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Conditioning
Introduction
Many manufacturing facilities require large quantities of spaceconditioning energy use due to:
Increasing R
Decreasing V
Decreasing Tia
Increasing utilization of Qint
Increasing Eff,h
variables and reducing heating and cooling energy use. The principles
of energy-efficient space cooling are similar.
Opportunities for Improving The Energy-Efficiency of HVAC Systems
These principles can be organized using the inside-out approach, which
sequentially reduces end-use energy, distribution energy, and primary
conversion energy. Combining the energy balance and inside-out
approaches, common opportunities to improve the energy efficiency of
HVAC systems include:
ground and solar loads are not considered in this analysis. Further,
energy storage effects are neglected except when considering
temperature set back.
The steady-state rate of heat loss through the building envelope, Qenv,
is:
Qenv = A / R (Tia Toa)
(1)
(2)
where V is the air flow rate, pcp is the product of air density and
specific heat, Tia is the inside air temperature and Toa is the outside air
temperature. For air at standard conditions, the product of air density
and specific heat is about:
pcp = 0.018 Btu/F-ft3
The heating load is reduced by heat discharged by electrical
equipment, process heating equipment and occupants, Qi. In
manufacturing facilities, these sources of internal heat gain can be
significant. The net heating load, Qh, is:
Qh = [ Qenv + Qair Qi ]+
(3)
(5)
(6)
The fuel consumed by the heating system, Qf, must take into account
the efficiency of the heating system, Effh.
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Qf = Qh / Effh
(7)
(8)
(10)
Example
Calculate hourly fuel use for a facility with the following characteristics:
Length = 250 feet, width = 200 feet, ceiling height = 35 feet
Average thermal resistance of walls and ceilings = 10 ft2-F-hr/Btu
Average ventilation rate = 10,000 cfm
Outdoor air temperature = 30 F
Indoor air temperature = 70 F
Average electrical power = 100 kW
Efficiency of heating system = 80%
Explicit Method:
A = (250 ft + 200 ft + 250 ft + 200 ft) x 35 ft + (250 ft x 200 ft) =
81,500 ft2
Qenv = A / R (Tia Toa) = 81,500 ft2 / 10 ft2-F-hr/Btu x (70 30) F =
326,000 Btu/h
Qair = V pcp (Tia Toa)
HDD (Tbal) =
(11)
i 1
(Tbal Toa)+
CDD (Tbal) =
i 1
(Toa - Tbal)+
(12)
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Annual heating and cooling degree days (F-day/year) for Dayton, Ohio
and Phoenix, AZ based on TMY3 data.
In many residences, the heating and cooling balance temperatures are
about 65 F. Thus, it became common practice to assume the balance
temperature is 65 F and calculate degree days based on this
assumption. Base 65-F heating and cooling degree days for a given
time period are often posted on the internet and reported by weather
services. However, in manufacturing facilities with a wide range of
internal temperatures and widely varying amounts of internal heat
gain, the assumption of 65-F balance temperature is often incorrect.
The loss of accuracy from using base 65 F degree days to calculate
energy use depends on the difference between the actual building
balance temperature and the assumed 65 F balance temperature. For
example, using HDD from Dayton, Ohio calculated with a balance
temperature of 65 F when the actual building balance temperature is
55 F would overestimate annual heating energy use by 62%.
Fraction Change = HDDTb=65 HDDTb=55 / HDDTb=55 = (5,902 - 3,659) /
3,659 = 61%
Thus, the use of nominal base 65 F heating and cooling degree days to
calculate heating and cooling energy use is not recommended.
However, the degree-day method is accurate and useful when balance
temperatures are calculated and heating or cooling degree days to the
appropriate balance temperature are used.
Example
Calculate annual fuel use using HDDs for a facility in Dayton, Ohio with
the following characteristics:
Length = 200 feet, width = 200 feet, ceiling height = 30 feet
Average thermal resistance of walls and ceilings = 10 ft2-F-hr/Btu
Average ventilation rate = 10,000 cfm
Average indoor air temperature during heating season = 65 F
Average internal electrical power = 75 kW
Efficiency of heating system = 80%
Solution:
A = (200 ft + 200 ft + 200 ft + 200 ft) x 30 ft + (200 ft x 200 ft) =
64,000 ft2
A / R = 64,000 ft2 / 10 ft2-F-hr/Btu = 6,400 Btu/hr-F
V pcp = 10,000 cfm x 60 min/hr x 0.018 Btu/F-ft3 = 10,800 Btu/hr-F
HC = A/R + V pcp = 6,400 Btu/hr-F + 10,800 Btu/hr-F = 17,200 Btu/hrF
Qint = 75 kW x 3,413 Btu/kWh = 255,975 Btu/hr
Tb = Tsp Qint / HC = 65 F - 255,975 Btu/hr / 17,200 Btu/hr-F = 50.1 F
(from table) HDD(50) = 2,757 F-day/yr
Qf = HC / Effh HDD(50)
Qf = 17,200 Btu/hr-F / 0.80 x 2,757 F-day/yr x 24 hr/dy x 106
Btu/mmBtu
Qf = 1,423 mmBtu/yr
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10
(18)
The internal heat gain, Qi, can be calculated using the equation for
balance temperature:
Qi = HC (Tia Tb)
(19)
As before, net hourly heating load can then be calculated using the
explicit or balance temperature methods:
Qh = [ HC (Tia Toa) Qi ]+ = HC (Tb Toa)+
Similarly, annual heating fuel use can be calculated from the heating
degree-days calculated with balance temperature Tb, HDD(Tb), as:
Qf = [HC / Effh] HDD(Tb) = HS HDD(Tb)
(20)
Thus, statistical analysis of monthly fuel use can be used in place of, or
as a check against, estimates of a buildings envelope area, envelop
thermal resistance, ventilation rate and internal loads.
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Example
A 3PH model of facility natural gas use versus outdoor air temperature
yields the following coefficients:
Heating slope = 0.500 mmBtu/day-F
Change-point temperature = 55 F
Independent fuel use = 0
Calculate fuel use for the facility when:
Indoor air temperature = 70 F
Outdoor air temperature = 30 F
Efficiency of heating system = 80%
Solution:
HC = HS Effh = 0.500 mmBtu/day-F x 0.80 x 106 Btu/mmBtu / 24 h/day
= 16,677 Btu/h-F
Tb = Tcp = 55 F
Qh = HC (Tb Toa)+ = 16,677 Btu/h-F (55 F 30 F)+ = 416,677 Btu/h
Qf = Qh / Effh = 416,677 Btu/hr / 0.80 = 520,833 Btu/h
Or, using the explicit method:
Qi = HC (Tia Tb) = 16,677 Btu/h-F (70 F 55 F) = 250,000 Btu/h
Qh = [HC (Tia Toa) Qi ]+
Qh = [ 16,677 Btu/h-F (70 30) F 250,000 Btu/hr ]+ = 416,677 Btu/h
Qf = Qh / Effh = 416,677 Btu/hr / 0.80 = 520,833 Btu/h
burners by noting whether the unit has an exhaust stack. If not, then
the products of combustion are added to the ventilation air and the
thermal efficiency of the unit is 100%. If it does, then the hot products
of combustion are exhausted through the stack and the thermal
efficiency of the unit is typically about 80%.
In the MAU shown below, outside air is drawn into the unit on the right,
passes through filters, is heated by a direct fire natural gas burner, and
is blown into the facility on the right by a centrifugal fan.
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The new HDDs calculated with Tb = 61.1 F for Dayton, OH are about:
HDD2(61 F) = 4,939 (F-day/year)
The new annual fuel use is:
Qf2 = HC2 / Effh HDD2(Tb)
Qf2 = 75,777 (Btu/hr-F) / 0.90 4,939 (F-day/year) x 24 (hours/day) /
106 (Btu/mmBtu)
Qf2 = 9,980 (mmBtu/yr)
Annual fuel savings are:
Qfs = Qf1 Qf2 = 16,454 (mmBtu/yr) - 9,980 mmBtu/yr = 6,473
mmBtu/yr
Heating fuel use before and after the proposed change is plotted
against outdoor air temperature in the figure below. The reduction in
heat loss through the roof reduced the heating slope and reduced the
heating balance temperature.
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For example, in the Figure above the heating load reduction during the
unoccupied period calculated using a steady state analysis, Qs,ss,
would be about:
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= HC / Effh HDD(Tb)
= 109,110 (Btu/hr-F) / 0.90 5,655 (F-day/year) x 24 (hours/day) /
(Btu/mmBtu)
= 16,454 (mmBtu/yr)
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The graph below shows XY plots of pre and post gas use versus
average outdoor air temperature, with 3PH models of each graph.
Both models have R2 values of 0.97, which indicates that the models
accurately predict gas use as a function of outdoor air temperature.
The models show that at any given temperature, gas use decreased
during the post period. Thus, the reduction was not caused by warmer
weather. The reduction in the facilitys heating coefficient both
reduced the heating slope and reduced the facilitys balance
temperature.
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The graph below shows a time series view of pre and post gas use,
with the weather-adjusted baseline superimposed over the post gas
use. Savings are represented by the difference between the adjusted
baseline and the post gas use. Winter gas use in post period was
2,980 mmBtu. Winter weather-adjusted baseline gas use was 6,117
mmBtu. Winter weather-adjusted savings were 3,137 mmBtu, which
represents a reduction of about 51%. This example demonstrates the
importance of reducing air flow through a facility and balancing
indoor/outdoor plant air pressure during winter.
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