Chapter 3 Solid Materials

3.1

A 2-m long polycarbonate tensile rod has a cross-sectional diameter of 130 mm. It is used
to lift a tank weighing 65 tons from a 1.8 m deep ditch onto a road. The vertical motion
of the cranes arc is limited to 4.2 m. Will it be possible to lift the tank onto the road?

Notes: There are two parts to this problem which must be considered: first, does the applied stress
exceed that allowed for polycarbonate, and second, can the tank clear the ditch after including the
deflection of the polycarbonate. Since metric units are used in this problem, a ton is interpreted
as 1000 kg.
Solution:
From Table A.4 for polycarbonate, Su=65.5 MPa, and the total percent elongation is 110%. The
2
load lifted is P=65(1000kg)(9.81m/s )=637kN. The stress is given by Equation (2.7) as:
P
P
637kN
= =
=
= 48MPa
2
A d (0.13m) 2

This stress is lower than the allowable stress for polycarbonate, so it is concluded that the tank
can be lifted.

3.2

Materials are normally classified according to their properties, processing routes, and
applications. Give examples of common metal alloys that do not show some of the
typical metal features in their applications.

Notes: There are many possible solutions to this problem, and students should be encouraged to
describe their own applications.
Solution:
In terms of properties, gray cast iron does not have any ductility due to the plate-formed graphite
distributed in the matrix. Thus it has much greater compressive strength than tensile strength and
is a good damping material, all of which are counter to usual metal trends. Often, powder metals
are sintered, using a processing route similar to ceramics. Mercury, being in molten form at room
temperature, is not used in typical metal applications. Sodium is used as a heat transfer medium in
some atomic power plants, where the metal is boiled at the hot end and condensed at the cool end.

3.3

Equation (B.56) gives the relationship between stresses and strains in isotropic materials.
For a polyurethane rubber the elastic modulus at 100% elongation is 7 MPa. When the
rubber is exposed to a hydrostatic pressure of 10 MPa, the volume shrinks 0.5%.
Calculate Poissons ratio for the rubber.

Notes: This problem is straightforward. Note that a hydrostatic pressure of p means that
x=y=z=-p. The volume change can be derived as shown here, or else a hint can be given to the
student that the volume change is equal to:
V
= 1 + 2 + 3
V

Page 3-1

Solution:
Consider, for a box-shaped element of sides l1,l2, and l3, so the volume is l1l2l3. If under a stress
state the strains are 1, 2 and 3, then the new lengths are l1=(1+1)l1, l2=(1+2)l2, and l3=(1+3)l3.
The new volume is given by:
V = l l l = (1 + )(1+ )(1+ )l l l
1 2 3

3 123

Therefore, the change in volume is given by:

V V V (1+ 1) (1+ 2 )(1+ 3 )l1l2l3 l1l2l3
=
=
= (1+ 1 )(1+ 2 )(1+ 3 ) 1
V
V
l1l2 l3
If this is expanded, and if the strains are all small so that second order terms can be ignored, the
volume change is
V
= 1 + 2 + 3
V
From Equations (B.56), if the stress state is x=y=z=-10MPa and all other stresses are zero,
then
1
1
1
x = x y + z ; y = y ( z + z ) ; z = z x + y
E
E
E
Substituting into the expression for volume change,
V
1
3p
= 1 + 2 + 3 = x y + z + y ( x + z ) + z x + y =
(1 2 )
V
E
E
For p=10MPa, V/V=0.5%, so
V 3p
3(1 0MPa )
=
(1 2 ); 0.005 =
(1 2 ); = 0.4994
V
E
( 7MPa )

)]

3.4

)]

)]

A fiber-reinforced plastic has fiber-matrix bond strength f=10MPa and fiber ultimate
strength Su=1GPa. The fiber length is constant for all fibers at l=3mm. The fiber diameter
d=30m. Find whether the fiber strength of the fiber-matrix bond will determine the
strength of the composite.

Notes: Equation (3.2) is needed to solve this problem.

Solution:
From Equation (3.2),

S d (1GPa )(30m)
lcr = u =
= 0.0015m = 1.5mm
2 f
2 (10MPa)
The actual fiber length is twice this critical length, so the fiber strength will determine the
strength of the composite.

3.5

Having the same material as in Problem 3.4, but with fiber length l=1mm, calculate if it is
possible to increase the fiber stress to Su=1GPa but making the fiber rectangular instead
of circular, maintaining the same cross sectional area of each fiber.

Notes: Equation (3.2) is needed to solve this problem.

Solution:

Page 3-2

Equation (3.2) gives the critical length of a fiber, but this is derived from force equilibrium.
Equation (3.2) can be written as:
S d
l
d 2
l
lcr = u ; 2 f lcr = Sud; d f cr = Su
; f (d ) cr = SuA f
2 f
2
4
2
The first term in parentheses on the left side of the equation is the circumference; if the cross
section is square, then 2(wt+ht) should be substituted for d, where wt is the width and ht is the
height of the cross section. Therefore, Equation (3.2) becomes:
l
f ( 2( wt + ht )) cr = Suw tht
2
Similarly, the cross-sectional area of the fiber is wtht, and since the cross sectional area is
constant, we know:

2
w tht = (30m ) = 7.069 10 10 m 2
4
To answer the question, we use these two simultaneous equations, along with lcr=1mm=0.001m,
Su=1GPa, and f=10MPa. This yields ht=12.06m and wt=58.63m or wt=12.06m and ht=58.63
m (orientation is arbitrary).

3.6

A copper bar is stressed to its ultimate strength Su=250MPa. The cross sectional area of
2
the bar before stressing is 100 mm , and the area at the deformed cross section where the
2
bar starts to break at the ultimate strength is 60 mm . How large a force is needed to reach
the ultimate strength?

Notes: To solve this problem, one must realize that the ultimate strength is based on maximum
load divided by initial area.
Solution:
The force needed to reach Su is given by
2
P=(Su)A=(250MPa)(100mm )=25kN

3.7

AISI 440C stainless steel has ultimate strength Su=807MPa and fracture strength
Sfr=750MPa. At the ultimate strength the cross sectional area of a tension bar made of
AISI 440C is 80% of its undeformed value. At the fracture point the minimum crosssectional area has shrunk to 70%. Calculate the real stresses at the point of ultimate
strength and at fracture.

Notes: One needs to realize that Su and Sfr are defined for a tension test specimen from its initial
area.
Solution:
For an ultimate strength of 807MPa, the load that can be supported is (807MPa)(A). If the area is
0.8A, then the real stress at this point is given by Equation (2.7) as:
P ( 807MPa) A
= =
=1009MPa
A
0.8A
Similarly, at fracture, where the area is 0.70A, the real stress is:
P ( 750MPa ) A
= =
= 1071MPa
A
0.7A

Page 3-3

3.8

According to sketch a a beam is supported at point A and at either B or C. At C the

silicon nitride tensile rod is lifting the beam end with force P=Stfr, where Ac is the cross
sectional area of the rod. Find the distance A-B such that the silicon nitride rod would be
crushed if it took up a compressive force at B instead of a tensile force at C. Note that
Scfr=15Stfr for silicon nitride. Also, find the reaction forces at A for the two load cases.

Notes: This is fairly straightforward. The reactions are found from equilibrium, and the reactions
yield the answer.
Solution:
Assume that the distance is such that there is a compressive load on rod B as shown. Since the
compressive fracture strength is fifteen times larger than the tensile fracture strength, we know
P=15P. If the compressive rod exerts a force 15P and the tensile rod doesnt exist, then moment
equilibrium about point A yields
m g( l x ) m g( l x)
MA = 0 = 15Pl ma g(l x ); l = a 15P = 15a S A
ft c

If there is a tensile rod at A and no compressive rod at B, and P=SftAc, then moment equilibrium
gives the load mag that causes failure as:
Pl
MA = 0 = P (l) ma g(l x ); ma g = l x
Vertical force equilibrium gives the reaction at A as:
Sft Ac x 8P
Pl
Px
Fy = 0 = Ay mag + P; A y = mag P = l x P = l x = l x = 7
However, if there is a compressive rod at B, then moment equilibrium yields:
15P l
MA = 0 = 15P( l) ma g(l x); ma g = l x
Vertical force equilibrium gives the reaction at A as:
l + l x 120P
15Pl
Fy = 0 = Ay mag 15P; A y = mag + 15P = l x + 15P =15S ft Ac l x = 7
The distance AB is l=l/15.

3.9

Polymers have different properties depending on the relationship between the local
temperature and the polymers glass transition temperature Tg. The rubber in a bicycle
tire has Tg=-12C. Could this rubber be used in tires for an Antarctic expedition at
temperatures down to -70C?

Notes: This requires an understanding of the implications of glass transition temperature as

shown in Figure 3.10 on page 103. This problem should consider the rubber to be a thermoplastic.
Solution:

Page 3-4

From Figure 3.10 on page 103, note that below the glass transition temperature, no permanent
deformation is allowed to the polymer. This should not be too great a concern, since a tire should
hopefully remain elastic. However, the elastic strains which can be withstood at low temperatures
are much lower than those near or above the glass transition temperature. Therefore, it is not
recommended that the tire be used below its glass transition temperature.

3.10

Given an aluminum bronze with 20wt% aluminum and 80wt% copper, find the density of
the aluminum bronze.

Notes: The rule of mixtures, described on Page 106, is needed to solve this problem.
Solution:
The density of aluminum is, from the inside front cover, 2710kg/m3. The density of copper is
8940kg/m3. The rule of mixtures (see page 106) suggests that the density can be calculated from a
linear interpolation between the densities of the alloy components. Therefore, the density of the
aluminum bronze is given by:

bronze = 0.2al + 0.8 cu = (0.2 ) 2710kg / m 3 + ( 0.8 ) 8940kg / m 3 = 7690kg / m3

3.11

The glass-fiber reinforced plastic in Example 3.8 (section 3.5.2) is used in an application
where the bending deformations, caused by the applied static load, will crack the plastic
by overstressing the fibers. Will a carbon-fiber reinforced plastic also crack if it has the
same elastic properties as the glass-reinforced plastic?

Notes: The following data is needed from Example 3.8: Ec=150GPa, Eg=70GPa, Sug=0.7GPa,
Suc=1GPa. Since the strains are constant, one merely needs to apply Hookes law to obtain the
stress in the carbon fibers.
Solution:
The fiber reinforced composite has the same elastic properties whether the reinforcement is glass
or carbon fiber (see Example 3.8 - volume percentages of reinforcement were calculated to ensure
this condition). Therefore, the total strain experienced by the composite is constant, as is the
strain seen by the fibers. Applying Hookes law,
c g
E
150GPa
=
; c = c g =
( 0.7GPa) = 1.5GPa
Ec Eg
Eg
70GPa
Since this stress still exceeds the ultimate strength for the carbon fibers, they will crack in the
described loading.

3.12

In Problem 3.11, carbon fibers were used to reinforce a polymer matrix. The
concentration of fibers was decreased in Example 3.8 (section 3.5.2) to give the same
elastic properties for the carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer as for the glass-reinforced
polymer. If instead the fiber concentration were kept constant at 10% when the glass
fibers were changed to carbon fibers, how much smaller would the deformation be for the
same load, and would the fibers be overstressed or not? The material properties are the
same as in Example 3.8.

Page 3-5

Notes: Assume that the loading is a given load, not deformation-based. To solve this problem,
one must determine the stiffness of the composite for the two cases, then express the strain ratio
in terms of the elastic modulus. Substituting for the material properties of the glass fibers at
fracture allows one to determine if the carbon fibers will survive. The following data is needed
from Example 3.8: Ec=150GPa, Eg=70GPa, Sug=0.7GPa, Suc=1GPa, Em=2GPa.
Solution:
For a fiber volume fraction of 10%, the stiffness of the carbon fiber reinforced polymer is given
by Equation (3.10) as:
Ecc=Emm+Eff=(2GPa)(0.9)+(150GPa)(0.1)=16.8GPa
The stiffness of the glass fiber reinforced polymer is similarly calulated as
Ecg=Emm+Egg=(2GPa)(0.9)+(70GPa)(0.1)=8.8GPa
Assuming a constant applied stress for the two cases, the fiber strain ratio is given by
c Ecg
8.8GPa
=
=
= 0.524
g Ecc 16.8 GPa
Therefore, the stress in the carbon fiber, assuming the loading is sufficient to just cause failure of
glass fibers, is:
E
150GPa
c = 0.524 c Sug = 0.524
( 0.7GPa ) = 0.786GPa
Eg
70GPa
Since the strength of the carbon fibers is 1GPa, they will survive the loading.

3.13

A bent beam, shown in sketch b, is loaded with

P=128,000N. The beam has a square cross section a2. The
length of a side a=30mm. The length l1=50mm and
l2=100mm. The yield strength Sy=350MPa (medium-carbon
steel). Find whether the stresses in tension and shear are
below the allowable stresses. Neglect bending.

Notes: The stresses calculated are average stresses, and do not reflect
the distribution of shear stress in beams as covered in Chapter 4.
The allowable stresses given in Equations (3.13) and (3.14) are used
to solve this problem.

Solution:
The average shear stress over length l1 is given by
P
128kN
ave = 2 =
= 142.2MPa
a
(0.03m) 2
The allowable shear stress is given by Equation (3.14) as
all=0.4Sy=0.4(350MPa)=140MPa
Therefore, the shear stress is larger than that allowed for the material.
The normal stress in length l2 is:
P
= 2 = 142.2MPa
a
Since the lowest allowable stress is, from Equation (3.13), equal to 0.45Sy=157MPa, the normal
stresses are acceptable.

Page 3-6

3.14

A tough material, such as soft stainless steel (AISI 316), has yield strength Sy=207MPa,
ultimate strength Su=552MPa, and 60% elongation. Find the ratio of the material
toughness to the resilience assuming that the stress-strain curve consists of two straight
lines according to sketch c.

Notes: The toughness is the ability to absorb energy up to fracture. Resilience is the amount of
energy available in elastic recovery after yield.
Solution:
Toughness is defined on page 113 as the ability to absorb energy up to fracture. Therefore, the
toughness is given by the area under the stress strain curve. For the material given, assuming the
curves are straight lines, this area is:
1
207MPa + 552MPa
3
Toughness = ( 207MPa )( 0.002) +
(0.60 0.002) = 220MPa = 220MNm / m
2

The resilience is the energy available for elastic recovery. Based on yield strength, the resilience
is:
1
R = ( 207MPa )( 0.002) = 0.207MNm/ m 3
2
The ratio of toughness to resilience is then 220/0.207=1062.

3.15

A steel cube has side length l=0.1m, modulus of elasticity E=206GPa, and Poissons ratio
=0.3. Find the compressive stresses needed on four of the cube faces to give the same
elongation perpendicular thereto as a stress in that perpendicular direction.

Notes: This problem uses Hookes law to obtain a solution.

Solution:
The elongation in the direction of stress is given by the strain and Hookes law as

= l = l
E
The average transverse strain for a compressive stress c is

t = c
E
The total transverse strain from the two perpendicular stresses is

t ,total = 2 t = 2 c
E
The strain should be the same as if the stress was applied in the direction:

= l = 2 c l; c = =
= 1.67
E
E
2
2( 0.3)

Page 3-7

3.16

For the stressed steel cube in Problem 3.15, calculate the volume ratio (vtension/vcompression)
when =500MPa.

Notes: Realize that the volume of the stressed cube is v=[l(1+1)][l(1+2)][l(1+3)]. This problem
uses the results of Problem 3.15.
Solution:
The volume of the cube in tension is given by

2
vt = l(1+ 1 )l(1 + 2 )l(1 + 3 ) = l 31 + 1

E
E

500MPa
500MPa 2
3 3
= ( 0.1m) 3 1 +
1

0.3
(
)

= 1.00097 10 m

206GPa
206GPa
The volume of the cube in compression is

2
vc = l(1 + 1 )l(1 + 2 ) l(1+ 3 ) = l 3 1 2 c 1 + c c

E
E
E
2

(1.67)500MPa 1 + ( 1.67)(500 MPa) 0.3 500MPa = 0.99675 10 3 m3

= ( 0.1m) 3 1 2( 0.3)
( )

206GPa

206GPa
206GPa
Therefore, the ratio of the volumes is vt/vc=1.0097/0.99675=1.004235.

3.17

Hookes law describes the relationship between uniaxial stress and uniaxial strain. How
large is the ratio of deformation for a given load within the group of materials considered
in Chapter 3?

Notes: The materials in Table 3.2 should be considered. Therefore, as the stiff material, use
silicon carbide, and as the compliant material, use natural rubber.
Solution:
Reviewing Table 3.2 on page 108, we select silicon carbide as the stiffest material listed with
Esic=450GPa, and natural rubber is the least stiff with Er=0.004GPa. From Hookes law, the
deformation is inversely proportional to applied stress. Therefore,
r
(1/ E r ) Esic 450GPa
=
=
=
= 1.125 105
sic (1/ Esic ) E r
0.004GPa

3.18

According to Archards wear equation, the wear depth is proportional to the sliding
distance and the contact pressure. How will the contact pressure be distributed radially
for a disk brake if the wear rate is the same for all radii?

Notes: Equation (3.26) is used to solve the problem.

Solution:
From Equation (3.26) the wear rate per unit width is
Wr=KAplA=KAplr=constant

Page 3-8

Therefore, solving for pl,

C
C
= 1
KAr
r
Therefore, the pressure is inversely proportional to the radius.
pl =

3.19

Given a brake pad for a disk brake on a car, and using Archards wear constant,
determine how the wear is distributed over the pad if the brake pressure is constant over
the pad.

Notes: Equation (3.26) is used to solve the problem.

Solution:
The wear rate per width is given by Equation (3.26) as:
Wr=KAplA=KAplr
If p1 is constant, then this can be rewritted as Wr=C1r, or that the wear rate across the pad is
directly proportional to the radius.

Page 3-9