Experiment no.

7
Object:
a)
b)
c)

To perform the following hardness tests on the given specimens:

Rockwell Hardness Test
Vickers Hardness Test
Brinell Hardness Test

Equipment: Rockwell Hardness Tester, Vickers Hardness Tester, Brinell Hardness

Tester and testing specimens
Theory
Hardness while not lending itself readily to a comprehensive, exact
definition, may be generally termed as that property of a material which denotes
resistance to permanent deformation. It is also defined as resistance of material to
penetration under localized pressure.
A number of different definitions of hardness form the basis for the various
hardness tests now in use. Some of the definitions are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Penetration Hardness
Rebound Hardness Energy absorption under impact loads.
Resistance to scratching Scratch Hardness
Resistance to abrasion Wear Hardness
Resistance to cutting or drilling Machinability.

These definitions generally develop with the necessity for some way of
expressing quantitively, the performance requirements under different conditions of
service. Although all hardness measures are, no doubt, functions of inter-atomic
forces, the various hardness tests dont bring these fundamental forces into play in
the same way and hence different values of hardness obtained for the same material
under different types of tests. It must however be emphasized at any time hardness is
only on index to some particular property of the material.
Indentation hardness tests which are widely used and accepted, usually consist of
pressing an indentor of standard shape and size into the material to be tested, under a
given load. The hardness number is then based on depth of indentation produced by
a given load. The hardness testing machines based on indentation principle consist
mainly of the following parts.
1.
2.
3.

An indentor of definite shape and size.

A means of applying the known load.
A means of measuring the dimension of the impression made by the
indenter.

It may be noted that the property of hardness is only a relative

material and has no absolute value. Similar materials may be graded
hardness and a particular grade may be specified for same type of
hardness number cannot be utilized directly in design or analysis
compressive or shear strengths:

value of the
according to
surface. The
like tensile,

SCOPE AND APPLICATION OF HARDNESS TESTS

These tests have a wide field of use, although as commercial tests, they are
perhaps more commonly applied to metals than to any other class of material. The
results of a hardness test may be utilized as follows:
1.
Similar materials may be graded according to hardness, and a particular
grade, as indicated by a hardness test may be specified for some one type of service.
However, the degree of hardness chosen depends upon previous experience with
materials under the given service and not upon any instruisic significance of the
hardness number.
2.
Hardness tests are useful in process control and research. The progress of
annealing and the results of cold working can be followed quickly and easily by
hardness measurement. Thus, annealing time temperature relationships can be
established for cold worked materials and the limits of strain hardening for annealed
pieces which are being cold worked can be determined. The success or failure of
heat treatment cycles (including surface hardening for steel can be ascertained by
measuring the hardness after quenching and again after tempering. Hardness
measurements can be used to determine the best combinations of time and
temperature for temperature and precipitation hardening.
Simple hardness
measurements can occasionally aid in separating mixed batches of components,
enabling detection of foreign compositions and of parts that have been either
improperly heat treated or not heat treated at all.
3.
By establishing a correlation between hardness and some other desired
property e.g. tensile strength, simple hardness tests may serve to control the
uniformly of the tensile strength and to indicate rapidly whether more complete tests
are warranted.
Penetration and rebound type tests: Because of simplicity, these have become
one of the important quality control tests for metals. These are relatively
inexpensive, require little experience for their conduct and are non-destructive.
Abrasion or wear tests have found their principal use in connection with paving
materials and a number of such tests have been standardized. Scratch test is one of
the earliest measures of hardness and is based on the hardness of materials. The
scale known as Mohrs scale begins with talc as 1 and ends with diamonds as 10.
Iron and steel range in hardness from 4 to 5, depending on the alloy content and heat
treatment.

For determining the mach-inability of metals, various special tests have been
proposed. The hardness reported as the depth of hole made by special drill in a
given time while running at a constant speed and pressure is sometimes called Baur
drill test.
Rockwell Hardness Test: The Rockswell hardness is a penetration type of hardness
test and the hardness, thus determined is a function of the depth of impression made
by the penetration on the specimen.
Requirement of specimens: Two types specimen holders are generally provided
one to hold flat specimens and other to hold round specimens. As far as possible,
the specimens should be finely machined and there should not be local surface
irregularities.
Description of machine: The Rockwell hardness tester may be either hand operated
or motor operated, but because the loads to be applied in the test are quite small,
hand operated machines in which the loads are manually handled are quite
commonly in use. For ease of conducting the test, portable type of Rockwell
Hardness Testers, which can be easily moved from place to place, are also available.
The principle of working of all these machines, however, is the same.
The load is applied through a system of weights and levers and the
Penetrator may either be a steel ball or it may be a diamond cone with a somewhat
rounded point. The hardness value as read from a specially graduated dial indicater,
is an arbitrary number that is related inversely to the depth of indentation. It should
be noted that there is no Rockwell hardness value designated by a number alone,
because it is necessary to indicate which indenter and load have been employed in
working the test. The dial of all Rockwell Hardness testers have two sets of figures,
one red and the other black, which differ by 30 hardness number. The red figures
are the B scale and are used for readings obtained with ball indenters and the
black figures are the C scale which is used by only with diamond cone. The B
scale is for the testing materials of medium hardness such as low and medium
carbon steels in the annealed conditions. The working range of this scale is from 0
to 100. If the ball indenter is used to test material harder than about B 100, there is
danger that it will be flattened. Furthermore, because of its shape (i.e. round), the
ball is not so sensitive as the rounded conical indenter to differences in hardness of
hard specimens. If the 1/16 dia ball is used on materials softer than B o, there is
danger that the cap of the indenter that holds the ball in place will make contact with
the specimen.
The C scale is the one most commonly used for materials harder that B100.
The hardest steels run about C 70. Any inaccuracies that occur in grinding the
diamond cone to its proper shape have proportionally greater effect on small
indentations, and it should therefore not be used below C 20. A scale is the same as
scale C. Indenter used is also the same. However, load used in this case is small.
This scale is used for case hardened steels.

In general, a scale should be selected to employ the smallest ball that can
properly be used because of the loss of sensitivity as the size of indenter increases.
An exception to this is when soft non-homogeneous material is to be tested in which
case, it may be preferable to use a larger ball that makes an indentation of greater
area, thus obtaining more of an average hardness.
Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine used in the laboratory in shown in Fig.4
and its various components are also labelled. This machine essentially consists of (i)
a measuring dial with three scales A, B & C. One of these scales shall be used with
a particular type of indenter as specified in Table 1. (ii) A diamond holder to hold
the indenter (iii) A main screw, which moves up and down and the specimen is
placed on the platform of this screw. (iv) A lever for applying the load (v) A zero
setting screw for initial adjustment of the pointer to zero of A & C scales or 30 of B
scale. (vi) Hand wheel for moving the screw up and down.
Table 1
Loads and Indenters for Rockwell Hardness Tester
A Scale

B Scale

C Scale

Initial Load

10 kg

10 kg

10 kg

Major Load

60kg

60+100 = 160 kg

60+100+50 = 310 kg

Indenter

Diamond 1200

Steel Ball
1/16 dia

Diamond 1200

Initial pointer
position on dial at

o outer scale

B 30
inner scale

o outer scale

Suitable for

Tests of case
hardened steels

Annealed or
hardened and
tempered steel,
Non-ferrous metals

Annealed or
hardened and
tempered or case
hardness steel

PROCEDURE
1. Put the weights on the plunger, according to the Rockwell scale as specified
in Table 1.
2. Keep the lever pointing towards the operators side
3. Place specimen securely on the testing platform of the main screw.
4. Use the zero adjusting screw to roughly bring the small pointer to zero and
the long pointer to zero of outer scale (B-30 inner scale).
5. Turn the hand wheel clockwise so that the specimen pushes the indenter and
will show a reading 0w dial gauge. The small pointer will be at 3 and the

6.
7.
8.
9.

long pointer close to zero of the outer scale. Fine adjustment is made by zero
setting screws.
The major load should now be applied. To do this, turn the lever clockwise to
other position.
As soon as the pointer reaches a steady position, take back the lever to its
original position. By this way, major load is removed and only minor load
remains active.
Note down the reading of the long pointer. This gives the direct reading of
the hardness of the specimen.
Remove the specimen by turning the hand wheel in the anticlockwise
direction.

PRECAUTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.

The load must be placed according to the specifications given in Table.1.

While pressing the specimen, the small pointer must not move beyond 3.
The long pointer must be set at zero, with the help of zero setting screw.
Handle the indenter carefully

VICKERS HARDNESS TEST

A regular pyramid having a square basis and smoothened off point made of
diamond is pressed in the material to be tested under a load P. The produced
impression is projected on a focussing screen, while the diagonals of the impression
are measured by means of measuring equipment. The indenter in this case is a
square based diamond pyramid in which the angle between the opposite faces is
136o. The load may be varied from 5 to 120 kg, generally in increments of 5 kg. The
hardness number is determined from the ratio P/A of the load P in kilograms to the
surface area A of the indentation in square milli-meters.
The test is specially suitable for small, hard and thin specimens (as thin as
0.006). It is said to be accurate for hardness as high as 1300 (about 850 Brinell).
The Vickers hardness is a good criterion of the wearing qualities of nitrated steel.
One advantage that is sometimes claimed of the Vickers hardness measurement is
that more accurate measurements can be made of the diagonals of a square than can
be made of the diameter of a circle.
The Vickers Hardness Number (VHN) is a function of the size of the
impression made and is measured by load per unit area and the expression for it
comes out to be
VHN = (Px1.854) d2
Where P is the load and d is the diagonal length of the square impression
made. Often tables are provided from which once the diagonal size of the
impression made is known, Vickers hardness can be directly read.

Description of the machine.

Various types of Vickers hardness testers are available. These may differ in
(i) method of applying load i.e. oil pressure, gear driven screw etc. (ii) method of
operation i.e. hand or power (iii) method of measuring load i.e piston with weights,
bourdon gage, dynamometer, weights with lever and (iv) size i.e. large (laboratory
size) or portable. Vickers test can also be made in a universal testing machine if a
suitable adapter is available. The principle of operation of all these machines,
however is similar.
Sometimes the same machine can be used to perform the Brinell & Vickers
test. One such machine manufactured by Blue & Star is installed in Material Testing
Laboratory of C.A.E, PAU, Ludhiana is shown in Fig. (5). The various components
of the machine are also shown in the diagram.
The machine has a bow shaped frame of heavy construction. The upper part
is covered with a cover. The back of frame is closed with real wall.
On the substructure of the frame, there is a ball bearing hand wheel, in the
centre bore of which a spindle is screwed in. The spindle is capable of being
adjusted.
Facing the upper part of the frame the supporting table is inserted in the bore
of the spindle. Vertically above it, in the upper part of the frame there is the
swiveling part to which the thrust piece and the vertical illuminant of the projector
are fastened.
The thrust piece has been designed for fixing a penetrator, while the
objective corresponding to the requirements of the technique of measuring may be
screwed in the vertical illuminant. The objective is interchangeable.
All parts are enclosed by the open clamping sleeve which is meant for
clamping the specimen against the supporting table during the test processes and to
protect the penetrator and the objective against damages.
The swiveling part is pivoted in the pressure bush which, for its part, is
carried in six ball bearings applied to fair load bush. This fair load bush is rigidly
connected with the frame. The eyepiece along with prism of the projector is screwed
in the top of the pressure bush. On the support, there is the solenoid. The tie rod
connects it with swiveling part.
The lever is carried in the fair load bush. It is meant for transmitting the load
produced by the weights to the penetrator which is inserted in the swiveling part.
One part of the double armed levers rests upon the oil brake which is attached to the
frame while the other part is provided with a balance weight.

The oil brake is intended for uniformly applying the test load. It consists of
cylinderical housing and a piston rod along with piston which moves in the housing
of the oil brake. The piston rod is provided with two knurled nuts for adjusting and
locking the adjustment. The hexagonal screw and an outlet pipe are meant for
draining the oil out of the oil brake when the oil is being changed. The hangers are
fastened to the level by a fork. They consist of a rod along with the plate and the
weights.
The hardness impressions are measured by means of the measuring
equipment. It consists of the housing, which contains the graduated focussing screen
and the graduated clear screen. Furthermore, a Vernier scale is applied to the
focussing screen. In the normal position, the two screws may be horizontally shifted
by means of a turning knob. At right there is a graduated micrometer, by means of
which the clear screen that is arranged above the focussing screen may be separately
adjusted. Two marks staggered by 900 are applied to the periphery of measuring
equipment.
An illuminating device is provided for lighting the impression through the
vertical illuminant. A lamp having a power of 30 watts is inserted in a socket. The
switch that may be operated from outside is meant for switching in the hardness
testing machine.
Operation of the machine.
The switch being turned on, the lamp for the projecting and measuring
equipment if flashing shows that the electrical equipment is alive.
While the hand wheel is turned to the right, the spindle along with the
supporting table and the specimen put on are lifted and moved against the clamping
bush, until the superficial structure of the specimen is sharply imaged on the
focussing screen.
By pushing one of the push buttons corresponding to the load stages to be
adjusted, the appropriate ring of the supporting frame changes its position.
The controlling current key is pressed. The solenoid is made alive through
the contacts of the pressed key. The solenoid turns the swiveling part by means of
the tie rod up to an adjusted step by which the penetrater is swiveled in. The belt is
released so that the hangers fastened to the lever are able to lower by its own weight.
The rate of lowering depends upon the adjustment of oil brake. By lowering, the
load hangers displace the lever in the pressure bush. Thus the inserted penetrator sits
on the specimen. The amount of load adjusted with the push button consequently
becomes effective and makes the impression.
While the lever is displacing, the limit step switch is closed which after the
controlling current key has been released, starts supplying the electromagnet with
current.

On the expiry of the loading time (normally 10 to 30 seconds) depending

upon the material to be tested, the hand lever is pushed down to the lower position
and relieved slowly till it takes its proper position.
Being lighted through the vertical illuminant and the objective the
impression made on the test specimen is imaged on the focussing screen of the
measuring equipment by way of the eye piece and an eye piece prism. The
impression is magnified according to the objective used.
The hand wheel being turned to the left, the supporting table with the
specimen put on it lowers, so that the specimen may conveniently be removed.
PROCEDURE
1.

Corresponding to the method of test and the load stage required the
penetrator- ball holder along with a ball and thrust piece should be
inserted and fastened in the thrust piece of the machine. The suitable
objective is inserted. The hardness test may be carried out even without
the clamping sleeve, if the shape of specimen requires it. In such a case
however, suitable measures should be taken for holding the specimen on
its support.

2.

The load stage fixed should be adjusted with the corresponding push
button. The push button which was engaged before must be released.

3.

Adjust the oil break.

4.

Turn the switch on. The lamp for the projecting device flashes indicating
that the electrical equipment is alive.

5.

Support the standard hardness test plate or the specimen. Hand wheel
should be turned to the right until the surface of the specimen is sharply
imaged on the focussing screen of the measuring equipment.

6.

Adjust the clamping sleeve. The cap nut should be turned to the left so
that the clamping sleeve clamps the specimen.

7.

Push the controlling current key and do not release it before the hand
lever starts rising. Then release the controlling current key. Wait until the
hand lever stands still. The time of loading should be 30 seconds.

8.

On expiry of loading time, push the hand lever as far as the step device is
engaged. The objective is switched in, while the impression is being
sharply focused on the measuring equipment.

9.

Measure the dimensions of the impression.

EFFECT OF IMPORTANT VARIABLES.

The rate of applying the land on the specimen has a definite effect on the
hardness test. If the land is applied very rapidly, there is momentary increase in
load (that it intended to be applied) due to the inertia of the piston and weights.
This causes an enlargement of the impression made. On the other hand, the rapid
penetration allows less time for the plastic flow of the material resulting in
decreased size of the indentation. It has been confirmed experimentally that the
first effect of enlargement is much greater than the second effect. By exercising
care in operating the load mechanism, this inertial effect may be reduced.
PRECAUTIONS
1. The surface of the specimen should be flat and reasonably well polished.
2. When operating the hardness tester, never force any part of the operating
mechanism.
3. Tester should rest on solid supports free of vibrations.
4. If it is doubtful that a material can be tested with one type of indenter, use the
next harder indenter. This avoids damage to the penetrater.
5. Diagonal length of impression (diameter of impression in Brinell test) should
be measured very accurately to reduce the error in computed hardness.
BRINELL HARNESS TEST
A ball having a diameter D is pressed in the material to be tested under a
load P while diameterd of the produced impression is measured.
The Brinell Method applies so frequently not only because of the easy
working but also because for some materials tensile strength can be derived from
Brinell hardness. The inter-relation between the Brinell harness and the tensile
strength however, gives only approximate values and it does not mean that it can
replace tensile test.
The Brinell method applies especially to cast iron, unhardened steel and light
metals. It is restricted to materials having Brinell hardness of 400 kgm 2 in
maximum, lest to penetrater (steel ball) should be deformed.
The Brinell test relies on mechanical or hydraulic loads as large as 3000 kg
acting through a 10-mm hard steel or carbide ball. In order to compensate for the
variations in the response of materials to the application of the load, the time for
which the load is applied should be specified. The time of loading should be 10
seconds. However for creeping materials such as zinc, lead etc the loading time
should be longer than 10 seconds. Any loading time deviating from 10 seconds

should be particularly noted in the test record. After the load is removed, diameter of
the impression made by the ball is measured in millimeters. The Brinell Hardness
Number (BHN) is the quotient of the load P divided by the area A of the impression.
B. H. N. =
(D-

P
D2-d2) D/2

In practice, BHN is read directly from a table list in various values of d for
various values of P and D.
The Brinell test makes a large impression on the surface of the piece tested.
Unless such a large impression can be tolerated, the test may be considered
destructive. However, the large impression is advantageous because it gives a more
representative result than a smaller impression which is more sensitive to local soft
or hard homogeneities. The larger size of the impression also renders the test less
sensitive to the presence of rough surface finish and mill scale.
Tensile strength of a steel specimen can be approximately estimated by
knowing the Brinell hardness number. This is known as Dohmars law.
Tensile strength
(psi)

= 515 times B.H.N.

(for B.H.N. less than 175)
= 490 times B.H.N.
(for B.H.N. greater than 175)

It should be remembered that Dohmars law gives only approximate values

and that only for steel.
Description of machine: The same machine as described under Vickers test is used
for Brinell test. The indenter in the machine is of course changed from diamond
pyramid to steel ball. The mode of operation is also the same except that in this case
dia of impression is measured instead of diagonals of the square impression.
Procedure: In conducting a test, the specimen is placed in the anvil and raised by a
screw until it is close to the point of indenter. The load is now slowly applied (in
about 10 seconds) on the indenter and then released. The dimensions of the
impression made are measured by a suitable arrangement provided in the machine.
All steps involved in operation are the same as discussed under Vickers hardness
testing.
Precautions: Same as discussed in Vickers hardness testing
Brinell Hardness Range: The Brinell hardness range of various materials is given
in Table. 2

Table 2
Following load stages should be used in the Brinell hardness test:
Material

Hardness Range

Soft iron steel, Steel Casting Malleable Iron, Cast Iron

67 - 500 HB

Light alloys, casting and forging alloys, Die-casting

alloys, Copper, Brass, Brozise, Nickel

22 - 315 HB

Pure Aluminum, Magnesium, Zinc, Cast Brass

11 - 158 HB

Bearing metals

6 - 78 HB

Lead

3 - 39HB

Soft metal at elevated temperature

1 - 15HB

Moreover care must be taken that the diameterd of the ball impression
ranges within 0.2 - 0.7 of the ball dia D.
Limitations of Brinell Hardness Test:
1. It cannot be used for very thin specimens.
2. It cannot be used for extremely hard materials, due to deformation of the indenter.
3. It cannot be used for surface hardened materials since the depth of penetration
may exceed the depth of case.
4. Hardness values of more than 450 to 500 are only broadly comparative.