IC0401- VIRTUAL INSTRUMENTATION

Unit V Use of Analysis Tools and Application of VI

Prepared By : Mr.S.Senthilmurugan & Mrs.P.Anithasaraswathi.
5.1 Fourier Transform
The most common applications of the Fourier transform are the analysis of linear time-invariant
systems and spectral analysis.
The following equation defines the two-sided Fourier transform.

The following equation defines the two-sided inverse Fourier transform.

Two-sided means that the mathematical implementation of the forward and inverse Fourier
transform considers all negative and positive frequencies and time of the signal. Single-sided
means that the mathematical implementation of the transforms considers only the positive
frequencies and time history of the signal.
A Fourier transform pair consists of the signal representation in both the time and frequency
domain. The following relationship commonly denotes a Fourier transform pair.

5.2 POWER SPECTRUM

Owning Palette: Spectral Analysis VIs
Requires: Full Development System
Computes the Power Spectrum, Sxx, of the input sequence X. Wire data to the X input to
determine the polymorphic instance to use or manually select the instance.
Use the pull-down menu to select an instance of this VI.

Power Spectrum (DBL)

X is the input sequence.

Power Spectrum returns the double-sided power spectrum of X. If the input signal is in
volts (V), Power Spectrum has units of volts-rms squared (Vrms2). If the input signal is not
in volts, Power Spectrum has units of the input signal unit-rms squared.
error returns any error or warning from the VI. You can wire error to the Error Cluster
From Error Code VI to convert the error code or warning into an error cluster.

Power Spectrum (CDB)

X is the complex valued input sequence.

Power Spectrum returns the double-sided power spectrum of X. If the input signal is in
volts (V), Power Spectrum has units of volts-rms squared (Vrms2). If the input signal is not
in volts, Power Spectrum has units of the input signal unit-rms squared.
error returns any error or warning from the VI. You can wire error to the Error Cluster
From Error Code VI to convert the error code or warning into an error cluster.

Power Spectrum Details

The Power Spectrum Sxx(f) of a function x(t) is defined as
Sxx(f) = X*(f)X(f) = |X(f)|2,
where X(f) = F{x(t)}, and X* (f) is the complex conjugate of X(f).
The Power Spectrum VI uses the FFT and DFT routines to compute the power spectrum, which
is given by

where Sxx represents the output sequence Power Spectrum, and n is the number of samples in the
input sequence X.
When the number of samples, n, in the input sequence X is a valid power of 2
n = 2m
for m = 1, 2, 3, , 23,
the Power Spectrum VI computes the fast Fourier transform of a real-valued sequence using the a
fast radix-2 FFT algorithm and efficiently scales the magnitude square. The largest Power
Spectrum the VI can compute using the FFT is 223 (8,388,608 or 8M).
When the number of samples in the input sequence X is not a valid power of 2 but is factorable
as the product of small prime numbers, the Power Spectrum VI computes the discrete Fourier
transform of a real-valued sequence using an efficient DFT algorithm and scales the magnitude

square. The largest Power Spectrum the VI can compute using the fast DFT is 222 1(4,194,303
or 4M 1).
Let Y be the Fourier transform of the input sequence X and n be the number of samples in it. You
can show that
|Yn i|2 = |Yi2|.
You can interpret the power in the (n 1)th element of Y as the power in the ith element of the
sequence, which represents the power in the ith harmonic. You can find the total power for the ith
harmonic (DC and Nyquist component not included) using
Power in the ith harmonic = 2|Yi|2 = |Yi|2 + |Yn 1|2 0 < i < n/2
The total power in the DC and Nyquist components are |Y0|2 and |Yn/2|2 respectively.
If n is even, let
. The following table shows the format of the output sequence Sxx
corresponding to the Power Spectrum.
Array Element
Sxx0
Sxx1 = Sxx(n 1)
Sxx2 = Sxx(n 2)
Sxx3 = Sxx(n 3)

Interpretation
Power in DC component
Power at frequency f
Power at frequency 2 f
Power at frequency 3 f

Sxx(k 2) = Sxxn (k 2)
Sxx(k 1) = Sxxn (k 1)
Sxxk

Power at frequency (k 2) f
Power at frequency (k 1) f
Power in Nyquist harmonic

The following illustration represents the preceding table information.

Notice that the power spectrum is symmetric about the Nyquist frequency as the following
illustration shows.

If n is odd, let
. The following table shows the format of the output sequence Sxx
corresponding to the Power Spectrum.
Array Element
Sxx0
Sxx1 = Sxx(n 1)
Sxx2 = Sxx(n 2)
Sxx3 = Sxx(n 3)

Interpretation
Power in DC component
Power at frequency f
Power at frequency 2 f
Power at frequency 3 f

Sxx(k 2) = Sxxn (k 2)
Sxx(k 1) = Sxxn (k 1)
Sxxk = Sxxn k

Power at frequency (k 2) f
Power at frequency (k 1) f
Power at frequency k f

The following illustration shows that when n is odd, the power spectrum is symmetric about the
Nyquist frequency, but the Nyquist frequency does not fall on a frequency bin.

The format described in the preceding tables is an accepted standard in digital signal processing
applications.

Examples
Refer to the following VIs for examples of using the Power Spectrum VI:

DC Centered Spectrum VI: labview\examples\Signal Processing\Spectral Analysis

Generalized Fourier Spectrum VI: labview\examples\Signal Processing\Transforms

FFT and Power Spectrum Units VI: labview\examples\Signal Processing\Transforms

5.3 Correlation Methods (Advanced Signal Processing Toolkit)

Correlation measures the similarity between two signals. The correlation methods include autocorrelation and cross-correlation.

Auto-Correlation
Auto-correlation is the correlation of a time series with itself. You can use the auto-correlation
method to capture periodic components in a univariate time series without other reference time
series. The auto-correlation operation preserves the frequency and amplitude information of
periodic components but does not preserve the phase information.
The following figure shows two noise-contaminated, phase-jittered time series and the resulting
auto-correlation plots. In the Auto-Correlation 1 and Auto-Correlation 2 graphs, you can see that
auto-correlation greatly attenuates the noise in the original time series, thereby potentially
improving the accuracy and reliability of subsequent frequency or periodicity estimates
calculated for the time series.

As the previous figure shows, though the time series in the Time Series 1 and Time Series 2 have
a difference in phase, the auto-correlations are close to each other. Therefore, auto-correlation
does not preserve the phase information, which can be a beneficial property in applications such
as feature extraction.
When performing auto-correlation of a time series, you can choose either biased or unbiased
weighting. Biased weighting is helpful when you perform spectral analysis with the Fourier
transform, because biased weighting can reduce spectral leakage, bias, and variance in the
resulting power spectrum. Unbiased weighting is suitable for periodicity detection in the time

domain. If you use unbiased weighting, the amplitudes of the auto-correlation values do not
decrease as the lag increases.
The following figure shows a time series of a sinusoidal pattern.

The following figure shows the estimated biased and unbiased auto-correlation of the sinusoidal
pattern, respectively.

Use the TSA Auto-Correlation Function VI to perform auto-correlation operations on a

univariate time series.
You also can perform partial auto-correlation on a time series using the TSA Auto-Correlation
Function VI. Partial auto-correlation is useful for estimating the autoregressive (AR) model order
of a time series.

Cross-Correlation

Cross-correlation measures the similarity between two time series. You can find the features of
an unknown time series by computing the cross-correlation between the unknown time series and
a known time series. For example, if you know the frequency of a sinusoid time series but do not
know the amplitude and phase, you can derive the amplitude and phase of the time series with
the cross-correlations. The following figure shows the flowchart of obtaining the magnitude
response and phase response of a physical system with the cross-correlation method.

In this flowchart, a sinusoid stimulus signal x(t) = sin(0t) at a specified frequency 0 is applied
to the physical system. The system then generates the response signal y(t) = A(0)sin(0t +
(0)). A(0) and (0) define the magnitude response and phase response of the physical system
at 0, respectively. The term 1/2Asin(0) is obtained by performing cross-correlation between the
stimulus signal x(t) and the response signal y(t) at = 0, where denotes the lag. The term
1/2Acos(0) is obtained by performing cross-correlation between the phase-delayed stimulus
signal x(t) = cos(0t) and the response signal y(t) at = 0. You can obtain the magnitude response
A(0) from the square root of (1/2Asin(0))2 + (1/2Acos(0))2. You can obtain the phase response
(0) from the inverse tangent of the quotient of 1/2Asin(0) divided by 1/2Acos(0). If you
change the frequency of the stimulus signal, you can obtain the response of the system at other
frequencies.
Use the TSA Cross-Correlation Function VI to perform cross-correlation on two time series.

5.4 Windowing and Filtering

Overview
This tutorial is part of the NI Analog Resource Center. Each tutorial will teach you a specific topic by
explaining the theory and giving practical examples. This tutorial covers the theory of using window
functions to improve frequency measurements.
You can also view a webcast for a multimedia presentation with slides and audio.
For more information, return to the NI Analog Resource Center.

Table of Contents
1. Definition
2. Background - The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)

3. Measuring Over a Finite Interval of Time

4. Common Windowing Types
5. Windowing in LabVIEW
6. Related NI Products
1. Definition

Windowing is a technique used to shape the time portion of your measurement data, to minimize
edge effects that result in spectral leakage in the FFT spectrum. By using Window Functions
correctly, the spectral resolution of your frequency-domain result will increase.
2. Background - The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)

The FFT, or Fast Fourier Transform, implements a Fourier transform at a discrete set of
frequencies and from a time-domain waveform sampled at discrete times over a finite interval of
time. Because of the finite interval, the FFT tends not to be very frequency-selective.
The FFT behaves as though it was a bank of narrow-band filters followed by a bank of
corresponding detectors that calculate the vector sum of all the signal components that each filter
passes. In the case of the power spectrum, the result is scalar instead of vector data, and the
detector just indicates the total energy passed by each filter. Again, because of the finite duration
of the source data, the filters tend not to be especially selective. There is quite a bit of overlap
from bin to bin, as can be seen on figure 1.
As figure 1 also shows, while the main lobe of the filter is reasonably narrow, the sideband
response of the filter extends out objectionably. The application of a window function reduces
the side lobe responses, at the expense of the width of the main lobe, as can be seen on the figure
5.

Figure 1. The black curve shows the frequency response of FFT bin 3, blue is bin 4, etc. Not very
good rejection of adjacent frequencies.

3. Measuring Over a Finite Interval of Time

When you use the FFT to measure the frequency content of data, you will have to base the
analysis on a finite set of data. The FFT transform assumes that the finite data set is one period of
a periodic signal. For the FFT, both the time domain and the frequency domain are circular
topologies, so the two endpoints of the time waveform are interpreted as though they were
connected together. Therefore, the finiteness of the sampling record may result in a truncated
waveform with different spectral characteristics from the original continuous-time signal, and the
finiteness can introduce sharp transition changes into the measured data. The sharp transitions
are discontinuities. To minimize this effect, we can apply a Window Function to the measured
signal in the time domain. This will make the endpoints of the waveform meet and therefore
result in a continuous waveform without sharp transitions.
Let's take a look at different cases of finite waveforms.
Integer Number of Periods:
When the signal is periodic and an integer number of periods fill the acquisition time interval,
the FFT turns out fine.

Figure 2. Measuring an integer number of periods gives ideal FFT

Non-Integer Number of Periods:
When the number of periods in the acquisition is not an integer, the endpoints are discontinuous.
The result is the high side lobes seen in the un-windowed spectrum plot. This phenomena is
called Spectral Leakage.

Figure 3. Measuring a non-integer number of periods adds spectral leakage to the FFT
Windowing a Non-Integer of Periods:
Applying a window function to the acquisition that connects the waveform endpoints in a
smoother fashion before computing the FFT, will result in better spectral resolution. This
technique is also referred to as 'applying a window' or simply 'windowing'.

Figure 4. Applying a window minimizes the effect of spectral leakage

4. Common Windowing Types
There are different types of window functions available, each with their own advantage and
preferred application. To show the difference between common windows, we will start by
looking at an example.
Example of a window:
Applying a 4-term Blackman-Harris window before the FFT greatly reduces the side lobes,
although the main lobe's -3 dB bandwidth has increased from about 1 bin to about 2 bins
(compare figure 5 with figure 1). The extra width is usually worth the trade-off.

Figure 5. A window (4-term Blackman-Harris) reduces the side lobes in the frequency-domain
Figure 6 shows the time-domain plot of some common windows. Most windows begin and end
at zero and rise to unity in the middle. The narrowest windows in the time domain have the
widest main lobes in the frequency domain, and vice-versa.

Figure 6. The time-domain plot of some common windows

Because of the high side lobes, using the FFT with a rectangular window function (or no window
function) is normally not recommended.

The Hann (also called "Hanning") window function is useful for noise measurements where
better frequency resolution than some of the other windows is desired but moderate side lobes do
not present a problem.

The 4-term Blackman-Harris window function is a good general purpose window, having side
lobe rejection in the high 90s dB and having a moderately wide main lobe.

The 7-term Blackman-Harris window function has all the dynamic range you should ever need,
but it comes with a wide main lobe.

The Kaiser-Bessel window function has a variable parameter, beta, which trades off side lobes for
main lobe. It compares roughly to the Blackman-Harris window functions, but for the same main
lobe width, the near side lobes tend to be higher, but the further-out side sidelobes are lower.

As computers get faster and come with more memory, tolerable FFT sizes grow accordingly.
Even back in 2000, large FFTs could be computed fast enough that the 7-term Blackman-Harris
window provided quite good frequency resolution and, of course, extremely good dynamic range.
Future computing horsepower will favor the windows with the highest dynamic range.

Figure 7. The frequency-domain response of the windows from figure 6

Selecting a window function is not a simple task. Each window function has its own
characteristics and suitability for different applications. To choose a window function, you must
estimate the frequency content of the signal.

If the signal contains strong interfering frequency components distant from the frequency of
interest, choose a smoothing window with a high side lobe roll-off rate.

If the signal contains strong interfering signals near the frequency of interest, choose a window
function with a low maximum side lobe level.

If the frequency of interest contains two or more signals very near to each other, spectral
resolution is important. In this case, it is best to choose a smoothing window with a very narrow
main lobe.

If the amplitude accuracy of a single frequency component is more important than the exact
location of the component in a given frequency bin, choose a window with a wide main lobe.

If the signal spectrum is rather flat or broadband in frequency content, use the uniform window,
or no window.

In general, the Hanning window is satisfactory in 95% of cases. It has good frequency resolution
and reduced spectral leakage. If you do not know the nature of the signal but you want to apply a
smoothing window, start with the Hanning window.
To get an overview of the what window function to choose with certain signal types and
applications, refer to the list in figure 8.

Type of Signal

Window

Transients whose duration is shorter than the length of the window Rectangular
Transients whose duration is longer than the length of the window Exponential, Hanning
General-purpose applications

Hanning

Spectral analysis (frequency-response measurements)

Hanning (for random excitation),

Rectangular (for pseudorandom
excitation)

Separation of two tones with frequencies very close to each other

but with widely differing amplitudes

Kaiser-Bessel

Separation of two tones with frequencies very close to each other

but with almost equal amplitudes

Rectangular

Accurate single-tone amplitude measurements

Flat top

Sine wave or combination of sine waves

Hanning

Sine wave and amplitude accuracy is important

Flat top

Narrowband random signal (vibration data)

Hanning

Broadband random (white noise)

Uniform

Closely spaced sine waves

Uniform, Hamming

Excitation signals (hammer blow)

Force

Response signals

Exponential

Unknown content

Hanning
Figure 8. Recommendations for different window types

5. Windowing in LabVIEW

In LabVIEW Graphical Development software*, windows are available in several frequencydomain functions. For example, the Spectral Measurements Express VI lets you choose between
9 different window types, for your spectral measurements. Since it's an Express VI, you will
immediately see an example of the selected window in the time-domain for an easy visual
description.

Figure 9. Choosing a window function in the Spectral Measurements Express VI in LabVIEW

Many other VIs includes the option to select your window type. There is even a Windows palette
with window function VIs so you can create you own customized analysis application.

Figure 10. The Windows palette in LabVIEW

5.5 APPLICATION IN PROCESS CONTROL OBJECTS

5.5.1 Process Automation Uses NI CompactRIO PAC Platform for Low-Cost,
High-Speed Deterministic Control System

NI CompactRIO platform provides all data acquisition, processing, and control functions in a
low-cost, high-speed deterministic control system.
"Coupled with National Instruments strong reputation for solid-performing technology and high
value-to-the-dollar ratio, the CompactRIO platform emerged as the most cost-effective solution
for the application."
- Greg Sussman, Process Automation
The Challenge:
Providing our customer, Penn Engineering, with a means of acquiring high-speed analog data on
multiple channels, running custom processing algorithms, and providing deterministic control to
operate their new verifiable fastener installation (VFI) tool.

The Solution:
Using National Instruments CompactRIO platform to provide all of the data acquisition,
processing, and control functions of the system.
Author(s):
Greg Sussman - Process Automation
At Process Automation Corporation, our customer, Penn Engineering, asked us to create an application
that acquires high-speed analog data on multiple channels, runs custom processing algorithms, and
provides deterministic control to operate their new verificable fastener installation tool (VFI).

If we failed to terminate the installation process at the correct point, we would reduce the holding power
of the fastener due to incomplete seating or damage due to excessive force. Therefore, we had to calculate
the proper stopping point in real time, during the acquisition, as torque and displacement values varied
when fastening to materials of different density and thickness. We installed one of the VFI tool
applications on the end of a robotic arm in a vehicle manufacturing plant. As a result of the requirements
of this application, we sought out a platform that provided a robust, industrial-grade chassis with low
weight, high reliability, and a small footprint.
We chose the NI CompactRIO platform to provide all of the data acquisition, processing, and control
functions of the system. A short beta test of a preproduction CompactRIO unit provided proof-positive
testing that this platform would meet all the project requirements.
CompactRIO Increases Speed for Data Acquisition and Processing
The largest benefit Process Automation has seen with CompactRIO is its ability to acquire and process
data from system sensors at speeds normally reserved for data acquisition cards running on a PC platform,
or on very high-cost, custom hardware solutions. Because of the small footprint and embedded system
operation, Process Automation could develop stand-alone, embedded applications for hardware control
with a much shorter and less expensive development cycle.
When migrating to the CompactRIO system, Process Automation could use the majority of their existing
code and ported it to the NI LabVIEW Real-Time and FPGA platforms. In addition to the quick
integration cycle, CompactRIO hardware costs approximately $4,500 less per system to implement than
the previous data acquisition technology running on a standard computer. During the development cycle,
Process Automation also discovered that CompactRIO provided enough processing horsepower so
multiple fastener installation tools could operate off a single CompactRIO system. In their previous
system, each tool required a separate computer and acquisition card. In addition to the cost savings, the
real-time processing and data storage capability of the system made it possible for the VFI tool to not only
install the fastener, but also to log critical parameters regarding the installation process. These parameters
provided traceability of each fastener installation and tool maintenance data.
Coupled with National Instruments strong reputation for solid-performing technology and high value-tothe-dollar ratio, the CompactRIO platform emerged as the most cost-effective solution for the application.

Author Information:
Greg Sussman
Process Automation ,36 Sleepy Hollow Lane,Belle Mead, NJ 08502
United StatesTel: (267) 685-1249.
gsussman@processauto.com

5.5.2 Using LabVIEW and PXI Express to Develop a High-Accuracy Process

Control and Data Recording System for a Stand-Alone Vacuum Reactor

Figure 1: The Standalone Vacuum Reactor

"Using National Instruments products, the space used for control units was reduced by 70
percent, the intuitive user interface enabled even a novice to operate the system right away,
development costs were reduced by 20 percent, and development time was cut by 60 percent."
- Vibhas Singh, Applied Materials
The Challenge:
Designing and controlling a reactor for semiconductor research and manufacturing processes that
adds controlled quantities of a chemical at a predetermined temperature, pressure, and flow rate
in a desired sequence for more than 12 hours inside a vacuum reactor.
The Solution:
Using NI LabVIEW software and PXI Express analog and digital I/O modules to efficiently
switch electronic components on or off in the reactor, control the dosage of chemicals, monitor
pressure, and perform data logging.
Author(s):
Vibhas Singh - Applied Materials
Vaibhav Nasery - Applied Materials
Project Description

Applied Materials is a semiconductor equipment manufacturer. We needed to implement an

automation scheme for a stand-alone vacuum reactor that can thoroughly and precisely control a
generic chemical reaction while monitoring and logging experimental variables. The control
scheme also has to turn on the flow controls within milliseconds. Reliability and safety features
are equally important in the control plan because the system handles toxic chemicals, has hightemperature components, and reactions that extend uninterrupted over the course of a week.
The control scheme presented in this case study completely automates a stand-alone reactor to
start all the system components, trigger the reaction, ensure accurate execution of a predefined
set of steps by keeping a close control on the flow/dosage of chemicals, maintain chamber

pressure and temperature of various reaction zones as specified in the recipe, and display and
record all the process variables of interest in real time.
We used LabVIEW and PXI Express hardware from NI for our solution. Components and
accessories on the vacuum reactor are typically electrical and electromechanical devices that can
be turned on and off by completing an electrical circuit. Some of these devices take a setpoint in
the form of a DC signal and return a DC signal as the actual value of the control variable. We use
digital I/O cards to switch some of the components on and off. This is done through a relay in
some cases. We use signals from the analog I/O module to control some of the other instruments.
Using a DAQ device, we capture the return DC voltage signal from the instruments and feed the
signal into the analog input ports to display and log the reaction variables in situ.
A graphical system design approach helped us create a user-intuitive interface that makes it easy
for even a new user to start operating the program, capturing the status of the experiment, or
noting any anomalies by looking at the graphical monitor showing the progress of the reaction.
This approach also significantly reduced program development time because all the needed
controls are available as icons and program errors are shown by the compiler, making them much
easier to trace.
Controlling a gaseous reaction is relevant to all experimental sciences, but its an inevitable part
of chemistry and materials science. Precisely controlling the process parameters and carefully
analyzing the recorded data points helps the experimenter reach the desired sweet-spot, hence the
need for a precise and reliable control scheme.
A reaction involves many experimental variables, and most variables need to be controlled, or at
least monitored, to get a desired outcome. Each process variable is dictated by an instrument that
has a proprietary control. Using a separate controller for each instrument would be very
expensive, occupy a lot of space, and would also lack communication between instruments
making it very cumbersome, and in some cases impossible, for the operator to run a reaction in a
desired fashion. Looking at these limitations, its absolutely necessary to have one control
platform that can talk to different devices in real time and simultaneously control the devices to
run any desired sequence of reactions.
The stand-alone reactor shown in Figure 1 is representative of systems used for chemical/thermal
vapor deposition processes. We have a hollow chamber and a substrate pedestal equipped with a
heating coil, a pump to create a vacuum, and a showerhead where different gaseous species are
mixed before entering the chamber.
Various electromechanical devices are hooked up to the chamber to control the reaction and log
variables of interest. These devices include pneumatic and electronic valves to switch gas flow
on and off, mass flow controllers (MFCs) for flow control and measurement, and pressure
transducers and capacitance manometers. We have additional components for liquid delivery
including an ampoule coupled with a liquid flow meter-vaporizer-carry gas assembly to very
finely control liquid precursors.

System Configuration
Our system consists of a reaction chamber connected to a vacuum pump to pump down the
chamber, a throttle valve that governs the pumping rate, an isolation valve to isolate/connect the
pump to the chamber, and pressure sensors (capacitance manometers) to measure the vacuum
level. The reaction chamber has a pedestal, is fitted with a heater and a thermocouple, and
maintains the substrate temperature at a given value.
A typical reaction of interest introduces chemicals into the reaction chamber at a fixed rate for a
fixed time. Gaseous species, available in pressurized cylinders, are connected to the chamber via
hollow lines and are routed through an MFC for molar flow control, and a pneumatic valve to
quickly switch the entry of gas into the chamber on or off. Several of these lines are fitted with
heating tapes and thermocouples to heat the gas. The different chemicals are mixed inside a
showerhead before entering the reaction chamber.
Many precursors used in these reactions exist in a liquid or solid state at room temperature but
can be heated to get an appreciable vapor pressure. One popular method, vapor draw, uses a
container (bubbler) where the liquid/solid is heated to a temperature high enough to get sufficient
vapor pressure; these vapors are then driven into the reaction chamber due to the pressure
gradient. Though this method is easy to implement, it has some serious limitations. You cant
precisely control the rate at which precursors are drawn into the chamber, which makes this
method unusable for reactions of stoichiometric importance where accurately controlling the
precursor quantity is required. Also, the large pressure difference requires drawing a large
precursor quantity, so this method is not suited for expensive precursors and it is not advised to
use when dealing with toxic chemicals.
To overcome the limitations of the vapor draw method, we used a liquid delivery system (LDS)
in our reactor. An LDS keeps the liquid in an ampoule that is fitted with two hollow gas lines and
is wrapped with heating tape and a thermocouple. Liquid in the ampoule is pressurized by an
inert push gas that forces the liquid to rise in the adjacent line. This line is connected with a
liquid flow meter (LFM) that controls and releases only the specified amount of liquid. Liquid
leaving the LFM reaches an injection valve (vaporizer) that is maintained at a temperature high
enough to completely vaporize the liquid. A separate line carrying hot inert gas meets the vapor
carrying line from the LFM at the injector valve and pushes these vapors into the reaction
chamber. Using hot surfaces at the injector valve and hot carry gas rules out any possibility of
clogging the line because of liquid/solid condensation.
Implementing Controls

We need digital output signals for binary control functions such as switching system components
and instruments on and off. Additionally, we need analog output signals to control devices such
as the LFM and MFC so we can control gas/liquid flows. The LabVIEW program we developed
communicates with analog and digital I/O devices that send voltage signals to the
electromechanical and electronic components, which results in the desired control. It also

receives return signals from these devices on the data acquisition input channels. The overall
control scheme is depicted in Figure 3.
Various features of the control system are described in detail below.

(I) Switching Gas Flow On/Off: As instructed by the recipe, the program writes a high/low
voltage signal on the digital output ports of the PXI cards. The high signal activates a mechanical
relay and connects 24 V of DC power to the electronic valve on the pneumatic manifold. Thus, a
supply of clean, dry air is driven to the pneumatic valve that opens and allows the precursor gas
in the line to enter the chamber. A reverse mechanism closes the valve and cuts off the gas supply
corresponding to a digital low signal sent by the digital output port.
(II) Temperature Control: The temperature of various components such as the gas lines, gas
heaters, and injector valves needs to be maintained at user-specified setpoints. Thermocouples
connected to these parts send a voltage signal that is captured at differential configuration ports
on the analog input device. This signal voltage is converted to a temperature value using built-in
LabVIEW functions. The actual temperature is compared with the setpoint and depending on
whether it is lower or higher than the specified value, the program sends a digital high or digital
low signal, respectively switching the solid state relay (SSR) on or off. The power supply to the
heating tapes is routed through the SSR and heating starts or stops as the SSR is switched on or
off. This simple on/off control action has several limitations including a very high overshoot and
lack of ramp rate control. These limitations were overcome using a proportional-integralderivative (PID) controller subVI for LabVIEW that offers much more precise temperature
control.
(III) Pressure Control: Pressure has a large role in semiconductor processes because it dictates
the mean free path and diffusion length of the molecules. The pressure inside the chamber is
accurately measured by a capacitance manometer, which sends a voltage signal that is interpreted
as pressure by the program using an appropriate scaling factor. The recorded pressure is
continuously displayed to monitor the progress of the reaction. The program can take pressure
readings from the capacitance manometer and throttles the opening between the chamber and
pump by controlling the stepper motor equipped with the throttle valve and maintains a desired
pressure using this feedback loop.
(IV) Gas Flow Control: MFCs are used to control flow and record the actual flow of a gaseous
species with molar accuracy. An MFC can control gas flow using the analog output voltage
because there is a linear relation between the voltage supplied to the MFC (0 V to 5 V) and the
gas flow through the device. Corresponding to the actual flow, the MFC again sends a return
voltage of 0 V to 5 V that is acquired with analog input ports and is interpreted in the flow value
using an appropriate scaling factor by the program.
(V) Flow Control of Liquid Precursors: The flow of liquids is controlled by the collective action
of the LFM, the injector valve, and the gas heater coupled with an MFC for carrying the gas. An
analog output signal to the LFM dictates the amount of liquid that is released to the injector

valve, heated into vapors, and pushed through. The program is designed to ensure coordination
between all these devices so there is an uninterrupted flow.
(VI) Reaction Recipes: Processes conducted in the vacuum reactor involve numerous cycles.
Each cycle consists of several steps of exposures to different reactants. These recipes can be
created in the program and run per the specifications. A typical recipe involves a sequence of
reactants and corresponding time intervals for each reactant, as specified by the user. The recipes
can be saved, edited, and loaded again, which saves a lot of time for the user.

(VII) Data Logging and Analysis: Our program can log process variables of interest as a .txt file
or a Technical Data Management Streaming (TDMS) file. The user can specify the sampling rate
to record the data to be as small as a millisecond. Data being recorded is displayed graphically
and numerically on a program screen. The recorded data can also be analyzed within the
program. The program, which is capable of handling a very large file, can zoom into the graph to
reach a time window of interest and can plot very neat graphs.
(VIII) Safety Features: Because such reactions involve toxic chemicals, high temperatures, and
day-long reaction lengths, sufficient safety interlocks for the software and hardware are provided
in the control scheme. Instruments such as the gas heater and injector valve draw very high
electrical power and are heated to high temperatures. A temperature PID control in our program
ensures the overshoot on power draw is minimal. To potentially account for a situation where the
communication between the program and the hardware fails, controls to switch on these parts are
routed through a temperature switch. The temperature switch is a component fixed to the device
that changes from a normally closed to a normally open configuration and disconnects the
power being fed to the instrument, preventing any further heating.
Simple safety arrangements are provided in the program as well. For instance, input values to
variouscontrol variables are changed to the maximum allowable limit in case of an erroneous
input from the user.We have successfully tested the reliability, consistency, and safety features of
these programs in more than 200 experiments so far.
(IX) Intuitive Interface: We developed an interface similar to a supervisory control and data
acquisition (SCADA) system. It makes use of icons for each component to show the system
configuration and assigns control to each of these components in the schematic (Figure 5). The
user can click an icon and enable, disable, or control an instrument or a process parameter.
The Benefits of Using the LabVIEW Graphical System Design Approach

Compared to traditional controls, we find LabVIEW faster, more versatile, and easier to program
with. To further elaborate, in our subVI for temperature control, we easily included a PID control
using sample VIs and resources available for LabVIEW. Additionally, we changed and recorded
signals in millisecond intervals, making this code useable for nuclear reactions or atomic layer
deposition experiments where the response time for a control system has to be extremely small.

Other available programs such as ANSI C++ or control schemes using programmable logic
controller (PLC) cards are not easy to learn and implement. Also, given the complexity of our
program, it would have been very difficult and consumed a lot of our time and resources to
include all these features if we used another platform. Even the auxiliary features of LabVIEW
are great. We used one such feature to plot 100,000 data points, something Microsoft Excel failed
to plot.
Overall, the benefits of using NI products include the following:

Compact control panel that reduced the space used for control units by 70 percent

Intuitive user interface that enables even a novice to operate the system right away

20 percent reduction in development costs

60 percent reduction in development time

Easily modifiable program

Faster controlling, logging, and analyzing for large data files

We are satisfied with what we achieved in such a short time using LabVIEW. LabVIEW has
wide-ranging compatibility, and, with a few modifications, it can easily be used for similar
systems across various industries.
We would like to thank the NI sales team and field engineer Mithilesh Pradhan who introduced
me to the capabilities of LabVIEW and helped me with the necessary support to make it my
preferred control system software.
Author Information:
Vibhas Singh
Applied Materials
Unit 4 and 5,Ground Floor Inventor, International Technology Park, Whitefield Road
Bangalore 560 066
India
Tel: (91) 80 66283000

5.6 NI MyDAQ
Acquiring Audio Signals
This tutorial shows you how to use LabVIEW with an NI myDAQ. You will learn how to build a
VI in LabVIEW to create an audio loopback, which means that the source plugged into the
AUDIO IN channel will be heard in the AUDIO OUT channel. Imagine you had an mp3 player
to connect to the AUDIO IN input of the NI myDAQ and speakers you can connect to the
AUDIO OUT output, like in the following picture. A similar program to the one below allows the

source from the mp3 player to be heard from the speakers. To simplify things, the following
tutorial has you simulate a signal for the NI myDAQ to generate.

This tutorial assumes that you have the NI myDAQ software installed, the NI myDAQ hardware
available and have learned the concepts in the LabVIEW Basics tutorials.
1. From the Getting Started
Window, select FileNew
VI.
2. Press <Ctrl-E> to switch to
the block diagram.

3. Right-click the block

diagram to display the
Functions palette. Click the
thumbtack to pin the
Functions palette. Select
ExpressSimulate Signal
and add the Simulate Signal
Express VI to the block
diagram.

4. The image below shows the Configure Simulate Signal dialog box, which allows you to
configure the settings of the signal you want to create. Click Automatic to remove the
checkmark. Change the Number of samples to 10000. Click OK.

5. Select Measurement
I/ODAQmx - Data
Aquisition on the Functions
palette. This palette contains
VIs and functions that you
need when working with the
NI myDAQ. Add the DAQ
Assistant Express VI to the
block diagram to the right of
the Simulate Signal Express
VI.

6. This is the Create New

Express Task dialog box.
Here you can choose which
data acquisition device to use
as well as specify what type
of data you want to acquire or
generate. Select Generate
SignalsAnalog
OutputVoltage to specify
that you want to generate the
voltage of a signal.

7. Under your NI myDAQ

device, select
audioOutputLeft. Click
Finish to open the DAQ
Assistant.

8. The DAQ Assistant dialog

box allows you to edit the
configurations you want to
use to measure and read the
voltage. Under Channel
Settings, select VoltageOut.
Enter 2 for the Max output
range and -2 for the Min
output range. Enter 10k for
Samples to Write and 100k
for Rate (Hz). You might
have to remove the
checkmark from the Use
Waveform Timing checkbox
to edit the Samples to Write
and Rate (Hz) data fields.
Click OK when you are done.
You have now configured the
DAQ Assitant to read the
voltage out of the NI
myDAQ.

9. Wire the Sine output of the

Simulate Signal Exress VI to
the data input of the DAQ
Assistant Express VI.
10. Add a second DAQ Assistant
Express VI to the right of the
first DAQ Assistant. You will
use the second DAQ
Assistant to acquire signals
from Audio Out on the NI
myDAQ. Select Acquire
SignalsAnalog
InputVoltage. Under your
NI myDAQ device, select
both audioInputLeft and
audioInputRight. Click
Finish to open the DAQ
Assistant dialog box.

11. Under Channel Settings select

both Voltage_0 and
Voltage_1. Enter 2 for the
Max input range and -2 for
the Min input range. Enter 1k
for Samples to Read and 100k
for Rate (Hz). You might
have to remove the
checkmark from the Use
Waveform Timing checkbox
to edit the Samples to Read
and Rate (Hz) data fields.
Click OK when you are done.
12. Right-click the data output of
the second DAQ Assistant
Express VI and select
CreateGraph Indicator
from the shortcut menu.

13. Select
ProgrammingStructures
While Loop on the Functions
palette. From the upper left
corner of the block diagram,
click and drag the While
Loop around all of the code.
14. Notice that the Run button for
your VI is currently broken.
You can click the broken Run
button to see what the
problem is. Anytime you use
a loop, you must tell the
program when to stop
running. To do this, rightclick the Conditional
Terminal and select
CreateControl from the
shortcut menu. Now, the
program knows to stop when
you press the stop button on
your front panel.

15. Select FileSave, and save

the VI as audio_loopback.vi.
16. Connect one end of the audio
cable into the Audio Out
output. Run the program.
Notice that no data appears
on the graph. This is because
the NI myDAQ is only
generating the Sine wave.
Connect the other end of the
cable into the Audio In input,
and check out the data that
appears in the graph. You're
acquiring a signal from the NI
myDAQ!
17. Click the Stop button on the
front panel to stop the
program. Save and close your
VI.
Congratulations! You have completed the first NI myDAQ tutorial. Imagine if you had an mp3
player and speakers. How would you change your program so that the graph shows the data
produced from the mp3 player instead of the sine wave? Continue to the next tutorial to learn
more about what you can do with an NI myDAQ and LabVIEW.

Acquiring Audio Signals and Digital Inputs

This tutorial continues working on the program you built in the previous NI myDAQ tutorial. In
this tutorial, you will learn how to use the digital inputs of the NI myDAQ. Digital inputs are
Boolean values, meaning they are either on or off. If an input is on, you can aquire data from it.
Imagine building a video game controller. When you connect one end of a wire to a Digital
Input/Output (DIO) line and the other end to a powered input, you create an external switch that
can work like a button on a controller. Complete the following tutorial to learn how digital inputs
work.
This tutorial assumes that you have an NI myDAQ ready to use, a wire stripped on both ends,
and completed the previous NI myDAQ tutorial.

1. Connect one end of the

wire to the DIO line 3 on
the NI myDAQ. Connect
one end of the audio cable
into the Audio In input and
the other end into the
Audio Out output.

2. Click Open Existing from

the Getting Started
Window. Open the file
audio_loopback.vi and then
press <Ctrl-E> to switch to
the block diagram.

3. On the Functions palette

select Mesasurement
I/ONI-DAQmxDAQ
Assistant and add a third
DAQ Assistant Express VI
inside the While loop,
below the other VIs.

4. In the DAQ Assistant,

select Acquire
SignalsDigital
InputLine Input.

5. Select port0/line3 under

the NI myDAQ device.
This corresponds to the
wire you connected in step
1. Click Finish.

6. Notice that the DAQ

Assistant dialog box looks
different than it did in the
previous tutorial. Instead of
a graph, there is a DigitalIn
Boolean light. When
TRUE, the light turns on,
when FALSE, the light
turns off. Test the default
configuration by clicking
Run at the top of the DAQ
Assistant dialog box. On
your NI myDAQ, take the
unconnected end of the
wire and place it on the
screw of the 5V input.
Notice the DigitalIn light
turns on. Click OK when
you are finished testing.

7. Right-click the data output

of the newest DAQ
Assistant Express VI and
select CreateIndicator
from the shortcut menu.
8. From the Functions palette,
select
ProgrammingArrayInd
ex Array and place the
Index Array function above
the data 2 indicator.
9. Wire the array input of the
Index Array function to the
data output of the most
recent DAQ Assistant
Express VI. Right-click the
index input of the Index
Array function and select
CreateConstant from the
shortcut menu. Notice the
default value is 0. Although
the wire is only connected
to one digital input, the
data output returns an array
of values. Only the first
index of the array is
needed.

10. Right-click the data graph

indicator and select
CreateProperty
NodeBlinking from the
shortcut menu. Right-click
the property node and
select Change to Write.
Wire the element terminal
of the Index Array function
to the Blinking input
terminal of the property
node.
11. Select FileSave As and
save the VI as
digital_inputs.vi.

12. Switch to the front panel,

and run the program. On
the NI myDAQ, take the
unconnected end of the
wire and place it on the
screw of the 5V digital
input. Notice the graph
blinks yellow when this
happens.

Congratulations! You have completed the second tutorial for the NI myDAQ. This tutorial used
materials that are readily avaliable, but what can you connect to the NI myDAQ for a more
realistic video game controller? Check out this video on ni.com to watch how an engineer used
the NI myDAQ to create a homemade racing wheel video game controller. As a challenge, try it
out yourself!

5.7 Temperature Data Acquisition System

5.7.1 Choosing a Thermocouple Measurement Device
Overview
This document outlines considerations when building instrumentation systems for thermocouple
temperature sensors. It also provides an overview of NI measurement devices that meet the needs of these
sensor types.

Table of Contents
1. Signal Conditioning for Thermocouple Sensors

2. NI-Compatible Thermocouples
3. Platforms for Measuring Thermocouples

Learn more about the Fundamentals of Thermocouples before you begin.

1. Signal Conditioning for Thermocouple Sensors

Thermocouple output signals are typically in the millivolt range, and generally have a very low
temperature to voltage sensitivity, which means that you must pay careful attention to the sources
of errors that can impact your measurement accuracy. The primary sources of error for
thermocouple measurements are:

Cold-junction compensation (CJC) errors

Offset and gain errors

Noise errors

Thermocouple errors

CJC Errors

CJC errors represent the difference between the actual temperature at the point where the
thermocouple is connected to the measurement device (the cold-junction temperature) and the
measured temperature by the device. The CJC error is roughly a 1:1 contributor to the accuracy
of the temperature measurement of the thermocouple, and it is often one of the largest single
contributors to the overall accuracy. The overall CJC error includes the error from the CJC
temperature sensor (often a thermistor) used to sense the cold-junction temperature, the error
from the device measuring the CJC sensor, and the temperature gradient between the cold
junction and the CJC sensor. Of these three errors, the temperature gradient between the cold
junction and the CJC sensor is generally the largest, and it typically has the largest variation. The
error from the CJC sensor can be a large contributor in many devices; however, high-accuracy
thermistors or resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) with small errors are common in many
high-end thermocouple measurement devices.
The error from the temperature gradient between the cold junction and the CJC sensor is where
you generally have the most control. A well-designed thermocouple device can often minimize
this error considerably; however, the magnitude of this error still often depends on the
environment in which the thermocouple device is used. Because the error comes from the
temperature difference between the cold junction and the CJC sensor, anything that can introduce
a temperature gradient in a thermocouple device influences this error. Maintaining your
thermocouple device in a stable environment with minimal temperature variation and low air
flow is the best way to improve CJC accuracy. Adjacent heat sources, such as other instruments,
can also affect CJC accuracy. Some devices have a single CJC sensor for many channels, while
others may have multiple CJC sensors. As a general rule, devices with a low ratio of channels to
CJC sensors are less susceptible to errors from temperature gradients. Refer to the device
documentation for specifics about CJC accuracy and other recommendations for improving
overall CJC accuracy.

Offset and Gain Errors

Because thermocouples often output signals very close to 0 V and have a full input range that is
measured in millivolts, offset errors from the measurement device can be a large contributor to
overall accuracy. Many devices support a built-in autozero function that measures the internal
offset of the circuit automatically. If a device supports built-in autozero, this is often the best way
to compensate for offset errors and offset drift in the measurement device. Read the device
documentation to determine if autozero is supported. If autozero is not supported, pay careful
attention to the contribution of the offset error specification to the overall accuracy of the
measurement device, and ensure that the device is regularly calibrated.
Gain errors are proportional to the input voltage, so they generally have the largest impact when
thermocouples are measuring temperatures at the edge of their supported ranges.
Noise Errors

Thermocouple output signals are typically in the millivolt range, making them susceptible to
noise. Noise can be introduced either by the external environment or by the measurement device.
Lowpass filters are commonly used in thermocouple DAQ systems to effectively eliminate highfrequency noise in thermocouple measurements. For instance, lowpass filters are useful for
removing the 50 Hz and 60 Hz power line noise that is prevalent in many laboratory and
manufacturing settings.
For measurement devices with a large input range, you can also improve the noise performance
of your system by amplifying the low-level thermocouple voltages near the signal source
(measurement point) to match the output range of the thermocouples. Because thermocouple
output voltage levels are very low, you should choose a gain or input range for the device that
optimizes the input limits of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The output range of all
thermocouple types falls between -10 mV and 80 mV.
Another source of noise is caused by thermocouples being mounted or soldered directly to a
conductive material such as steel or being submerged in conductive liquids such as water. When
connected to a conductive material, thermocouples are particularly susceptible to common-mode
noise and ground loops. Isolation helps prevent ground loops from occurring, and can
dramatically improve the rejection of common-mode noise. With conductive materials that have
a large common-mode voltage, isolation is required because nonisolated amplifiers cannot
measure signals with large common-mode voltages.
Thermocouple Errors

These errors are introduced by the thermocouple. The voltage generated by the thermocouple is
proportional to the temperature difference between the point where the temperature is measured
and the point where the thermocouple connects to the device. Temperature gradients across the
thermocouple wire can introduce errors due to impurities in the metals, which can be large
relative to most measurement devices. Refer to the thermocouple documentation to understand
its accuracy impact on the overall measurement.

2. NI-Compatible Thermocouples

For cost-sensitive applications, National

Instruments offers ready-made thermocouples
and individual packets of thermocouple wire
with the measuring junction provided at one
end. These thermocouples are available in 1 m
(39.4 in.) and 2 m (78.7 in.) lengths. For
shorter lengths, trim the thermocouple to the
desired length and then install it into your
application. Ready-made thermocouples are
ideal for starter or educational applications.
Features

Ready-Made

Field-Cuttable

Available in 1 m and 2 m lengths

Available in J, K, T, and E types

Ideal for starter and educational

applications

Measures up to 900 F (482 C)

Measuring junction provided

National Instruments field-cuttable

thermocouples meet a wide variety of
temperature application needs. With fieldcuttable thermocouples, you can cut the probe
to the desired length from 3.5 in. to 24 in. (8.9
cm to 61 cm). Therefore, you can use one
stock of thermocouples for all your
temperature measurements, which reduces
inventory cost and production downtime.
These probes can measure up to 900 F(482
C), and are available in grounded and
ungrounded versions. For applications using
thermal wells, the optional spring-loaded
fitting reduces installation time while
ensuring contact with the thermal well. Each
probe has glass braid insulated leads and is
sold individually.
Features

Available in J, K, T, and E types

Cuttable from 24 in. to 3.5 in.

Measures up to 900 F (482 C)

Reduces inventory cost and downtime

Use extension wire to connect your

thermocouple elements to your measurement
and automation systems in less harsh
environments. It is important to match your
extension wire type to your thermocouple
element type. Otherwise, errors can be
introduced into your system.
Features
Extension Wire

Available in 30 m and 300 m spools

Available in Jx, Kx, Tx, and Ex types

3. Platforms for Measuring Thermocouples

Compact Measurements

Benchtop or Field
Measurements

Embedded Data-Logging
Measurements

Extreme Ruggedness and

Advanced Control

An NI CompactDAQ system
NI CompactDAQ stand-alone NI CompactRIO is a
consists of a chassis, NI C Series chassis offer a highreconfigurable embedded
I/O modules, and software.
performance platform for
control and acquisition system.
Chassis can connect to a host
embedded measurements and The CompactRIO hardware
computer over USB, Ethernet, or data logging. The 8-slot chassis architecture includes a
802.11 WiFi or operate stand- feature an integrated computer reconfigurable FPGA chassis
alone with a built-in controller. and nonvolatile storage, so that and an embedded controller.
With over 50 measurementNI CompactDAQ can be
You can use CompactRIO in a
specific modules and 1-, 4-, and deployed without an external variety of embedded control
8-slot chassis, NI CompactDAQ computer.
and monitoring applications.
provides a flexible, expandable
Includes Intel multicore
A variety of
platform to meet the needs of
processing, 32 GB
reconfigurable chassis
any electrical or sensor

measurement system.

Multiple timing engines for

multiple acquisition rates
Advanced counter
functionality from NISTC3 technology

What Is NI CompactDAQ?

nonvolatile storage, and 2

GB RAM

Simultaneously stream
continuous measurements
with sample rates up to 1
MS/s per channel

What Is NI CompactDAQ?

featuring an FPGA for

custom timing, analysis,
and control

Open embedded
architecture with small
size and extreme
ruggedness

What Is NI CompactRIO?

C Series I/O Modules With Integrated Signal Conditioning for Temperature With Thermocouples

NI 9214

Thermocouple Data LoggerUp to 16

Channels

For C Series I/O modules specifically designed

for the measurement of thermocouples, National This thermocouple data logger consists of one
Instruments offers the NI 9211, NI 9213, and the4-channel (NI 9211), 16-channel (NI 9213), or
NI 9214. These modules contain all of the signal isolated 4-channel (NI 9219) C Series
conditioning required to measure thermocouples thermocouple module and one USB (NI 9171),
simultaneously. They also feature 24-bit ADCs 802.11a/b wireless (NI 9191), or Ethernet (NI
for up to 0.02 C measurement sensitivity. The 9181) single module carrier. Each module is
NI 9213 and NI 9214 have a higher channel
specifically designed for thermocouple
count, up to 16 channels, and 250 Vrms
measurements and features integrated signal
channel-to-earth ground safety isolation. The NI conditioning that provides direct connectivity to
9214 also provides an isothermal terminal block your sensors. The 24 bits of resolution along
for measurement accuracy up to 0.45 C, several with built-in CJC offer superior accuracy. The
CJC sensors, and an autozero channel for offset isolated 4-channel module includes 250 Vrms
error compensation.
channel-to-earth ground isolation for safety,
noise immunity, and high common-mode
NI 9211, NI 9213, NI 9214 Measurement
voltage range.
Systems
Thermocouple Data Logger

High-Performance and High-Channel-Count Systems

The PXI platform offers a variety of chassis, controller, and module options so you can create a
measurement system to meet your specific application needs. The NI SC Express strain modules
can provide up to 0.02 percent accuracy at up to 102.4 kS/s. PXI can scale to thousands of strain
and bridge-based measurement channels for large applications, and provides both wired and
wireless synchronization options.

Configurable desktop, rack-mount, and distributed multichassis solutions

Compatibility with a wide range of sensors and transducers

More than 1,500 PXI modules available, including CAN, vision, motion, and GPS

PXI I/O Modules With Integrated Signal Conditioning for Measuring Thermocouples

The NI SC Express family features PXI Express DAQ modules with integrated signal
conditioning for sensor measurements, such as thermocouples and other temperature transducers.

NI PXIe-4353
32-Channel, 24-Bit, Thermocouple Input Module
The NI PXIe-4353 thermocouple input module provides integrated DAQ and signal conditioning
for temperature measurements. This module includes increased accuracy and synchronization
features for scalable measurement systems from low- to high-channel counts.
The NI PXIe-4353 features 32 channels with three 24-bit analog-to-digital converters (ADCs)
and operates with high-speed (90 S/s per channel) and high-resolution (1 S/s per channel) modes.
It is designed to be highly accurate with 0.3 C typical accuracy for the module and terminal
block. The module has two autozero channels for offset compensation as well as open
thermocouple detection to identify disconnected thermocouples.
The high accuracy is attributed to the NI TB-4353 isothermal terminal block that includes eight

CJC channels. It has a unique design that optimizes thermal conductivity between the
thermocouple terminals and the CJCs for an isothermal error as low as 0.25 C. The TB-4353 is a
front mount terminal block with screw terminal connectivity.
SC Express Thermocouple Measurement System
NI InstantDAQ Technology
The NI USB-TC01 thermocouple measurement device features
NI InstantDAQ technology so you can instantly take temperature
measurements with your PC. Just plug it in and built-in software
for viewing and logging data automatically loads. No driver
installation is necessary. Connect to any USB port to use your
PC as a display and monitor data in real time. The USB-TC01,
which is compatible with J, K, R, S, T, N, and B thermocouples,
uses a standard miniplug for easy thermocouple connection.

NI USB-TC01

Additional applications for generating alarms, scheduled

logging, logging to a spreadsheet file, and logging under
threshold conditions are available as free downloads. For even
further customization, you can build your own applications with
NI LabVIEW graphical programming and NI-DAQmx driver
software (requires version 9.1 or later).

5.7.2 Taking Temperature Measurements with RTDs: How-To Guide

Overview
This document is a part of How-To Guide for Most Common Measurements centralized resource portal.

Table of Contents
1. RTD Overview
2. How to Make an RTD Measurement
3. Recommended Hardware and Software
4. RTD Webcasts, Tutorials, and Other How-To Resources

1. RTD Overview
A platinum resistance temperature detector (RTD) is a device
with a typical resistance of 100 at 0 C. It consists of a thin
film of platinum on a plastic film. Its resistance varies with
temperature and it can typically measure temperatures up to
850 C. Passing current through an RTD generates a voltage
across the RTD. By measuring this voltage, you can determine
its resistance and, thus, its temperature. The relationship
between resistance and temperature is relatively linear.

Figure 1. Physical Architecture of an RTD

RTD Fundamentals
RTDs operate on the principle of changes in electrical resistance of pure metals and are
characterized by a linear positive change in resistance with temperature. Typical elements used
for RTDs include nickel (Ni) and copper (Cu), but platinum (Pt) is by far the most common
because of its wide temperature range, accuracy, and stability.
RTDs are constructed using one of two different manufacturing configurations. Wire-wound
RTDs are created by winding a thin wire into a coil. A more common configuration is the thinfilm element, which consists of a very thin layer of metal laid out on a plastic or ceramic
substrate. Thin-film elements are cheaper and more widely available because they can achieve
higher nominal resistances with less platinum. To protect the RTD, a metal sheath encloses the
RTD element and the lead wires connected to it.
Popular because of their stability, RTDs exhibit the most linear signal with respect to temperature
of any electronic temperature sensor. However, they are generally more expensive than
alternatives because of the careful construction and use of platinum. RTDs are also characterized
by a slow response time and low sensitivity, and, because they require current excitation, they
can be prone to self-heating.
RTDs are commonly categorized by their nominal resistance at 0 C. Typical nominal resistance
values for platinum thin-film RTDs include 100 and 1000 . The relationship between resistance
and temperature is nearly linear and follows this equation:
For <0 C RT = R0 [ 1 + aT + bT2 + cT3 (T - 100) ] (Equation 1)
For >0 C RT = R0 [ 1 + aT + bT2 ]
Where RT = resistance at temperature T

R0 = nominal resistance
a, b, and c = constants used to scale the RTD
The resistance/temperature curve for a 100 platinum RTD, commonly referred to as Pt100, is
shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Resistance-Temperature Curve for a 100 Platinum RTD, a = 0.00385

This relationship appears relatively linear, but curve fitting is often the most accurate way to
make an accurate RTD measurement.

The most common RTD is the platinum thin-film with an a of 0.385%/C and is specified per
DIN EN 60751. The a value depends on the grade of platinum used, and also commonly include
0.3911%/C and 0.3926%/C. The a value defines the sensitivity of the metallic element, but is
normally used to distinguish between resistance/temperature curves of various RTDs.
Table 1. Callendar-Van Dusen Coefficients Corresponding to Common RTDs
Standard

Temperature
Coefficient (a)

DIN 43760

0.003850

American

0.003911

ITS-90

0.003926

* For temperatures below 0 C only; C = 0.0 for temperatures above 0 C.

2. How to Make an RTD Measurement

Measuring Temperature with RTDs

All RTDs usually come in a red and black or red and white wire-color combination. The red wire
is the excitation wire and the black or white wires are ground wires. If you are not sure which
wires are connected to which side of the resistive element, you can use a digital multimeter
(DMM) to measure the resistance between the leads. If there is close to 0 resistance, then the
leads are attached to the same node. If the resistance is close to the nominal gage resistance (100
is a common RTD nominal gage resistance), then the wires you are measuring are on the
opposite side of the resistive element. In addition, reference the RTD specification to find the
excitation level for that particular device.
Most instruments offer similar pin configurations for RTD measurements. The following
example demonstrates an RTD measurement using an NI CompactDAQ chassis and the NI 9217
RTD module (see Figure 3). National Instruments provides many options to measure
temperature from 1 to 1,000+ channels.

Figure 3. NI CompactDAQ Chassis and the NI 9217 RTD Module

An RTD is a passive measurement device; therefore, you must supply it with an excitation
current and then read the voltage across its terminals. You can then easily transform this reading
to temperature with a simple algorithm. To avoid self-heating, which is caused by current
flowing through the RTD, minimize this excitation current as much as possible. There are
essentially three different methods to measure temperature using RTDs.

Two-Wire RTD Signal Connection

Connect the red RTD lead to the excitation positive. Place a jumper from the excitation positive
pin to the channel positive on the data acquisition device. Connect the black (or white) RTD lead
to the excitation negative. Place a jumper from the excitation negative to the channel negative on
the data acquisition device.

Figure 4. Two-Wire RTD Measurement

In the two-wire method, the two wires that provide the RTD with its excitation current and the
two wires across which the RTD voltage is measured are the same.
The easiest way to take a temperature reading with an RTD is using the two-wire method;
however, the disadvantage of this method is that if the lead resistance in the wires is high, the
voltage measured, VO, is significantly higher than the voltage that is present across the RTD
itself. The NI 9217 does not support two-wire measurement configurations.
Three-Wire RTD Signal Connection
Connect the red RTD lead to the excitation positive. Place a jumper from the excitation positive
pin to the channel positive on the data acquisition device (Note: This step is not necessary with
the NI 9217; it internally connects these two channels, see below). Connect one of the black (or
white) RTD leads to excitation negative and the other to channel negative.
Figure 5 shows the external connections for the measurement as well as the pin-outs for the NI
9217 RTD module. The excitation positive is connected to RTD0+ because the NI 9217
internally connects this to the excitation terminal.

Figure 5. Three-Wire RTD Measurement

Four-Wire RTD Signal Connection
To connect this RTD, simply connect each of the red leads on the positive side of the resistive
element to the excitation positive and channel positive on the data acquisition device. Connect
the black (or white) leads on the negative side of the resistive element to the excitation and
channel negative on the data acquisition device. The two additional leads from a two-wire RTD
increase the attainable accuracy. Figure 6 shows the external connections for the measurement as
well as the pin-outs for the NI 9217 RTD module.

Figure 6. Four-Wire RTD Measurement

The four-wire method has the advantage of not being affected by the lead resistances because
they are on a high-impedance path going through the device that is performing the voltage
measurement; therefore, you get a much more accurate measurement of the voltage across the
RTD.

RTD Noise Considerations

RTD output signals typically run in the millivolt range, making them susceptible to noise.
Lowpass filters are commonly available in RTD data acquisition systems and can effectively
eliminate high-frequency noise in RTD measurements. For instance, lowpass filters are useful for
removing the 60 Hz power line noise that is prevalent in most laboratory and plant settings.
You can also significantly improve the noise performance of your system by amplifying the lowlevel RTD voltages near the signal source. Because RTD output voltage levels are very low, you
should choose a gain that optimizes the input limits of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC).
Getting to See Your Measurement: NI LabVIEW
Once you have connected the sensor to the measurement instrument, you can use LabVIEW
graphical programming software to visualize and analyze the data as needed.

Figure 7. LabVIEW RTD Measurement

3. Recommended Hardware and Software

Build Your own CompactDAQ RTD Measurement System

High Accuracy RTD Measurements with a DMM and Switch
Learn about and test-drive LabVIEW software for free
Back to Top
4. RTD Webcasts, Tutorials, and Other How-To Resources

Measuring Temperature with an RTD or Thermistor

Temperature Measurement with a Thermocouple or RTD

Working with Thermistors and RTDs
Learn About Relevant Training Options: Data Acquisition and Signal Conditioning

5.7.3 Temperature Measurements with Thermistors: How-To Guide

Overview
This document is part of the How-To Guide for Most Common Measurements centralized resource portal.
1. Thermistor Overview
Thermistors, like RTDs, are thermally sensitive
semiconductors whose resistance varies with
temperature. Thermistors are manufactured from metal
oxide semiconductor material encapsulated in a glass or
epoxy bead. Also, thermistors typically have much
higher nominal resistance values than RTDs (anywhere
from 2,000 to 10,000 ) and can be used for lower
currents.

Figure 1. Common Symbol for Thermistor

Each sensor has a designated nominal resistance that varies proportionally with temperature
according to a linearized approximation. Thermistors have either a negative temperature
coefficient (NTC) or a positive temperature coefficient (PTC). The first, more common, has a
resistance that decreases with increasing temperature while the latter exhibits increased
resistance with increasing temperature.
You can use PTC thermistors, or posistors, as current-limiting devices for circuit protection (in
place of fuses) and as heating elements in small temperature-controlled ovens. Meanwhile, NTC
thermistors, the topic of this article, are used mainly to measure temperature, and are widely
present in digital thermostats and in automobiles to monitor engine temperatures.
Thermistors typically have a very high sensitivity (~200 /C), making them extremely
responsive to changes in temperature. Though they exhibit a fast response rate, thermistors are
limited for use up to the 300 C temperature range. This, along with their high nominal
resistance, helps to provide precise measurements in lower-temperature applications.
2. How to Make a Thermistor Measurement

Because thermistors are resistive devices, you must supply them with an excitation source and
then read the voltage across their terminals. This source must be constant and precise.

You take temperature measurements by connecting the thermistor differentially to an analog

input channel. In other words, you must connect both the +ve and ve terminals of the analog
input channel across the thermistor.
Thermistors come in either two-, three-, or four-wire configurations, and they can be connected
as depicted in Figure 2.

Figure 2 .Two-, Three-, and Four-Wire Connection Diagrams

When there are more than two wires, the additional wires are solely for connecting to the
excitation source. A three- or four-wire connection method places leads on a high-impedance
path through the measurement device, effectively attenuating error caused by lead-wire
resistance (RL).
The easiest way to connect a thermistor to a measurement device is with a two-wire connection
(see Figure 3). With this method, the two wires that provide the thermistor with its excitation
source are also used to measure the voltage across the sensor. Because thermistors have a high
nominal resistance, lead-wire resistance does not affect the accuracy of their measurements; thus,
two-wire measurements are adequate for thermistors, and two-wire thermistors are the most
common.

Figure 3 .Two-Wire Connection

Connecting a Thermistor to an Instrument
Many instruments offer similar options for connecting thermistors. As an example, consider an
NI CompactDAQ system with an NI 9215 C Series module and an NI cDAQ-9172 chassis (see
Figure 4).

Figure 4. NI 9215 C Series Analog Input Module and NI CompactDAQ Chassis

Notice the differential connection in the connection diagrams in Figure 5, where two wires are
attached to either end of the thermistor and connected into the positive and negative terminals of
a single channel, in this case pins 0 and 1, respectively. When setting up acquisition from this
type of sensor, you have the option of specifying either excitation current (IEX) or voltage (VEX),
depending on the type of excitation source you use.

Figure 5. NI 9215 Connection Diagrams for Thermistors with External Excitation from a
(a) Current Source IEX and (b) Voltage Source VEX
The voltage difference across the resistor is read as a temperature. The relationship between
voltage across a resistor and temperature is not perfectly linear. The NI-DAQmx driver scales the
resistance of a thermistor to a temperature using the Steinhart-Hart thermistor third-order
approximation:

where T is the temperature in Kelvin, R is the measured resistance, and A, B, and C are constants
provided by the thermistor manufacturer.
To provide excitation, you can use external sources such as a C Series voltage output module or
current output module. Because the nominal resistance of a thermistor is very high, you need a
source that can output low currents accurately. You can use the NI 9265 C Series analog output
module as an excitation current source for the thermistor and place it in the same NI cDAQ-9172
chassis as the C Series module acquiring the thermistor reading. The NI 9265 has a 0 to 20 mA

output range with 16-bit resolution. This particular output module also has the same channel
count as the input module described for the temperature readings. The pinouts for the current
output C Series module are displayed in Figure 6.

Figure 6. NI 9265 Analog Output Module Terminal Connections

Considerations
If you cannot dissipate extra heat, heating caused by the excitation current can raise the
temperature of the sensing element above that of the ambient temperature, causing an error in the
reading of the ambient temperature. You can minimize the effects of self-heating by lowering the
excitation current.
Signals emitted by thermistors are typically in the millivolt range, making them susceptible to
noise. Lowpass filters are commonly used in thermistor data acquisition systems to effectively
eliminate high-frequency noise in thermistor measurements. For instance, lowpass filters are
useful for removing the 60 Hz power line noise that is prevalent in most laboratory and plant
settings.
Getting to See Your Measurement: NI LabVIEW
Once you have configured the system properly, you can acquire and view the data using the
LabVIEW graphical programming environment (See Figure 7).

Figure 7. Thermistor Reading in LabVIEW Front Panel

5.8 Fundamentals of Motion Control

Overview
This tutorial is part of the National Instruments Measurement Fundamentals series. Each tutorial in this
series teaches you a specific topic of common measurement applications by explaining theoretical
concepts and providing practical examples. In this tutorial, learn the fundamentals of a motion control
system including software, motion controller, drive, motor, feedback devices, and I/O.
For more information, return to the NI Measurement Fundamentals Main Page.
Table of Contents
1. Components of a Motion Control System
2. Software for Configuration, Prototyping, Development
3. Motion Controller
4. Move Types
5. Motor Amplifiers and Drives
6. Motors and Mechanical Elements
7. Feedback Devices and Motion I/O
8. Relevant NI Products
1. Components of a Motion Control System

Figure 1 shows the different components of a motion control system.

Figure 1. Components of a Motion Control System

Application software You can use application software to command target positions and motion
control profiles.
Motion controller The motion controller acts as the brain of the system by taking the desired
target positions and motion profiles and creating the trajectories for the motors to follow but
outputting a 10 V signal for servo motors, or a step and direction pulses for stepper motors.
Amplifier or drive Amplifiers (also called drives) take the commands from the controller and
generate the current required to drive or turn the motor.
Motor Motors turn electrical energy into mechanical energy and produce the torque required to
move to the desired target position.
Mechanical elements Motors are designed to provide torque to some mechanics. These include
linear slides, robotic arms, and special actuators.
Feedback device or position sensor A position feedback device is not required for some motion
control applications (such as controlling stepper motors) but is vital for servo motors. The
feedback device, usually a quadrature encoder, senses the motor position and reports the result to
the controller, thereby closing the loop to the motion controller.
Back to Top
2. Software for Configuration, Prototyping, Development

Application software is divided into three main categories: configuration, prototype, and
application development environment (ADE). Figure 2 illustrates the motion control system
programming process and the corresponding National Instruments product designed for the
process:

Figure 2. The Motion Control System Development Process

Configuration
One of the first things to do is configure your system. For this, National Instruments offers
Measurement & Automation Explorer (MAX), an interactive tool for configuring not only
motion control but all other National Instruments hardware. For motion control, MAX offers
interactive testing and tuning panels that help you verify your system functionality before you
program.

Figure 3. NI MAX is an interactive tool for configuring and tuning your motion control system.
Application Notes
Understanding Servo Tune
Using the 1D Interactive Environment to Test Motor Functionality
Axis Configuration for Motion Controllers
Axis Settings for Motion Controllers
Encoder Settings for Motion Controllers
Reference Settings for Motion Controllers
Digital I/O Settings for Motion Controllers

Prototyping
When you have configured your system, you can start prototyping and developing your
application. In this phase, you create your motion control profiles and test them on your system
to make sure they are what you intended. For prototyping, National Instruments offers an
interactive tool called the NI Motion Assistant, which you can use to configure moves using a
point-and-click environment and generate NI LabVIEW code based on the moves you configure.
The key benefit of the NI Motion Assistant lies in the difference between configurable and
programmable environments. With configurable environments, you can start your development
without programming. You can think of the tasks in the NI Motion Assistant as prewritten blocks
of code that you simply configure to meet your needs. Programmable environments, on the other
hand, require you to use standard programming languages such as LabVIEW, C, or Visual Basic
to accomplish your tasks. Unfortunately, many configurable environments may be limited in
functionality or in the ability to integrate with other I/O outside motion. The NI Motion Assistant
bridges the gap between programmable and configurable environments by offering all
configurable system features as well as LabVIEW code generation.

Figure 4. The NI Motion Assistant helps you quickly prototype your application and then convert
your project into LabVIEW VIs or C code for further development.

Evaluation Software
Development
After the prototyping phase, the next step is to develop the final application code. For this, you
use driver-level software in an ADE such as LabVIEW, C, or Visual Basic. For a National
Instruments motion controller, you use NI-Motion driver software.

The NI-Motion driver software contains functions you can use to communicate with NI motion
controllers in the Windows or LabVIEW Real-Time OS. NI-Motion also includes MAX to help
you easily configure and tune your motion system.
For non-Windows systems, you can develop your own driver using the NI Motion Control
Hardware DDK manual. It explains how to communicate on a low level with NI motion
controllers. If you do not have the expertise or time to develop your own driver, National
Instruments Alliance Partner Sensing Systems offers a Linux and VxWorks driver, and can create
drivers for other OSs, such as Mac OS X or RTX.
Application Notes
Understanding Input and Return Vectors in Onboard Programming
Understanding Loop and Conditional Structures in Onboard Programming
Understanding Variable Arithmetic in Onboard Programming
Advanced Object Management in Onboard Programming
Controlling an X-Y Stage with a Joystick
3. Motion Controller

A motion controller acts as the brain of the motion control system and calculates each
commanded move trajectory. Because this task is vital, it often takes place on a digital signal
processor (DSP) on the board itself to prevent host-computer interference (you would not want
your motion to stop because your antivirus software starts running). The motion controller uses
the trajectories it calculates to determine the proper torque command to send to the motor
amplifier and actually cause motion.
The motion controller must also close the PID control loop. Because this requires a high level of
determinism and is vital to consistent operation, the control loop typically closes on the board
itself. Along with closing the control loop, the motion controller manages supervisory control by
monitoring the limits and emergency stops to ensure safe operation. Directing each of these
operations to occur on the board or in a real-time system ensures the high reliability,
determinism, stability, and safety necessary to create a working motion control system.
Learn more about the FlexMotion architecture of National Instruments DSP-based motion
controllers.
Calculating the Trajectory
The motion trajectory describes the motion controller board control or command signal output to
the driver/amplifier, resulting in a motor/motion action that follows the profile. The typical
motion controller calculates the motion profile trajectory segments based on the parameter values
you program. The motion controller uses the desired target position, maximum target velocity,
and acceleration values you give it to determine how much time it spends in the three primary
move segments (which include acceleration, constant velocity, and deceleration).
For the acceleration segment of a typical trapezoidal profile, motion begins from a stopped

position or previous move and follows a prescribed acceleration ramp until the speed reaches the
target velocity for the move.

Figure 5. A Typical Trapezoidal Velocity Profile

Motion continues at the target velocity for a prescribed period until the controller determines that
it is time to begin the deceleration segment and slows the motion to a stop exactly at the desired
target position.
If a move is short enough that the deceleration beginning point occurs before the acceleration has
completed, then the profile appears triangular instead of trapezoidal and the actual velocity
attained may fall short of the desired target velocity. S-curve acceleration/deceleration is a basic
trapezoidal trajectory enhancement where the acceleration and deceleration ramps are modified
into a nonlinear, curved profile. This fine control over ramp shape is useful for tailoring motion
trajectory performance based on the inertial, frictional forces, motor dynamics, and other
mechanical motion system limitations.
Application Notes
Trajectory Settings for Motion Controllers
S-Curve Acceleration and Deceleration
Velocity Profiling

Selecting the Right Motion Controller

NI offers three main families of DSP-based motion controllers, including the low-cost NI 733x
series, the mid-range NI 734x series, and the high-performance NI 735x series. The NI 733x
low-cost controllers offer four-axis stepper motor control and most of the basic functions you
need for a wide variety of applications, including single and multiaxis point-to-point motion. The

NI 734x series is the mid-range series that offers up to four axes of both stepper and servo
control, as well as some higher-performance features such as contouring and electronic gearing.
The NI 735x series is the most advanced series that offers up to eight axes of stepper and servo
control, extra I/O, and many powerful features including sinusoidal commutation for brushless
motors and 4 MHz periodic breakpoints (or position triggers) for high-speed integration.
Selection Guides
View the Complete Motion Control Product Selection Guide

Creating Custom Motion Controllers

While current motion controllers with DSPs are suitable for many applications, when it comes to
high-precision motion control with servo update rates as fast as 200 kHz, machine builders turn
to designing their own motion controllers on a custom printed circuit board (PCB). Not only is
the development expensive in terms of time and cost, but the fixed personality of the motion
controller makes the system inflexible for future redesigns or for accommodating variations in
the motion control algorithms at run time. Some applications that need such a high level of
precision and flexibility include wafer processing machines in the semiconductor industry or the
inline vehicle sequencing (ILVS) reconfigurable-at-run-time assembly line for the automotive
industry. National Instruments reconfigurable I/O (RIO) technology combined with NI
SoftMotion technology provides the right tools for machine builders who want high-precision
customized motion control with the complete flexibility of a field-programmable gate array
(FPGA). In addition to high-precision applications, machine builders and OEMs can use the
LabVIEW NI SoftMotion Module to implement multiaxis coordinated motion control using
LabVIEW on a variety of platforms from plug-in NI M Series data acquisition (DAQ) devices
for industrial PCs and PXI to rugged systems using NI CompactRIO and Compact FieldPoint
programmable automation controllers (PACs).
Tutorials:
White Paper: Create Your Custom Motion Controller on Any Platform with LabVIEW
4. Move Types

Single-Axis, Point-to-Point Motion

One of the most commonly used profiles is the simple, single-axis, point-to-point move, which
requires the position to which the axis needs to move. Often it also requires the velocity and
acceleration (usually supplied by a default setting) at which you want the motion to move. Figure
6 shows how to move a single axis in LabVIEW using the default velocity and acceleration.

Figure 6. Single-Axis, Point-to-Point Motion in LabVIEW

Coordinated Multiaxis Motion

Another type of motion is coordinated multiaxis motion, or vector motion. This move is often
point-to-point motion but in 2D or 3D space. Vector moves require the final positions on the X,
Y, and/or Z axes. Your motion controller also requires some type of vector velocity and
acceleration. This motion profile is commonly found in XY-type applications such as scanning or
automated microscopy. Figure 7 shows how to accomplish a three-axis move using LabVIEW.
For more information on coordinated motion, view the examples in the LabVIEW Multiaxis.llb
library in NI-Motion driver software.

Figure 7. Coordinated Multiaxis Motion in LabVIEW

Blended Motion
Blended motion involves two moves fused together by a blend that causes the moves to act as
one. Blended moves require two moves and a blend factor that specifies the blend size. Blending
is useful for applications requiring continuous motion between two different moves. However, in
blended motion, your system does not pass through all of the points in your original trajectory. If
the specific position along the path is important to you, consider a contouring motion.

Figure 8. Blended Motion

Figure 8 explains the blending between two vector moves in LabVIEW. For more information on
blending, view the Sequence of Blended Vector Moves example program in NI-Motion driver
software.

Figure 9. Blended Motion in LabVIEW

Contoured Motion
With contouring, you can supply a position buffer and create a smooth path or spline through
them. Contouring holds an advantage over blending in that it guarantees that the system passes
through each position.

Figure 10. Contoured Motion

Figure 11 explains a contoured move using LabVIEW. For more information on contouring,
view the examples in the Countouring.llb example library found in NI-Motion driver software.

Figure 11. Contoured Motion in LabVIEW

Electronic Gearing
With electronic gearing, you can simulate the motion that would occur between two mating gears
without using real gears. You use electronic gearing by supplying a gear ratio between a slave
axis and a master axis, encoder, or ADC channel.
Figure 12 shows how to configure a slave axis to follow a master axis. For more information on
electronic gearing, view the Gearing.llb example library found in NI-Motion driver software.

Figure 12. Electronic Gearing in LabVIEW

5. Motor Amplifiers and Drives

The motor amplifier or drive is the part of the system that takes commands from the motion
controller in the form of analog voltage signals with low current and converts them into signals
with high current to drive the motor. Motor drives come in many different varieties and are
matched to the specific type of motor they drive. For example, a stepper motor drive connects to
stepper motors and not servo motors. Along with matching the motor technology, the drive must
provide the correct peak current, continuous current, and voltage to drive the motor. If your drive
supplies too much current, you risk damaging your motor. If your drive supplies too little current,
your motor does not reach full torque capacity. If your voltage is too low, your motor cannot run
at its full speed.
You should also consider how to connect your amplifier to your controller. Some motor
companies sell drives that easily connect to the motors they offer. National Instruments offers
drives for both two-phase stepper motors and DC brushed servo motors. These drives have screw
terminals with which you can connect to many different motors. Table 1 describes the difference
between NI motor drives.
For connecting to third-party drives and amplifiers, National Instruments offers the universal
motion interface (UMI) the standard UMI-7764 with screw terminal connectivity and the
industrial UMI-7774 with 24 V logic digital I/O and D-Sub connectivity.
Selection Guides
NI Drive Selection Chart
Application Notes
Simple Servo Amplifiers
DC Servo Amplifiers
Changing the Voltage Output on a FlexMotion Controller for Drives That Do Not Accept 10 V
How to Connect the NI 73xx Inhibit and Command Signal Outputs to Third-Party Drives
6. Motors and Mechanical Elements

Motor selection and mechanical design is a critical part of designing your motion control system.
Many motor companies offer assistance in choosing the right motor, but it is helpful to know
some basics about motors before you start looking. Table 1 describes different motor
technologies.

Pros

Cons

Applications

Inexpensive, can be run open

loop, good low-end torque,
clean rooms

Noisy and resonant, poor highspeed torque, not for hot

environments, not for variable
loads

Positioning, micromovement

Brushed DC Servo Inexpensive, moderate speed,

Motors
good high-end torque, simple
drives

Maintenance required, no clean

rooms, brush sparking causes
EMI and danger in explosive
environments

Velocity control, high-speed

position control

Expensive and complicated

drives

Robotics, pick-and-place, hightorque applications

Stepper Motors

Brushless Servo Maintenance-free, long lifetime,

Motors
no sparking, high speeds, clean
rooms, quiet, run cool

Table 1. NI Motor Drives

After determining which technology you want to use, you need to determine the torque and
inertia at the motor shaft. For more information on calculating system torque, read the Motor
Fundamentals article at zone.ni.com.
Something else to consider when selecting your motor and other mechanics is whether an offthe-shelf actuator (such as a stage) might work for your application. Stages offer the power
transmission to obtain useful rotary or linear motion without designing it yourself.
Selection Guides
Selecting the Correct Servo Motor for Your Application
Selecting the Correct Stepper Motor for Your Application
Selecting the Correct Stage for Your Application
Application Notes
Motor Fundamentals
Servo Motor Basics
Servo Motor Applications
Stepper Motor Basics
Stepper Motor Types
Linear Stepper Motors
Stepper Motor Applications
Stepper Motor Switching Sequence
7. Feedback Devices and Motion I/O

Feedback Devices
Feedback devices help the motion controller know the motor location. The most common
position feedback device is the quadrature encoder, which gives positions relative to the starting
point. Most motion controllers are designed to work with these types of encoders. Other
feedback devices include potentiometers that give analog position feedback, tachometers that

provide velocity feedback, absolute encoders for absolute position measurements, and resolvers
that also give absolute position measurements. When using National Instruments motion
controllers, you can use quadrature encoders and potentiometers.
Motion I/O
Other I/O that is important in motion control includes limit switches, home switches, position
triggers, and position capture inputs. Limit switches provide information about the end of travel
to help you avoid damaging your system. When a motion system hits a limit switch, it typically
stops moving. Home switches, on the other hand, indicate the system home position to help you
define a reference point. This is important for applications such as pick-and-place.

Figure 13. Limit and Home Switches in a Motion Control System

Triggers such as position trigger outputs or position capture inputs help when integrating with
other devices. With position trigger outputs (also called breakpoints and position compare), you
can set up a trigger that executes at a prescribed position. This type of action is useful in
operations such as scanning, where you might want to trigger a system to take measurements at a
series of prescribed positions. Position capture inputs, on the other hand, cause the motion
controller to immediately capture an event occurrence position and store it in memory. This is
useful if you have an external trigger and would like to know the position at which it occurs in
your system.
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