Fluid Mechanics, SG2214, HT2013

September 11, 2013

Exercise 3: Conservation Equations and Stress Tensor

Example 1: conservative form of continuity equation (also in lecture
notes)
a) Consider a fixed, closed surface S in a fluid. Show that conservation of mass implies

+
(ui ) = 0 .
t
xi

The change of mass in the volume is a balance between the mass flux in an out the domain and the
change in density. Conservation means that this should be zero
Z
I

dV +
ui ni dS = 0 .
V t
S
Using the Gauss Theorem we can rewrite the surface integral as volume integrals,
I
Z

(ui ) dV .
ui ni dS =
S
V xi
We then have

Z
{
V

+
(ui )} dV = 0 .
t
xi

This must be true for an arbitrary volume leading to the differential form

+
(ui ) = 0 .
t
xi

b) Show that this can be written as

ui
D
+
=0.
Dt
xi

ui

ui
(ui ) =
ui +
= ui
+
xi
xi
xi
xi
xi
This gives

D
ui

ui
+ ui
=
+
.
+
t
xi
xi
Dt
xi
|
{z
}
D
Dt
c) Explain what the following means
ui
=0
xi

D
=0.
Dt

Remember the decomposition of

ui
xj

in its invariant parts





ui
1 ui
uj
1 uk
1 ui
uj
=
+

ij +

+
xj
2 xj
xi
3 xk
2 xj
xi
|
{z
} |
{z
}
deformation eij

rotation ij

1 uk
ij
3 x
| {zk }

volume change eij

The volume change eij = 0 due to the divergence-free condition. Therefore, if we are following a fluid
particle, the density and volume are constant. But at a fixed position, the density can change as

= ui
.
t
xi

Example 2: Reynolds Transport Theorem (also in lecture notes)

a) Use the Reynolds Transport Theorem to provide an alternative derivation of the conservation of mass
equation

+
(ui ) = 0.
t
xi
Reynolds Transport Theorem:

D
Dt

Z
Tijk dV =

V (t)

V (t)


Tijk

+
(ul Tijk ) dV
t
xl

Put Tijk = ,
D
Dt

Z
dV =

V (t)

V (t)

+
(ui ) dV
t
xi

No flow through the surface, so the integrals are zero and valid for all V (t)

+
(ui ) = 0 .
t
xi
b) Use this result to show
D
Dt

Z
Fijk dV =

V (t)

V (t)

DFijk
dV .
Dt

Put Tijk = Fijk in the Reynolds Transport Theorem

D
Dt

Z
Fijk dV =

V (t)

V (t)

(Fijk ) +
(ul Fijk ) dV =
t
xl



Fijk
Fijk

+ Fijk
+ Fijk
(ul ) + ul
dV =
t
t
xl
xl
V (t)





Z
Fijk
Fijk

Fijk
+
(ul ) +
+ ul
dV =
t
xl
t
xl
V (t)
|
{z
}
|
{z
}
Z

=0

V (t)

DFijk
dV .
Dt

DF
ijk
Dt

The stress tensor Tij

The equation for the stress tensor was deduced by Stokes in 1845 from elementary hypotheses.
Writing the stress tensor in the form
Tij = pij + ij ,
the following statements should be true for the viscous stress tensor ij in a Newtonian fluid:
(i) ij should vanish if the flow involves no deformation of fluid elements: Tij = pij .
ui
. This is dependence is assumed local and at present
(ii) ij is a function of the velocity gradients
xj
time, that is the stresses depends on the local deformation without any effect from past deformations.
ui
(iii) the relationship between ij and
should be isotropic as the physical properties of the fluid
xj
are assumed to show no preferred direction.
(iv) ij should be frame indifferent, so independent of the antisymmetric part ij

Finally linear dependence is assumed between ij and

ui
.
xj

Tij = pij + 2 eij .

This proofed to be good!

Example 3: Derivation of the viscous stress tensor

If ij is a linear function of the components of eij it can then be written as
ij = cijkl ekl + dij ,
where dij = 0 from the first assumption above. It can be shown that the most general fourth-order isotropic
tensor is of the form
cijkl = Aij kl + Bik jl + Cil jk
where A, B and C are scalars.
a) Use this to show that
ij = ekk ij + 2eij
where and are scalars.
ij = cijkl ekl = (Aij kl + Bik jl + Cil jk )ekl = Aij ekk + Beij + Ceji
Say that A = and that B = C = , then since eij = eji we have
ij = ekk ij + 2eij

1
b) Show that if we have a Newtonian fluid where p = Tii then
3




2 uk
ui
uj
Tij = p +
ij +
+
3 xk
xj
xi
We have
Tij = pij + ij = pij + ekk ij + 2eij
Then
Tii = 3p + 3eii + 2eii = 3p + (3 + 2)eii
3

This gives = 23 , and thus

2
Tij = p ekk ij + 2eij
3




2 uk
ui
uj
Tij = p +
ij +
+
.
3 xk
xj
xi

or

= 32 is assumed and shown to be valid for monoatomic gases. This implies that the mean pressure
(normal stress) is the thermodynamic pressure. As consequence, there is no irreversible viscous loss in
the case of fluid expansion or compression (Work for expansion/compression is only provided by the
pressure, not by viscosity)
Note that for incompressible fluid u
= 0:
Tij = pij + 2eij .

Example 4
Calculate the stress vector at a surface through the origin of example 3, recitation 2 for a Newtonian fluid if
the pressure at the origin is p0 , and the unit normal is
a) in the x-direction
b) in the y-direction
c) at 45o in the x y plane
Also, for each case identify the normal stress and the shear stress, the viscous stress and the isotropic part
of the stress.
Solution: Given the velocity the field u = x, v = y, (w = 0) and the definition of the stress tensor
Tij = p0 ij + 2eij , the strain rate tensor and the stress tensor become respectively

1 u v

(
+
)

2 y
x

=

v
0

u
x

eij =
1 u v
(
+
)
2 y
x
y

p0 + 2
0

Tij =
0
p0 2

a) Unit normal n = ex and tangent t = ey , or equivalently

1
0
n = ;
t = ;
0
1
Stress vector Ri = Tij nj

p0 + 2
Ri =
0
Normal stress Ri ni
p0 + 2

1
p0 + 2
=

p0 2
0
0
0

1
0 = p0 + 2
|{z}
|{z}
0
isotropic part
viscous stress

Shear stress Ri ti

0
0 =0
1

p0 + 2

b) Unit normal n = ey and tangent t = ex , or equivalently

0
1
n = ;
t = ;
1
0
Stress vector Ri = Tij nj

p0 + 2
Ri =
0
Normal stress Ri ni
0

0
0
=

p0 2
1
p0 2
0

0
p0 2 = p0 2
|{z}
|{z}
1
isotropic part
viscous stress

Shear stress Ri ti
0

1
p0 2 = 0
0

c)

1
1
;
n=
2 1

1
1
t=
;
2 1

Stress vector Ri = Tij nj

p0 + 2
Ri =
0

1
p0 + 2
1
1
=

2
2
p0 2
1
p0 2
0

Normal stress Ri ni
1
p0 + 2
2
Shear stress Ri ti
1
p0 + 2
2

1

1
p0 2 =
2 1

p
|{z}0

isotropic part of stress

1

1
p0 2 =
2 1

2
|{z}

viscous stress

Example 5
Consider a control volume x [0, L], y [0, L] for the flow in the example 3 of recitation 2 and calculate
the net force resulting from the isotropic stress tensor on the control volume using the momentum theorem.
Momentum theorem in the absence of external body forces
Z
Z
Z
d
udV +
u(u n)dS =
RdS
dt V
V
V

x-component for the steady flow u = x, v = y, (w = 0)

Z
Z
Z
u(u n)dS =
Rx dS =
pnx dS
V
V
| V {z
}

Z
+

x-comp from isotropic stress tensor

y-component
Z

Z
v(u n)dS =

x-comp from viscous stress tensor

Z
Ry dS =

pny dS
}
| V {z

y-comp from isotropic stress tensor

Given the viscous stress tensor

xj nj dS
| V {z
}

2
ij =
0

yj nj dS
}
| V {z

y-comp from viscous stress tensor

we integrate long the boundary of our domain.

Along x = L the normal is nj dS = (ex )j dy and thus

2
0
1
2
=
.
ij nj =
0
2
0
0
Along the side x = 0 the normal is in the opposite direction nj dS = (ex )j dy and

2
0
1
2
=
.
ij nj =
0
2
0
0
Hence we get no net contribution from the two surfaces of S at x = 0, and x = L

Z L
Z L
2
2
0

+
dy =
ij nj (for x=0 and x=L) =
0
0
0
0
0
We now consider the side along y = L the normal is nj dS = (ey )j dx and thus

0
0
2
0
=
.
ij nj =
0
2
1
2
Along the side y = 0 the normal is in the opposite direction nj dS = (ey )j dx and

2
0
0
0
=
.
ij nj =
0
2
1
2
Hence we get no net contribution from the two surfaces of S at y = 0, and y = L

Z L
Z L
0
0
0

+
dx =
ij nj (for y=0 and y=L) =
0
0
2
2
0
Therefore we have for the x-component
Z
u(u n)dS =

Z
pnx dS
}
| V {z

x-comp from isotropic stress tensor

Z
|0

Z L
Z L
Z L
2 L3
2 L3
u(u)dy +
u(v)dx +
=
u(u)dy +
u(v)dx = 2 L3
2
2
{z
} | 0 {z
} |0
{z
}
}
| 0 {z

=0 at x=0

=0 at y=0

=2 L2 at x=L

=x(L) at y=L

and the y-component

Z

Z
v(u n)dS =

pny dS
| V {z
}

x-comp from isotropic stress tensor

Z
|0

L
2 L3
2 L3
v(u)dy +
v(u)dy +
v(v)dx +
v(v)dx =
+ 2 L3 =
2
2
| 0 {z
|0
{z
}
}
{z
} | 0 {z
}

=0 at x=0

=y(L) at x=L

=0 at y=0

=2 L2 at y=L

Note that you should obtain the same result using Bornoulllis theorem for irrotational flow and integrating
the pressure over the surface of the control volume.

Example 6
Show that the stress tensor Tij = pij for the flow
u
=
x
,
where
is constant.
Tensor notation:
ui = ikl k xl
The stress tensor then becomes:



uj
ui
Tij = pij +
+
=
xj
xi



pij +
(ikl k xl ) +
(jkl k xl ) =
xj
xi


x
x
pij + k ikl l + jkl l =
xj
xi
pij + k (ikl lj + jkl li ) =
pij + k (ikj + jki ) =
pij + k (ijk + ijk ) = pij