How to Identify some Common Manufacturing Processes

CASTING
Casting is the process of pouring molten metal into a cavity that has the desired shape. Upon
solidification, the metal assumes the shape of the mould, but experiences some shrinkage. The
moulds are typically made out of sand, steel (die casting), or ceramic (investment casting).
EXTERNAL FEATURES
Is the part a complex 3D geometry?
Casting is often used when the component is so complicated that other methods of manufacture
would be impractical. For parts of low complexity, there is often a more economical method.

Is there evidence of machining operations that are required to remove risers and
runners?
Removal of the risers (feeds molten metal to the solidifying metal) and runners (where the
molten metal is enters the cavity) is required, usually by machining. Unless other surface
finishing operations have been performed, then it should be simple to spot these areas.

MICROSTRUCTURAL FEATURES
Are dendrites present?
During solidification, the solid phase grows in a tree like manner, called dendrites. These can
usually be easily identified in the microstructure.

3D view (left) and polished section (right) of dendrites in a cast aluminiuim. Source: ASM Metals Handbook vol 9.

Does the microstructure contain porosity?

Most metals shrink during solidification and unless molten metal able to be fed into the
solidifying region, porosity can result. This porosity is one of the reasons why a cast components
often has inferior properties to parts produced in other ways. Careful addition of risers and chill
blocks helps control the solidification pattern and minimises the amount of porosity. Shrinkage
porosity tends to be irregular in shape. Spherical porosity can also form and is usually due to the
presence of trapped gases within the molten metal.

Porosity (black phase) in Al castings: (a) spherical gas pore, (b) shrinkage pores (the dendritic structure
of the aluminium (white phase) is also clearly visible) and (c) cluster of shrinkage pores. Source: ASM
Metals Handbook vol 9.

Is the grain size smaller at the edge than the centre?

In general, as-cast metal exhibits three distinct zones of grain structures:
A chill zone of very small crystals produced by rapid cooling at the extreme edge
A zone of long, thin columnar (dendritic) crystals aligned to the direction of heat flow and
stretching in from the chill zone
A region of roughly spherical equiaxed crystals can also form at the centre of the casting.

Sketch of grains in a typical cast ingot

Macrostructure of as-cast aluminium ingot. Transverse

section shows outer chill zone and columnar grains that
have grown perpendicularly to the mould faces

Source: ASM Metals Handbook vol 9.

Metal Forming Processes (eg Extrusion/Rolling/Forging)

Metal forming operations such as extrusion, rolling and forging are all related in that the material
undergoes plastic deformation during processing. These operations may be done either hot
(above the recrystallization temperature) or cold (below the recrystallization temperature). Each
produces components with different geometrical features.
EXTERNAL FEATURES

Forgings tend to produce parts that have features in three dimensions.

Extrusions have a constant ( but often very complex) cross-section.
Rolled products are usually simple 1D shapes such as plate and strip.
Cold formed products tend to have better surface finish

MICROSTRUCTURAL FEATURES
Is there a significant difference in the size of the grains in areas that have been
deformed?
Due to the recrystallization that occurs during the hot forming operation, it can be difficult to
find any evidence of parts that have hot formed. However, recrystallization tends to cause refine
(reduce) the grain size and therefore the areas that have undergone the plastic deformation can
have a smaller grain size than other areas.

Is there a significant difference in the shape of the grains in areas that have been
deformed?
For cold worked parts, the deformation of the grains is usually quite evident, especially in areas
that have undergone a large amount of plastic deformation. The flow of material causes the
grain structure to become aligned in the direction of the deformation.

Flow lines in closed-die-forged. Source:

ASM Metals Handbook vol 9.

Flow lines in a cold rolled thread. Source

www.sptech.com

Machining
Machining can include one of more of a variety of different operations including milling, turning,
drilling, etc.
EXTERNAL FEATURES
All machining operations tend to leave marks on the surface which is characteristic of the
processes.

Characteristic machining marks left by the milling process.

MICROSTRUCTURAL FEATURES
Smearing of the surface grains can sometime occur during machining operations. Formation of
burrs is can also occur, especially when the tool becomes worn.

Powder Metallurgy
This process typically involves pressing of metal powder in a rigid steel die followed by a furnace
cycle in which the component is heated to a temperature below its melting point, known as
sintering. During the sintering cycle, diffusional processes results in the formation of metallurgical
bonds between the particles, which improve the mechanical properties. There may also be a small
amount of liquid (<20%) present during sintering, which accelerates the diffusion rate.
EXTERNAL FEATURES
Is the part reasonably complex, but only in two dimensions?

Due to the need to compact the powder in a rigid die, P/M parts almost always have a uniform
cross-section in the direction of pressing. This produces a uniform pressed density and allows
simple ejection of the part from the die

Does the part have scratch like features on the plane parallel to the likely pressing
direction?
During ejection, it is common for the surfaces of the part that slide along the die surface to
become slightly marked.

MICROSTRUCTURAL FEATURES
Does the microstructure contain irregular pores?
During sintering full density is not usually attained. Consequently, there are almost alway pores
present (which appear black). These are typically irregular in shape and located at the
intersection of prior particles.

Is there any evidence of a liquid phase?

When a liquid phase is used to enhance sintering, it is often remains as a second phase
within the material. This is usually located along grain boundaries. For ferrous parts, Cu
is commonly used to form the liquid phase. Not all sintered parts have a liquid at the
grain boundaries.

Irregular pores (black phase) in sintered steel.

Source: ASM Metals Handbook, volume 7

Sintered tungsten (rounded particles) surrounded

by liquid phase (white). Source: R.M. German,
Powder Metallurgy and Particulate Processing,
2006