CHAPTER 1: ELECTRICITY

Two basic particles of electric charge:

Electron

Proton
Basic forms of atom:

Solid

Liquid

Gas
Parts of

charges
Electron

charge
0.16 x 10-18 C

Ion

Qe or multiples Qe

Hole

0.16 x 10-18 C

Negative
Positive or
negative
Positive

Ohms Law:
Voltage = current x resistance
Electrical Characteristics:

atom:
Proton
Nucleus
Electron

Characteris
tic
Charge
Current
Voltage
Resistance
Conductance

Symbol

Unit

Formulas

Q
I
V
R
G

Coulomb(C)
Ampere (A)
Volt (V)
Ohm ()
Siemens (S)

Q=IxT
I = Q/T
V=IxR
R = V/I
G = 1/R

ADDITIONAL LECTURES:

Shells of Orbital Electrons in the Atom:

MaximumElectr
ons
2
8
8 (up to calcium)
or 18
8, 18, or 32
8 or 18
8 or 18
8

Shell
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q

Inert Gas
Helium
Neon

Methods of electron emissions:

Thermionic Emission (Hot Cathode)

Photoelectric Emission

Secondary Emission

High-field emission (Cold Cathode)

Types of Vacuum Tubes:

Argon
Krypton
Xenon
Radon
-

Vacuum tube diode (Fleming Valve)

Triode (Audion Tube)

Tetrode

Pentode

Beam Power Tube

Maximum number pf electrons in a filled inner shell: 2n2

Stable Particles in the Atom:

Particle
Electron, in
orbital shells
Proton, in nucleus
Neutron, in
nucleus

Charge
0.16x10-18 C,
negative
0.16x10-18 C,
positive

Mass

None

1.675 x 10-24 g

9.108 x 10-24 g
1.672 x 10-24 g

Vacuum Tube Coefficients:

Amplification Factor ()

V p
V AK
=
=
V g
V GK

Basic Law of Electricity:

Charges of opposite polarity attract

Charges of same polarity repels

Coulomb Charge Constant:
6.25 x 1018 C
1 electron or Qe = 0.16 x 10-18 C
1 C = 6.25 x 1018 electrons

onejouleof
work
onevolt
=
coulombofc
harge

Types of Electric Charges for Current:

Type of

current
Electron
flow
Ion
current
Hole
current

Amount of

Polarity

Type of

Plate Resistance (rp)

VP
rp =
IP
Transconductance (gm)

V p
gm=
I g

 = gm x rp
o

Number of electrons (Ne): Ne = 2n2

Where: n = correspond to 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc orbit
Broad Categories of Materials:
Resistivity
Values
=10-6 -cm
Conductor
(copper)
=50 -cm (Ge)
Semiconductor
=50x103 -cm
(Si)
1012 -cm
Insulator
(mica)
Materials

Energy Level Diagram:

Insulator
Semiconductor
Eg = 1.1eV (Si)
Eg = 0.62eV (Ge)
Eg>5eV
Eg = 1.41eV
(GaAs)

Energy:
W=QV
The charge Q:
Q=1.6x10-19 C
Work in Joules:
1eV=1.6x10-19 J

Temperature
Coefficient

Rdc =

AC resistance
Rac = Rj + Rb
o
Where;
Rb = bulk resistance (rp +rn)
Rj = junction resistance
=

Positive
Negative
Negative

Vd
Id

26mV
Id

Diode Parameter:

PIV (Peak Inverse Voltage)

RSC (Reverse Saturation Current)

Surface Leakage Current

Conductor
Eg = 0
CHAPTER 2: RESISTORS
Color Code of Resistors:
COLOR
CODE
Black
0
Brown
1
Red
2
Orange
3
Yellow
4

COLOR
Green
Blue
Violet
Gray
White

CODE
5
6
7
8
9

How to Read Resistors Stripes:

Types of Semiconductors:

Elemental
o
Silicon (Si)
o
Germanium (Ge)

Compound
o
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)

Schematic Symbols of Resistors:

Class of Semiconductors:

Intrinsic

Extrinsic
Type of Material of Semiconductors:

N-Typed Material (Donor Atom)

o
Phosphorus (P)
o
Antimony (Sb)
o
Arsenic (As)

P-Typed Material (Acceptor Atom)

o
Boron (B)
o
Aluminum (Al)
o
Gallium
o
Indium (I)
Schematic diagram of semiconductor:

Resistance levels of semiconductor:

DC or static resistance

Fixed

Variable

Tapped

Potentiomete
r

Comparison of Resistor Types:

Carbon Type Resistor
Wire Wound Resistor
Carbon granules in binder
Turns of resistance wire
R up to 20M
R down to a fraction of 1
Color-coded for resistance
Resistance printed on circuit
value
For low-current circuits;
For high-current circuits,
power ratings of 1/10 to 2W
rating of 5 to over 100W
Low-resistance rheostats for
Variable potentiometers and
varying current;
rheostats to 5M, for
potentiometers up to 50k
controls such as volume and
for voltage divider in power
tone in receivers
supply

CHAPTER 3: OHMS LAW

Ohms Law

PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 + P5 + + PN

V
I=
R

V
R=
I

V =IR

OR Gate Functions:
Switches
Lamp
A
B
Open
Open
ON
Open
Closed
ON
Closed
Open
ON
Closed
Closed
OFF

Where:
I =current (ampere)
R = resistance (ohm)
V = voltage (volt)
Power

Power
=

work
time

CHAPTER 6: SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS

Work

Work= power
time
1
1
1
1

joule = 1watt-second
watt = 1joule/second
joule = 1 volt-coulomb
watt = 1 volt-ampere

Comparison of Series and Parallel Circuits

Series Circuits
Parallel Circuits
Current the same in all
Voltage the same across all
components.
branches
V across each series R is I x
I in each branch R is V/R
R
VT = V1 + V2 + V3 + + VN
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + + IN
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + + RN
GT = G 1 + G 2 + G 3 + + G N
RT must be more than the
REQ must be less than the
largest individual R
smallest branch R
PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + + PN
PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + + PN
Applied voltage is divided
Main-line current is divided
into IR voltage drops
into branch currents
The largest IR drop is across
The largest branch I is in the
the largest series R
smallest parallel R
Open in one component
Open in one branch does
causes entire circuit to be
not prevent I in other
open.
branches

1hp = 746 watts = Kilowatts = 550 ft-lb/s

1 joule = 6.25 x 1018eV
Conversion Factors:
Prefix

Symbol

Mega

Kilo
Milli

k
m

Micro

Relation to
Basic Unit
1,000,000 or 1 x
106
1000 or 1 x 103
0.001 or 1 x 10-3
0.000001 or 1 x
10-6

Power Formulas:
P=VI

P=I2R

P=V2/R
CHAPTER 7: VOLTAGE AND CURRENT DIVIDERS

Practical Units of Electricity:

Coulomb

Ampere

6.25 x
1018
electrons

coulomb
second

Volt
joule

Watt
joule

Ohm
volt

coulomb second ampere

Siemen
s

Voltage Dividers:

ampere

V=

volt

R
VT
RT

Current Dividers:

I=
CHAPTER 5: PARALLEL CIRCUITS

R2
IT
R1+R2

G
IT
GT
1
G=
R
I=

Total Current:
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 + I5 + + IN
Total Resistance:

1
1
1
1
= + + +...+etc.
REQ R1 R2 R3
REQ =

RS =

If R is equal in all branches;

Total Power:

Type of Multimeters:

VOM

DMM
Shunt resistance:

R1R2
R1+R2

REQ =

CHAPTER 8: DIRECT CURRENT METERS

R
n

VM
IS

Resistance of a multiplier:

Rmult=

full- scale
V
- rM
full- scale
I

Kirchoffs Current Law (KCL)

IIN = IOUT
Multiple Voltages Scale Readings:
10V Scale, Rv = 10000
25V Scale, Rv = 25000
Scale
Scale
Meter
Deflectio
Meter
Deflectio
Readin
Reading
, mA
n
, mA
n
g, V
,V
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.5

5
0.2
2/10
5
1.0
Full scale
10
0.4
4/10
10
0.5

12.5
1.0
Full scale
25

Kirchoffs Voltage Law (KVL)

V=VT

CHAPTER 10:
NETWORK THEOREMS
Thevenins Theorem

Characteristics of a Voltmeter:
25
10
50
250
1000

50k
200k
1M
5M
20M

20000
20000
20000
20000
20000

/V
/V
/V
/V
/V
Nortons Theorem

Correction for Loading Effect:

V =VM +

R1R2
VM
RV(R1+R2)

Calibration of Ohmmeter:
0

1500

1500

750

1500

2250

2/3

1500

1500

3000

3000

1500

4500

1/3

150000

1500

151500

0.01

500000

1500

501500

Comparison of VOM and DMM:

VOM
Analog pointer reading
DC voltmeter changes with
range
Zero-ohms adjustment
changed for each range
Ohms ranges up to R x
10000, as a multiplying
factor

Full
scale
2/3
scale
scale
1/3
scale
1/100
scale
none

0
750
1500
3000
150000

Thevenin Norton Conversion:

Using Ohms Law:
V=IR; I=V/R

DMM
Digital readout
DC voltmeter is 10 20M, the
same on all ranges
No zero-ohms adjustments
Ohms ranges up to 20M; each
range is the maximum

Millmans Theorem

V1 V2 V3
+
+
R1
R2
R3 ....etc
VXY =
1
1
1
+
+
R1 R2 R3

Direct Current Meters:

Power on in
circuit
Connect in
parallel
High internal
resistance
Has internal
series multipliers;
higher resistance
for higher ranges

Power on in
circuit
Connect is series
Low internal
resistance
Has internal
shunts; lower
resistance for
higher current
ranges

CHAPTER 9: KIRCHOFFS LAW

Power off in
circuit
Connect in
parallel
Has Internal
Battery
Higher battery
voltage and more
sensitive meter
for higher ohms
ranges

Tee (Tee) or Y (WYE) Network

or Network

Cadmium
Nickel
Lead
Hydrogen
(reference)
Copper
Mercury
Silver
Gold

-0.40
-0.23
-0.13
0.00
+0.35
+0.80
+0.80
+1.36

Sizes for Popular Types of Dry Cells:

Height,
Diameter,
Size
in.
in
D
2
1
C
1
1
AA
1 7/8
9/16
AAA
1
3/8

Conversions of Y to , or T to :

R1R2 +R2R3 +R3R1

R1
R1R2 +R2R3 +R3R1
RB =
R2
R1R2 +R2R3 +R3R1
RC =
R3
RA =

CHAPTER 13: MAGNETISM

Conversions:
1
1
1
1

Conversions of Y, to T:

RBRC
RA +RB+RC
RCRA
R2 =
RA +RB+RC
RARB
R3 =
RA +RB+RC
R1=

Wb = 100 lines or Mx
Wb = 1 x 108 lines or Mx
T = 1 x 104 G
Mx/cm2 = 1 G

Flux Density (B):

B=

Classification of Magnetic Materials:

Ferromagnetic Materials

Paramagnetic Materials

Paramagnetic Materials

Diamagnetic Materials

CHAPTER 12: BATTERIES

Cell Types and Open Circuit Voltage:
Cell Name

Type

Carbon Zinc
Zinc Chloride
Manganese
Dioxide (Alkaline)
Mercuric Oxide
Silver Oxide
Lithium
Lead Acid
Nickel Cadmium
Nickel Iron
(Edison Cell)
Silver Zinc
Silver Cadmium

Primary
Primary
Primary or
Secondary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Secondary
Secondary

1.5
1.35
1.5
3.0
2.1
1.25

Secondary

1.2

Secondary
Secondary

1.5
1.1

Open Circuit Voltage of the Lead Acid Cell:

V = specific gravity + 0.84
Internal Resistance of the Battery:

ri =

Nominal Open
Circuit Voltage
1.5
1.5

VNL - VL
IL

Electromotive Series of Elements:

Potential
Element
,V
Lithium
-2.96
Magnesiu
-2.40
m
Aluminum
-1.70
Zinc
-0.76

Magnetic Flux () and Flux Density (b)

Name

Symbol

CGS Units

Flux or total
lines

= B x area

1 maxwell
(Mx) = 1line

Flux density,
or lines per
unit area

B=

1 gauss (G)

MKS or SI
Units
1 weber
(Wb) = 108
Mx
1 Tesla (T) =

1Mx

1Wb

2
cm

2
m

CHAPTER 14: MAGNETIC UNITS

International System of MKS Units (SI) for Magnetism:
Quantity
Symbol
Unit
Flux
Weber (Wb)

Flux Density
B
Wb/cm2 = Tesla (T)
Potential
mmf
Ampere turn (A . t)
Field
Ampere turn per meter ( A .
H
Intensity
t/m)
Ampere turn per weber ( A .
Reluctance
R
t/Wb)
Weber per ampere turn
Permeance
= 1/R
(Wb/A . t)
Relative
r or Km
None
= r x
B
tesla
(T)
=
Permeability
1.26 x 106

CGS Units:

For mmf: gilbert (Gb)

o
1 A.t = 1.26 Gb

ampere
- turn
permeter
(A . t/m)

Voltage
:
0.635

For field intensity: oersted (Oe)

A.

t
m

Oe

= 0.0125

A.

t
m

Permeability:
o
o = 1G/Oe

Coulombs Law:

F = 9109

q1q2
r2

Where:
F = force in Newton
q1, q2 = charge in coulombs
r = distance in meters
9 x 109 = constant factor
CHAPTER 15: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

vind=N

d
dt

T=

1
f

Wavelength:

N = number of turns

d
dt

Common Frequencies:
Applicatio
Frequencies
ns
AC Power
60 Hz
Line
50 15,000
Audio
Hz
Equipment
535 1605
AM Radio
kHz
Band
TV Channel
54-60 MHz
2
FM Radio
88 108 MHz
Band
Period:

Faradays Law:

Where:

RMS value = 0.707 x peak value

= in webers per second

velocity
frequency

CHAPTER 16: ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

Values in a Sine Wave:
Angle
Sin
Degre
Radian
es
s
0
0
0
30
45
60
90
180
270
360

3
2
2

Wavelength of Sound Waves:

Loop
Voltage
zero

1130ft/s
f Hz

CHAPTER 17: INDUCTANCE

0.5

50% of
maximum

Formula of Inductance:

0.707

70.7% of
maximum

L=

0.866

86.6% of
maximum

1
0
-1
0

Positive
maximum
value
Zero
Negative
maximum
value
Zero

vL
di
dt

L = r

N2A
1.2610-16 H
l

1mH = 1 x10-3 H
1H = 1 x 10-6 H
Self induced Voltage:

vL =L

di
dt

Coefficient of Coupling:
Derivation of Average and RMS Values for a Sine Wave
Alternation
Interv
Angle
Sin
al

1
15
0.26
0.07
2
30
0.5
0.25
3
45
0.71
0.5
4
60
0.87
0.75
5
75
0.97
0.93
6
90
1
1
7
105
0.97
0.93
8
120
0.87
0.75
9
135
0.71
0.5
10
150
0.5
0.25
11
165
0.26
0.07
12
180
0
0
Total
7.62
6
Averag
RMS Value:
e
0.707

k=

fluxlinkage
between
L1andL2
fluxproduced
byL1

Mutual Impedance:

LM = k L1x L2
Turns Ratio:

Turns
Ratio=

NP
NS

Current Ratio:
VS IS = VPIP
Transformer Efficiency:
Efficiency =
Energy:

Pout
100%
Pin

1
2

= LI2

Energy =

Conversion of rs or RP:
X2
rs = L
Rp

CHAPTER 26: RESONANCE

XL2
Rp =
rs

Resonant Frequency:

fr =

1
2 LC

CHAPTER 27: FILTERS

Typical Audio Frequency and Radio Frequency Coupling
Capacitors:
Values of CC
Frequen
Frequency
R=
R=
R=
cy
Band
1.6k
16K
160k
Audio
100Hz
10F
1F
0.1F
Frequency
Audio
1000Hz
1F
0.1F
0.01F
Frequency
Audio
10kHz
0.1F
0.01F
0.001F
Frequency
Radio
100kHz
0.01F
0.001F
100pF
Frequency
Radio
1MHz
0.001F
100pF
10pF
Frequency
Radio
10MHz
100pF
10pF
1pF
Frequency
Very High
100MHz
10pF
1pF
0.1pF
Frequency
XCc = 1/10 R

Capacitance:

C=

1
2

4 fr2L

Inductance:

L=

1
2

4 fr2C

Q of Series Circuit:

Q=

XL
rs

Voltage Output in Series Resonance:

VL = VC = Q Vgen

Q in a Series Resonant Circuit:

Q=

Vout
Vin

Q in a Parallel Resonant Circuit:

Q=

ZEQ
XL

Bandwidth of Resonant Circuit:

f =

fr
Q

High-Q Circuit:

ZEQ =

Z1Z2
Z1 +Z2

Comparison of Series and Parallel Resonance:

Series Resonance
Parallel Resonance
fr =

1
2

fr =

LC

I maximum at fr with of 0.
Impedance Z minimum at fr.
Q=

Vout
XL
orQ =
r
V
s
in

Bandwidth =

f =

fr
Q

Circuit capacitive below fr,

but inductive above fr.
Needs low resistance source
for low rs, high Q, and sharp
tuning
Source is inside LC circuit.

LC

IT maximum at fr with of
0.
Impedance Z maximum at fr.
Q=

Q rise in voltage = Q x VGEN

1
2

Typical Audio Frequency and Radio Frequency Coupling

Capacitors:
Values of CC
Frequen
Frequency
R=
R=
R=
cy
Band
16K
1.6k
160
Audio
100Hz
1F
10F
100F
Frequency
Audio
1000Hz
0.1F
1F
10F
Frequency
Audio
10kHz
0.01F
0.1F
1F
Frequency
Radio
100kHz
0.001F
0.01F
0.1F
Frequency
Radio
1MHz
100pF
0.001F
0.01F
Frequency
Radio
10MHz
10pF
100pF
0.001F
Frequency
Very High
100MHz
1pF
10pF
100pF
Frequency
XC1 = 1/10 R

Z
XL
max
orQ =
r
X
s
L

Q rise in impedance = Q x
VGEN
Bandwidth =

f =

fr
Q

Circuit inductive below fr,

but capacitive above fr.
Needs high resistance
source for high rs, high Q,
and sharp tuning
Source is outside LC circuit.

Low Pass Filter:

Choke L in series

1000
1001
1010
1011
1100
1101
110
1111

Choke L in series

(
)
*
+
,
.
/

8
9
:
;
<
=
>
?

H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O

X
Y
Z

h
i
j
k
L
m
n
o

x
y
z

Logic Gates

Inverted L Type with Choke

-type with one choke

and bypass capacitors

Traditional

Rectangular

Boolean
Algebra
X =

AB=X
-type with series resistors
A+B=X
High Pass Filter:

AB= X

RC Coupling Circuit

Inverted L Type

T Type

-type

A +B= X

Traditional

CHAPTER 31: DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

Binary, Decimal, and Hexadecimal Numbers
Binary
Decimal
Hexadecimal
0000
0
0
0001
1
1
0010
2
2
0011
3
3
0100
4
4
0101
5
5
0110
6
6
0111
7
7
1000
8
8
1001
9
9
1010
10
A
1011
11
B
1100
12
C
1101
13
D
110
14
E
1111
15
F

Rectangular

Boolean
Algebra

AB= X
AB= X

Demorgans Theorem
1ST Theorem: A +B= A . B
2nd Theorem: A . B= A +B

TTL Characteristics:

The ASCII Code

X3X2X1X0
0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111

010
SP
!

#
$
%
&

011
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

X6X5X4
100
101
@
P
A
Q
B
R
C
S
E
T
D
U
F
V
G
W

110
a
b
c
d
e
f
g

111
p
q
r
s
t
u
v
w

Level of Integration
Small-scale integration (SSI)
Medium-scale integration
(MSI)
Large-scale integration (LSI)
Very large-scale integration
(VLSI)
Ultra large-scale integration
(ULSI)

Number of Gates per Chip

Less than 12
12-99
100-9999
10,000-99,999
100,000 or more

The 7400 Family of TTL Devices

Device Number
7400

Description
Quad 2-input NAND gates

7402
7404
7408
7410
7427
7432
7486

Quad 2-input
Hex Inverter
Quad 2-input
Triple 3-input
Triple 3-input
Quad 2-input
Quad 2-input

NOR gates
AND gates
NAND gates
NOR gates
OR gates
XOR gates

Flip-Flops
Flip-flops

Definition
Set/reset flip-flop

1
0
1
1
Full Adders
A
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

0
1

B
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

1
0

C
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

Carry
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
1

Sum
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1

RS flip-flop with HIGH active inputs

Clocked set/reset flip-flop

D-type flip-flop

JK flip-flop

R
0
0
1
1

Truth Table

AND gate
A
B
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1

X
0
0
0
1

OR gate
A
B
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1

X
0
1
1
1

S
0
1
0
1

Q
*
0
1
NC

Comment
Illegal
Reset
Set
No Change

XOR gate
A
B
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1

X
1
1
1
0

XNOR
A
0
0
1
1

X
1
0
0
1

X
1
0
0
0

NAND
A
0
0
1
1

X
1
1
1
0

gate
B
0
1
0
1

Clk
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

Clk
0
1

R
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

S
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

Q
NC
NC
NC
NC
NC
1
0
*/illegal

D
X
X
X
0
1

Q
NC
NC
NC
0
1

Negative Edge triggered JK Flip-flop

Clk
0
1

Half Adders
Carry
0
0

NOR gate
A
B
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1

Edge triggered D-type Flip-flop

Truth Table

B
0
1

Comment
No Change
Set
Reset
Illegal

Clocked RS Flip-flop

Inverter
A
X
0
1
1
0

A
0
0

Q
NC
1
0
*

RS flip-flop with LOW active inputs

R
0
0
1
1

gate
B
0
1
0
1

S
0
1
0
1

Sum
0
1

J
X
X
X
0
0
1
1

K
X
X
X
0
1
0
1

Q
NC
NC
NC
NC
0
1
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