Induction Exercise

5 September 2009
Theresa Trejo, Nicole Deaver, Laura Wood

Definitions
A wide range of definitions of technology and its facets pervade education. Due to
the variety of interpretations and definitions of each component of technology,
instructional design, and instructional media, the field of technology continues to
evolve.

The term, educational technology, refers to the “study and ethical practice of
facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using, and managing
appropriate technological processes and resources” (Januszewski, Molenda &
Harris). True professionals in this field research using technology tools and
determine their effectiveness in an educational setting. Educators take on a
leadership role in the field of educational technology, evaluating its ability to affect
long-term learning and utilize resources and tools proven as productive in their
classrooms.

Many educators, researchers, and professionals in the field interchange the terms
educational technology and instructional technology; however, these terms connote
different meanings. Reiser (2001) mentions that instructional technology is often
viewed as the physical media, such as computers or cd-roms, through which
instructors present content. This verbiage leads to confusion among educators,
especially creating difficulty when districts determine technology standards and
teachers try to interpret them.

To create successful learning experiences using the most appropriate and valuable
technology resources, professionals in the field turn to instructional design to create
models for instructional programs. Professionals consider instructional design to be
the “process by which instruction is improved through the analysis of learning
needs and systematic development of learning materials” (Culatta, 2009). Various
models are most frequently used. Such models include ADDIE, rapid prototyping,
interactive design, and Dick and Carey.

The role of the designer determines which type of model they use. For instance,
professional instructional designers tend to gravitate towards a particular model
over another and continually use that model. A school district, on the other hand,
may primarily use rapid prototyping as a fast way to push out instructional
materials for the district to use as a whole. Testing particular materials with small
groups of teachers first allows them to gather data on their effectiveness, thus
helping them “sell” the materials to all schools and get them on board with their
instructional decision. Comparatively, a teacher that creates an instructional model
online will utilize such models as ADDIE or Dick and Carey to evaluate his or her
program directly. Among its important uses, instructional design allows educators
to create effective online courses by evaluating instructional strategies for the
transfer of content and skills knowledge rather than simply delivering content in the
same fashion, such as a lecture, only online rather than in person.
The symbiotic relationship between instructional design and instructional
technology naturally leads to a combination of the two terms and ideas. The term,
instructional design and technology refers to “the analysis of learning and
performance problems and the design, development, implementation, evaluation,
and management of instructional and non-instructional processes and resources
intended to improve learning and performance in a variety of settings in educational
institutions and the workplace (Reiser, 2001). Professionals combine the
technological research and evaluation aspects of educational technology with the
design aspects of instructional design to develop programs that best meet the
needs of their students or employees. Reiser (2001) asserts that instructional
design and technology follows the same basic protocol and includes the practices of
design, development, utilization and implementation, management, evaluation, and
analysis.

Educators, researchers, and professionals in the field of technology must agree on a

common language for this field, so they can continue to push the envelope and
develop the most effective instructional strategies and programs utilizing
technology. As technology resources and tools evolve, definitions may begin to
involve more components so as to include new advances in the field; however,
sharing the common thread of what each term means will keep the momentum for
the progress of the field.

History of the Field

The term technology has evolved since Homer and Hesiod first defined it as, “the spoken word
of manual craft or cunning skill” (Backer). The meaning has transformed dramatically since the
earliest days of its use, now not even remotely associated with educators’ vision of the spoken
word as a teacher’s drone lecture. Although the nomenclature regarding technology, instruction,
media, and all related arenas varies just as the pendulum of education swings, educators and
researchers in the field draw apparent parallels between technology yesterday, today, and
tomorrow. The concerns, innovations, and controversies in the field of educational technology
are cyclical, continuing to resurface as technology evolves over time.

Aristotle first utilized the term, technologia, and split technology into three facets: theoretical,
practical, and productive. Scientists, philosophers, and other well-respected men recognized the
productive arena of science as technology, thus sparking the “great debate” of technological
terminology. Most philosophers identified modern technology with a distinctive means of
thinking, rather than simply applied science (Backer). Today, “instructional technology” refers
to concrete media devices used to enhance learning and steers away from an abstract way of
thinking (Reiser, 2001).

Regardless of the term, instructional technology provides the vehicle by which educators relay
information to their students and help them retain it long-term. In the early 1900s school
“museums” became a popular means of showcasing instructional media for schools. This
catapulted the United States into the “visual instruction” movement. Teachers began using
stereographs, slides, films, study prints, and charts as part of their teaching repertoire. The first
school museum opened in Reading, Pa in 1905, and they blossomed around the country after
that. While this movement clearly drew America’s attention to technology in education, much
debate ensued about whether or not the instructional media should take a subordinate seat to the
teacher as the primary means of instruction (Reiser, 2001).

As a natural outcome of the visual instruction movement, visual education permeated American
schools in the early 1900s. The motion picture projector became the first instructional media
used in schools. In 1910, educational publication companies began to profit from this
movement, and one such company published the first catalog of instructional films for
educators. Visual education was so on the rise that in 1913 Thomas Edison stated that books
would become “obsolete” eventually and that in ten years the school system would entirely
change (Reiser, 2001). This idea that technology replaces pencil and paper remains popular
among fervent users of technology in the classroom even today. Between 1914 and 1923 five
national professional visual education organizations emerged, five professional journals
surfaced, over twenty education schools adopted courses in visual education, and about twelve
large school districts founded bureaus of visual education.

In the 1920s and 1930s the education industry experienced greater advances in radio, sound
recording, and sound motion pictures. This prompted interest in expanding audiovisual
instruction. The country invested $50 million into this type of instruction; however, the Great
Depression deemed this venture as practically fruitless. In 1932 three major audiovisual
organizations merged, birthing the Department of Visual Instruction. Publishers issued more
texts and instructional materials on how to present material using media, and its popularity
grew. Radio also became popular during this time (Reiser, 2001).

During World War II radio and audiovisual media use decreased in schools yet grew in the
military sector. Soldiers used this media to train more efficiently and quickly. Although use
decreased in education, it grew widespread in industry to train civilians to keep American jobs
alive during this time. Even new technologies emerged, such as the overhead projector, which is
still in use in schools today. Despite efforts to research how instructional media affects student
learning, scientists rarely shared these findings with the public, which led to less interest in
instructional technology in schools. Even so, after World War II, interest in media re-grew in the
school systems. “Media Comparison Studies” concluded that students learned equally when
presented with material from instructional media and the teacher (Reiser, 2001).

World War II became the catalyst for, not only radio training, but instructional design. With the
increasing uses for technology in both the educational world and the military and industry
sectors, trainers needed a method for analyzing trainee potential and determining how much
knowledge they could acquire in the training timeframe. The American Institutes for Research
began in the 1940s, and scientists began designing experiments to enhance training systems
(Reiser, 2001).

While instructional media presented a new method of communication, researchers began

studying and developing new theories of communication during this time. They created models
that highlighted the communication process. This process included the sender and receiver of
the message and the medium via which the message traveled. Researchers urged education
professionals not to ignore the sender and receiver of the message and simply focus on the
instructional media by which the information traveled (Reiser, 2001). In present day,
professionals in the education system continue to experiment, examine, conclude, and utilize
data on brain research, learning modalities, and various other variables related to cognitive
ability. Educators in the field of technology instruction strive to use technology as a means of
enhancing student learning in conjunction with brain and learning research and not solely in
isolation.

In addition to studying communication, scientists turned to B.F. Skinner and colleagues during
the mid-1950s and paid homage to his behaviorist philosophy. While educators continued to
introduce technology to their students, they did not turn their backs on the message sender and
recipient. They adopted Skinner's ideas about how the human brain functions and began
presenting a small portion of material at a time, giving prompt feedback to students.
Additionally, an interest in behaviorism grew, and teachers followed researchers like Robert
Mager and Benjamin Bloom who preached about measurable, behavioral objectives (Reiser,
2001). Teachers continue to use these behavioral objectives to allow their students to
demonstrate their knowledge of content and skills.

As a natural result of a measurable hierarchy of objectives, educators turned towards criterion-

referenced assessment and slowly backed away from norm-referenced assessment (Resier,
2001). Traditionally, teachers would score their students' assessments relative to other students'
performances. This did not solve the problem of determining exactly which skills the student
knew and which he or she did not know. As the teaching profession grew, especially with the
introduction of the No Child Left Behind Act and standardized state testing, school districts and
principals encouraged teachers to overtly explain objectives to students and to teach them how to
go about showing them they have learned the objectives. The dialogue between state and
district, district and school, and teacher and student began. Teachers began using instructional
media to support this newfound thinking about the way students learn best.

Throughout the 1950s the use of televisions for educational purposes grew. The Federal
Communications Commission designated 242 channels for use with educational material in
1952. By 1955 seventeen public educational television stations operated in the U.S.; by 1960
that number had grown to fifty. To fund this endeavor, the Ford Foundation spent about $170
million on educational television. During the mid-1960s educational television started to die
down because the programs became glorified lectures by teachers rather than innovative means
of delivery. In 1963 Ford focused more on public television rather than in-school television.
Several years later, it died down eventually due to teacher resistance, installation and
maintenance issues (Reiser, 2001). Today, these same problems arise with the introduction of
technology in schools. Teachers become afraid to try the new technology. They resist because
they do not have the time or energy to learn the new technology. Teachers are not equipped to
handle troubleshooting when issues arise because of the lack of training or a support team. It
costs money to update and maintain technology in schools as well.

By the 1950s IBM researchers had developed the first CAI author language and designed the
first program to use in schools. Many other researchers and designers created programs and
tools to utilize in schools. In 1983 educators used microcomputers in 40% of elementary schools
for instruction and 75% of secondary schools. Their compactness and ease of use led to their
appeal (Reiser). Today, these same attributes are attractive to educators. Teachers use mini
computers in their classrooms for word processing and internet use for a fraction of the price of a
full-sized laptop or desktop. Lofty, yet passionate, forecasts for the future continued to emerge.
In 1984 Papert stated that by 1990 we would have a one to one ratio of computers to students
(Reiser, 2001). This dream has yet to be realized. One reason this has not yet occurred may be
because most teachers during that time used computers solely for drill and practice or word
processing, not for communication, collaboration, and other valuable uses for technology. This
problem continues to this day.

More technology became available in schools since 1995. For instance, in 1998 schools had a
one to six ratio of computers to students. Fifty percent of schools had internet access, and it
grew to 90% in 1998. Although there was more of it, teachers still did not use the technology to
its full potential. Part of its appeal was the interaction the Internet provided between student and
instructor, between student and content, and among students (Reiser, 2001). Teachers could
create more engaging lessons using the technology and began to become leaders in the field. As
technology continues to advance, educators must face the repeated issues and innovations in the
field and continue to lead their students into the twenty-first century with the help of new
technologies.

Core Models

Throughout the course of history several primary models and cognitive philosophies have
advanced educational technology and molded it into what it is today.

ADDIE Model
The ADDIE model is an instructional systems design (ISD) used by instructional designers and
training developers as a framework to develop and evaluate the effectiveness of their programs.
ADDIE is the base to many other models used by instructors and Developers. The ADDIE
Model is created by the five- phase instructional design consisting of Analysis, Design,
Development, Implementation and Evaluation.
The Five phases of ADDIE are as follows:

Analysis Identifies the learning problem, the goals and objectives, the audience’s needs,
existing knowledge, and any other relevant characteristics. Many considerations are well
thought-out during the analysis stage such as the environment, delivery options and
timeline for the project.
Design Identifies the process of specific learning objectives. Detailed storyboards and
prototypes are made and the details are reviewed and determined.
Development The content and learning materials are created based on the design phase.
Implementation The plan is put into actions and procedure for training the learner and
teacher are developed. The materials are delivered and distributed to the groups who will
be using them.
Evaluation Formative evaluation is present in each stage of ADDIE. Summative
evaluation consists of tests designed to reference items and providing opportunities for
feedback from the users. Revisions will be made as necessary. (Kruse)

The ADDIE model has many advantages when used to help develop technology-based trainings.
When using a model such as this, designers, writers, and artists work together through the
process to develop a learner and teacher-friendly program.
Dick and Carey
The Dick and Carey model is
like the ADDIE model as it is
an instructional system design
(ISD) used by instructional
designers to support their
development and evaluation of
instructional designs. The
Dick and Carey model breaks
instruction down into smaller
components. The instruction
targets the skills and
knowledge to be taught and
then supplies the appropriate
conditions needed for the
learning of the decided
outcomes.

The Dick and Carey model is broken down into the following nine stages to guide the
development of instruction:

Stage 1 Instructional Goals: Identify instructional goals in terms of terminal or learning

behavior. What will the learner be able to do?
Stage 2 Instructional Analysis: Determine the skills involved in reaching a goal. What
skills are required to perform the task at hand?
Stage 3 Entry Behaviors and Learner Characteristics: Determine the skills the learning
will be bring to the learning tasks.
Stage 4 Performance Objectives: Translate the need and goals into specific and detailed
objectives.
Stage 5 Criterion-Referenced Test Items: Check the results of student learning during the
process and of a lesson.
Stage 6 Instructional Strategy: Outline how instructional activities will relate to the
accomplishment of the objectives.
Stage 7 Instructional Materials: Select printed or other media intended to convey events
of instruction.
Stage 8 Formative Evaluation: Provide data for revising and improving instruction
materials.
Stage 9 Revise Instruction: Revise the instruction
through evaluations.(Lee)
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Bloom’s Taxonomy is a multi-tiered model of classifying
thinking according to six cognitive levels of complexity. This
model is used to encourage professionals, educators and
researchers to develop their lessons and involvement to the
higher levels.
The tiers are defined as the following:
Remembering Retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge for long term
memory.
Understanding Constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic messages through
interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and
explaining.
Applying Carrying out or using a procedure through executing, or implementing.
Analyzing Breaking material into constituent parts, determining how the parts relate to
one another and to an overall structure or purpose through differentiating, organizing, and
attributing.
Evaluating Making judgments based on criteria and standards through checking and
critiquing.
Creating Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing
elements into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning, or producing.
(Cruz)

In the field of instructional technology it is important to consider each of these tiers when
looking at what the students learning goals are and how they are going to get to those goals.
Instructors should address both internal (cognitive) and external (activities) conditions to address
all learning goals.
Works Cited
Backer, D. P. (n.d.). Introduction History of Technology. Retrieved August 31, 2009, from San
Jose State University Web site: http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/pabacker/history/introduction.htm

Cruz, E. (2003). Bloom’s revised taxonomy. In B. Hoffman (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational

Technology. Retrieved September 1, 2009, from
http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/articles/bloomrv/start.htm

Culatta, R. (2009). Innovative Learning. Retrieved September 4, 2009, from

http://www.instructionaldesign.org

Januszewki, Molenda & Harris. Definitions. Definition and Terminology committee of the
Association for Educational Communication and Technology, 1-14.

Kruse, Keven. Introduction to Instructional Design and the ADDIE Model. Retrieved September
1, 2009, from httmp://www.e-learningguru.com/articles.htm

Lee, H. (2009). Dick and Carey Model. Retrieved September 1, 2009, from
http://www.umich.edu/~ed626/Dick_Carey/dc.html

Reiser, R. A. (2001). A History of Instructional Design and Technology. Educational

Technology Research and Development, 49(2), 53-67.