total Thickness
: 900 mm
Moorum Sub base
: 460 mm
WBM Base
: 440 mm
B. Reinforced Flexible Pavement section with stiff
geotextile held in position at subgrade (by anchoring into
longitudinal Trenches)
Total Thickness
: 700 mm
Moorum Sub base
: 450 mm
WBM base
: 250 mm
While laying test tracks, 10t capacity vibratory roller has
been used. The subbase material is compacted to have a
minimum degree of compaction of 98 percent. The surfacing
over Wet Mix Macadam (WMM) base course is done using
50mm thick Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM) layer. The
WMM and DBM layers are laid in accordance with MORTH
specifications. The Test tracks laid are kept open to traffic
from October 2011 and surface levels are observed during
November 2011, May 2012 and July 2012 to evaluate
effectiveness of reinforced flexible pavement designed from
the present study. The reduced levels of the test tracks
observed at selected locations along Left edge, Middle and
Right edge strips are presented in Table 4.
Table 4. Reduced levels of test tracks
Location
Unreinforced
Reinforced
Test Track
Test Track
Nov
L
99.879
99.680
11
C
99.952
99.754
R
99.821
99.613
April
L
99.809
99.664
12
C
99.891
99.741
R
99.759
99.596
August
L
99.886
99.684
12
C
99.956
99.757
R
99.824
99.615
Period
From Table 4, it can be seen that the average swell in

unreinforced and reinforced sections are 69mm and 18mm
respectively. The reinforced test track has controlled volume
changes in subgrade significantly as compared to
unreinforced test track.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results of study the following conclusions
have been drawn.
1.
Use of geotextile fabric reinforcement held in

position helps in reducing the thickness of pavement
by about 30%.
2.
Pavement with geotextile reinforcement held in

position at subgrade has better performance in
controlling swell.
3.
The reinforced flexible pavement design ensures

safety against risk of shear failure apart from
controlling settlements.
4.
Shoulder region also gets strengthened due to

geotextile anchorage and hence, shear failures in
edge region of pavements get avoided.
References:
1. Katti, R.K. (1979): Search for Solutions to Problems
in Black Cotton Soils, First IGS Annual Lecture,
Indian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 9, pp 1-80.
2. Leonard, D.R.et al (1974): Loads and Vibrations
caused by 8 commercial vehicles with Gross Weights
Exceeding 32 tons, TRRl Report No.582.
3. M.O.R.T.H. (2001): Specifications for Roads and
Bridge works, Ministry of Road Transportation and
Highways.
4. Natarajan, T.K.and Shanmukha Rao, E. (1979):
Practical Lessons on Road Construction in Black
Cotton Soil Areas, Journal of Indian road congress,
Vol. 40, No. 1, pp 153-185.
5. Prakash, S. (1981): Soil Dynamics, Mc Graw Hill
Book Co. New York.
6. Steinberg, M.L (1992), Vertical Moisture Barriers
Update, Transportation Research Record No. 1362,
HRB, Washington, pp 111-117.
7. US Army Corps of Engineers (1961): Revised
Method of Thickness Design of Flexible Highway
Pavements at Military Installations, Technical
Report No. 3-582, waterways Experimental Station.
8. Satyanarayana Reddy, C.N.V and Rama Moorthy,
N.V (2005) Significance of bearing capacity of
clayey subgrade in flexible pavement design
International Journal of Pavement Engineering 6(3),
pp 183-189.
9. Satyanarayana Reddy, C.N.V and K. Chinnapa Reddy
Reinforced Flexible Pavement Design over
Expansive Clay Subgrade Vol. 41, No. 2, April 2011.
pp 86-91.

DELINEATING SUBSIDENCE ZONES BY GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

Ch. Subba Rao, Research Officer, CW&PRS, Pune, cwprs@yahoo.com
V.Chandrashekhar, Asst. Research Officer, CW&PRS, Pune, cwprs@yahoo.com
R.S. Ramteke, Joint Director, CW&PRS, Pune, cwprs@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT: Heavy seepage was observed in the tunnel T-3 of the Udhampur-Katra Rail Link project, J&K. Two
cavities were observed in the aquifer portion of a buried channel above the tunnel. It was suspected that a few more
cavities might exist in this portion above the crown of the tunnel. To locate hidden subsidence zones prone to
caving below the ground surface, GPR study on the ground surface above the central portion of tunnel was
carried out along 43 lines using a 100 MHz shielded antenna. A few hyperbolic signatures on GPR records were
interpreted as subsidence zones prone to caving. In all, 10 subsidence zones prone to caving were delineated.
INTRODUCTION
Detection of cavities and subsidence zones is
important to prevent geotechnical hazards. Ground
Penetrating Radar (GPR) is generally deployed for
detection of cavities in shallow subsurface of karst
zones [1, 2]. GPR can be used to map subsurface
geological structures, groundwater contaminants,
Fault Zones and cavities [3]. Subsidence features,
voids and collapses are a disruption in the original
deposition sequence. Timely detection and
remediation is important for safe civil construction.
The shape of cavities or subsidence zones can be
outlined clearly when sufficient contrast in
electromagnetic properties exists between these
zones and the surrounding material [4].
Heavy seepage was observed in the central portion of
the tunnel T-3, situated between elevation 761.2 m
and 829.8 m, of the Udhampur-Katra section of
Udhampur-SrinagarBaramullah Rail Link (USBRL)
project. The maximum depth of the crown of the
tunnel below the ground level is about 31 m. Two
cavities (funnel shaped) were observed on the ground
which have originated from above the tunnel in the
aquifer. The visual depth of the funnel (cavity) on the
east end (Udhampur end) was around 12 m. It was
suspected that a few more cavities might be present
in this portion above the crown of the tunnel nearer
to the ground surface. To locate hidden subsidence
zones prone to caving, GPR study was carried out on
the ground surface along the alignment in the central
portion of tunnel.
GEOLOGY
The bed rock in the survey area is pebbly sandstone
but it is not exposed in the central part of the tunnel
(between RD 12/741 km and RD 13/450 km). Here,
thick alluvial deposits comprising pebbles, cobbles
and boulders in a sandy/silty matrix under water
charged condition occupy the flat terrain. The
thickness of the overburden along the central portion
of the tunnel alignment varied from 10 m to 31 m.
EQUIPMENT EMPLOYED
GPR data were acquired using a RAMAC GPR
system equipped with ProEx control unit, a 100 MHz
shielded antenna and a monitor with display

manufactured by M/s Mala Geoscience, Sweden. The
two-way travel time for GPR recording was set at
400 nano-seconds. GPR was operated in distance
mode with a triggering interval of 10 cm. Frequency
filters and time varying gains were used to get good
quality GPR data. These instrument settings enabled
a depth penetration of up to 20 m in the area and
helped in improving the signal-to-noise ratio.
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
GPR technique utilizes the propagation/ reflection of
electromagnetic energy into the ground to produce an
image of the subsurface electrical conditions. With
GPR, a transmitter is used to generate Electro
Magnetic (EM) waves of desired frequency range
and the wave propagates through the media. Upon
encountering dielectric permittivity changes in the
subsurface, the EM wave is reflected back to a
receiving antenna placed at a distance on the ground.
The reflected EM waves are recorded and displayed
as target reflection strength (amplitude). The
amplitude of the reflected signal increases with the
contrast of dielectric permittivity between the target
and its host matrix [5]. Fig.1 shows the field layout
for the GPR survey. The depth of investigation with
GPR is site specific, depending on the resistivity of
the top soil and the frequency of EM wave;
conductive materials near the surface limit the depth
of investigation.
GPR data are collected by dragging an antenna
(transducer) directly across the ground surface,
thereby producing a continuous profile of subsurface
conditions. Control unit which is attached to a
monitor, sends command to trigger both transmitter
(Tx) and receiver (Rx) at a predetermined distance or
time interval. The reflected signals are received by
Rx (Fig.1) and recorded continuously in the monitor
up to a predetermined time window from the trigger.
The amplitude of the recorded traces for each trigger
is plotted against the time to obtain a continuous
GPR section over the profile. The amplitude of the
signal increases considerably when the reflection
occurs at the interface of different materials with
high dielectric contrast e.g. cavity.
Subba Rao Ch, Chandrashekhar V & Ramteke R.S
anomalies from the two way travel time (t) and

amplitude of the recorded signal. The depth of the
reflected horizon or object or anomaly, is determined
from the two way reflection time `t (in nano
seconds) obtained from GPR record. The depth (d) of
the reflector of interest is calculated using the
relation
depth d can be determined using this equation for
Computer Output
Control Unit
Tx
Rx
ce
dP
ulse
ed
lect
Ref
Pu
lse
Data and
Commands
Laptop Computer
Monitor
Pu
lse
Indu
Receiver
d=
d
itte
sm
an
Tr
Re
fle
cted
Transmitter
Data
t c
(4)
e
uls
P
a known value of and vice-versa.
BED ROCK
Fig 1 Field lay out of ground penetrating radar

The amount of reflected ( E 1 ) and refracted ( E r )
wave energy can be expressed as
2n 1
E1 =
Er
(2n 2 + n 1 )
= (
n 2 n1
n 2 + n1
E - - - - (1)
) E - - - - (2)
where `E is the total wave energy, n 1 =

n2 =
&
; is relative permittivity.
The velocity (V) of propagation of EM wave varies

from medium to medium and is a function of relative
permittivity of the medium and is given by
V =
(3)
Here c is the speed of light in vacuum and is a
The depth of penetration of GPR signal at a site is

controlled by three major factors, i) the frequency of
the GPR signal, ii) the dielectric constant of the
medium under investigation and iii) the number of
reflecting interfaces and the dielectric contrast at
each interface. Higher frequency signals attenuate
quickly but attain higher resolution. On the other
hand, low frequency signals penetrate deeper but the
resolution is limited. GPR technique works
efficiently for the host strata having resistivity
greater than 100 ohm-m. Selection of frequency for
a particular survey depends upon the depth of interest
and the size of the object to be delineated. With the
above in view, 100 MHz shielded antenna was used
for delineating subsurface cavities above the tunnel
T-3 on the ground surface.
DATA COLLECTION AND PROCESSING
GPR data were acquired on the ground surface along
16 parallel and 27 perpendicular lines (to the tunnel
alignment) of lengths varying from 10 m to 650 m.
A few traverses were conducted very close to the
existing open cavity on the Udhampur side to
establish the GPR response above cavities in the
area. Figures 2a-2d show the lay out plan of GPR
13/410
Fig. 2a Location plan showing GPR traverses and detected

subsidence zones (13/450 km 13/783 km)
traverses on the ground surface with reference to the
constant. Thus, velocity of EM wave provides the
tunnel alignment on the ground.
information about the medium. GPR data are
interpreted qualitatively in terms of subsurface
Delineating subsidence zones by ground penetrating radar
13/285
Fig. 2b Location plan showing GPR traverses and detected

12/962
Fig. 2c Location plan showing GPR traverses and detected

12/825
Fig. 2d Location plan showing GPR traverses and detected

steps helped in reducing noise and improve signal-tonoise ratio.
The GPR was operated in distance mode with
distance triggering interval kept at 10 cm. Ground
velocity of 0.1 m/ns was applied while collecting
RESULTS
Normally, when a GPR antenna is moved on ground
data. Processing sequence like DC shift, frequency
across a buried object, a hyperbola curve is observed
filtering, linear and exponential gain, subtracting
at the location of the object in the GPR image [6]. In
mean and f-k migration were applied on the raw data
the present case, the reflection observed is that of a
to enhance the true anomalies. These processing
subsidence zone prone to caving. The reflection
Subba Rao Ch, Chandrashekhar V & Ramteke R.S
interface of this zone is a plane having much larger

area.
Figure 3 shows a typical GPR record from chainage
(ch) 0 m to 48 m of traverse L1 along central line of
the tunnel. In this figure, a hyperbolic signature was
observed between ch 11 m and ch 21 m at a depth of
14 m. This hyperbolic arc was interpreted as
subsidence zone prone to caving, the width and depth
of which were determined from the arc. Similar
anomaly was observed in GPR record of two profiles
L2 and L3, taken parallel and in close vicinity of the
profile L1, around the same tunnel RD. The anomaly
observed in these records was also corroborated from
two cross profiles C12 and C15 conducted across the
tunnel alignment. The inferred lateral extent of the
subsidence zone (S1) is approximate since the nature
of zone is such that it can not stand in loose
unconsolidated strata.
Similarly, the GPR record between ch 190 m and
ch 254 m along traverse L3 is shown in Fig.4.
The subsidence zone inferred is marked as S7 in
Fig.2c of the location plan.
A total of ten subsidence zones were detected above
the tunnel T-3 of the UdhampurKatra rail link and
are marked as S1 to S10 in the location plans 2a to
2d.
Subsidence
zone S1
Fig 3 GPR record along profile L1
Subsidence
zone S7
Fig 4 GPR record along profile L3
CONCLUSIONS
GPR survey was conducted along and across the
tunnel alignment in the central portion between RD
12/741 km and 13/450 km to investigate the
uppermost 20 m of the strata. A 100 MHz antenna
was deployed for the purpose. GPR records obtained
along some of the traverses revealed anomalies in the
form of hyperbolic signatures and these were
interpreted as subsidence zones prone to caving. In
all, 10 subsidence zones prone to caving were
detected and the approximate width of these zones
varied from 5 m to 14 m and their depth from 1.5 m
to 19 m. The results would help effect necessary
remedial measures to treat the subsidence zones to
ensure safety of the tunnel.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors are grateful to Dr. I.D. Gupta, Director,
CWPRS for constant encouragement and for
permission to publish the paper. The author is also
grateful to Shri S. Govindan for his encouragement.
The paper is based on the data from CWPRS
Technical Report no.4762.
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3. Benson, A.K (1995), Application of ground
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Proceedings of Indian Geotechnical Conference

December 13-15,2012, Delhi (Paper No. B201)

STUDIES ON ENHANCING STABILITY OF SLOPE USING REINFORCEMENT

PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS OF PILE SLOPE SYSTEM

Properties of the pile

Youngs Modulus = 20 MPa

Youngs Modulus = 30GPa

Diameter of pile = 0.5m

The results of analysis did not show much variation in safety

The evaluation of stability of slopes in soil is an important,

Fig. 1 Variation of safety factor with respect to spacing of

N. Ramya Gandhi & K.Ilamparuthi

Slope soil and foundation soil

From the Fig 3, it is evident that the effective position to

Fig. 2 Geometry of the pile slope system

From the analysis it is found that in clayey soil slope factor of

Effect of pile position

Fig. 3 Variation of safety factor with respect to the position

Fig. 4 Variation of safety factor with respect to the length of

Studies on enhancing stability of slopes using reinforcement

factor of safety may be attributed to more loss in the arching

Stiffness Factor (k)

Fig. 5 Variation of safety factor with respect to the stiffness

Effect of slope angle

The response of spacing between pile over factor of safety is

Fig. 6 Variation of safety factor with respect to the S/D ratio

N. Ramya Gandhi & K.Ilamparuthi

Fig. 7 Variation of safety factor with respect to the slope

The effective pile location of the clay slope is 0.2 times

The factor of safety increases with the length of pile.

Proceedings of Indian Geotechnical Conference

STABILITY ANALYSIS OF NAILED SOIL SLOPES: STATE-OF-THE- ART

work in Versailles (France) for first time in 1972 [2]. One of

S. Sahoo, B. Manna & K. G. Sharma

Table 1: ASSUMPTIONS OF DIFFERENT SOIL NAILING DESIGN METHODS

Limit nail forces

Limit nail forces

Limit nail forces

Non dimensional bending

Source: Elias and Juran [8, 9].

Stability Analysis of nailed soil slopes: State-of-the-art

surface is the only kinematically admissible solution

mature stage of development. Several formulations and

J.A.R.ORTIGAO. A.S.F.J.SAYAO (2004).

S. Sahoo, B. Manna, K. G. Sharma

10. Juran, I., G. Baudrand, K. Farrag, and V. Elias,

Steel Bars. Proc. Int. Geotechnical Symp. on

Proceedings of Indian Geotechnical Conference

EFFECT OF SUPPORTED EXCAVATION ON THE PERFORMANCE OF

analysed. The experiments conducted were simulated

Madhumathi R.K &, Ilamparuthi K

Fig. 2 Finite Element Model

Fig. 2 shows the finite element model simulated for the

Plate 1. The Photographic View of the Test Setup.

Fig. 3 Pile Head Deflection Vs Excavation Depth for Pile of

Effect of supported excavation on the performance of neighbouring pile foundation

Fig. 6 shows the comparison of single pile deflection with

Fig. 4 max/D and Distance of Pile from Retaining Wall

Fig. 6 Deflection of Piles Vs Excavation Depth for Two Pile

In Fig. 4 the relationship between max/D (max represents the

It is noted that deflection of single pile is more than the

RESPONSE OF TWO PILE GROUP

Relation between Pile deflection ratio with Pile Spacing

Fig. 5 Deflection of Piles Vs Excavation Depth for Two Pile