Energy-Efficient Heating, Ventilating and Air

Conditioning
Introduction
Many manufacturing facilities require large quantities of spaceconditioning energy use due to:

large envelope areas

large openings in the building envelope required for moving
material into and out of the facility
large ventilation rates
the difficulty of effectively delivering heating and cooling where
it is needed

Thus, careful consideration of heating, ventilating and air conditioning

(HVAC) systems can lead to substantial energy savings.
This chapter begins by using an energy balance of heating fuel use and
the inside-out approach as guides to space conditioning energy saving
opportunities. It then develops methods of modeling space
conditioning energy use which take into account the large internal
loads characteristic of manufacturing facilities. One version of these
methods can be derived directly from the statistical modeling of
existing energy use data to improve modeling accuracy. Finally, the
chapter presents many examples of energy saving opportunities with
examples of how to quantify expected savings.

Principles of Energy-Efficient HVAC

Energy Balance Approach
Consider an energy balance on space-heating energy use. The spaceheating fuel use, Qf, must equal the net heat loss out of the building
divided by the efficiency of the heating system. The net heat loss out
of a building is the sum of the conduction heat loss through the
building envelope and the heat required to warm ventilation air to
room temperature reduced by the internal heat gain from equipment
and people.

Qf = [ Qenv + Qair Qint ] / Eff,h

Qf = [ A/R (Tia Toa) + V pcp (Tia Toa) Qint ] / Eff,h
Qf = [ (A/R + V pcp) (Tia Toa) Qint ] / Eff,h
where A is the area of the envelope, R is the thermal resistance of the
envelope, V is the air flow rate into/from a facility, pcp is the product of
air density and specific heat, Tia is the inside air temperature, Toa is
the outside air temperature, Qint is internal heat gain and Eff,h is the
efficiency of the heating equipment. Following this energy balance, the
opportunities for reducing heating energy use in existing facilities are:

Increasing R
Decreasing V
Decreasing Tia
Increasing utilization of Qint
Increasing Eff,h

The first option, increasing the thermal resistance by adding insulation

is attractive because insulation is simple, passive and long lasting.
However, the incremental gain of adding insulation diminishes as more
insulation is added; thus adding insulation to a well-insulated envelope
has less effect than adding insulation to an under-insulated envelope.
Managing ventilation and infiltration air is critical to energy efficient
space conditioning; careful analysis of this option is likely to result in
significant saving opportunities. Inside air temperature can be reduced
during non-occupied periods using programmable thermostats. In
addition, effectively delivering heating to needed areas can reduce
overall inside air temperature without reducing comfort. Some
ventilation patterns improve utilization of internal heat gain more than
others. The efficiency of space conditioning equipment varies, and
utilizing the most efficient equipment for the task reduces energy use.
This chapter provides many specific opportunities for acting on these
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variables and reducing heating and cooling energy use. The principles
of energy-efficient space cooling are similar.
Opportunities for Improving The Energy-Efficiency of HVAC Systems
These principles can be organized using the inside-out approach, which
sequentially reduces end-use energy, distribution energy, and primary
conversion energy. Combining the energy balance and inside-out
approaches, common opportunities to improve the energy efficiency of
HVAC systems include:

Reduce end use loads

o Add insulation to under-insulated walls
o Add double-polycarbonate sheets over windows
o Replace dark roofs with white roofs in air-conditioned facilities
o Seal exhaust fan openings
o Close dock doors using motion sensors or garage door
openers
o Turn off dust collectors when not in use
o Turn off unnecessary exhaust air fans during winter
o Introduce make-up air near exhaust air locations
o Reduce temperature set points during unoccupied periods
Improve efficiency of distribution system
o Reduce excess temperature stratification using high-volume
fans
o Install radiant heaters in high ventilation areas
o Reverse direction of exhaust air fans to utilize internal heat
Improve efficiency of energy conversion
o Pre-heat makeup air with solar panels
o Use 100% efficient makeup air units to heat make up air
o Use unit heaters rather than MAUs when outdoor air not
required
o Control MAUs with differential pressure control
o Use economizers to reduce cooling loads
o Use high efficiency cooling systems
o Pre-heat or pre-cool outdoor air with exhaust air

Calculating Hourly Heating Energy Use

Energy Balance on Heating Energy Use
Heating loads in manufacturing facilities are primarily driven by heat
loss through the building envelope and the requirement to heat
ventilation or infiltration air. In most manufacturing facilities, heat loss
through the ground and solar loads are negligible compared to heat
loss through the envelope and to air. Thus, heat loss through the

ground and solar loads are not considered in this analysis. Further,
energy storage effects are neglected except when considering
temperature set back.
The steady-state rate of heat loss through the building envelope, Qenv,
is:
Qenv = A / R (Tia Toa)

(1)

where A is the area of the envelope, R is the average thermal

resistance, Tia is the inside air temperature and Toa is the outside air
temperature.
The steady-state rate of heat lost to ventilation or infiltration air, Qair,
is:
Qair = V pcp (Tia Toa)

(2)

where V is the air flow rate, pcp is the product of air density and
specific heat, Tia is the inside air temperature and Toa is the outside air
temperature. For air at standard conditions, the product of air density
and specific heat is about:
pcp = 0.018 Btu/F-ft3
The heating load is reduced by heat discharged by electrical
equipment, process heating equipment and occupants, Qi. In
manufacturing facilities, these sources of internal heat gain can be
significant. The net heating load, Qh, is:
Qh = [ Qenv + Qair Qi ]+

(3)

The superscript + indicates that the quantity evaluates to zero if the

value within the parentheses is negative.
The total rate of heat loss can characterized in terms of the heating
coefficient, HC, as:
HC = A / R + V pcp

(5)

Thus, the net heating load, Qh, is:

Qh = [ HC (Tia Toa) Qi ]+

(6)

The fuel consumed by the heating system, Qf, must take into account
the efficiency of the heating system, Effh.
4

Qf = Qh / Effh
(7)

= [ HC (Tia Toa) Qi ]+ / Effh

Equation 7 calculates fuel use by explicitly considering indoor air

temperature and internal heat gain. An alternative but equivalent
method of calculating heating energy use employs the concept of
balance temperature. The balance-temperature method is easier to
interpret graphically and can be used in conjunction with statistical
data analysis.
The balance temperature is the outside air temperature at which no
heating is required. Based on this definition, balance temperature, Tb,
can be calculated as:
Qh = [ HC (Tia Toa) Qi ]+
0 = [ HC (Tia Tb) Qi ]+
Tb = Tia Qi / HC

(8)

Thus, the net heating load, Qh, can be calculated as:

Qh = [ HC (Tia Toa) Qi ]+ = HC (Tb Toa)+
(9)
And, heating fuel use, Qf, can be calculated as:
Qf = HC / Effh (Tb Toa)+

(10)

Example
Calculate hourly fuel use for a facility with the following characteristics:
Length = 250 feet, width = 200 feet, ceiling height = 35 feet
Average thermal resistance of walls and ceilings = 10 ft2-F-hr/Btu
Average ventilation rate = 10,000 cfm
Outdoor air temperature = 30 F
Indoor air temperature = 70 F
Average electrical power = 100 kW
Efficiency of heating system = 80%
Explicit Method:
A = (250 ft + 200 ft + 250 ft + 200 ft) x 35 ft + (250 ft x 200 ft) =
81,500 ft2
Qenv = A / R (Tia Toa) = 81,500 ft2 / 10 ft2-F-hr/Btu x (70 30) F =
326,000 Btu/h
Qair = V pcp (Tia Toa)

Qair = 10,000 cfm x 60 min/hr x 0.018 Btu/F-ft3 x (70 30) F =

432,000 Btu/h
Qi = 100 kW x 3,413 Btu/kWh = 341,300 Btu/h
Qh = [ Qenv + Qair Qi ]+
Qh = [ 326,000 Btu/hr + 432,000 Btu/hr 341,300 Btu/hr ]+ = 416,700
Btu/h
Qf = Qh / Effh = 416,700 Btu/hr / 0.80 = 520,875 Btu/h
Balance-Temperature Method:
A = (250 ft + 200 ft + 250 ft + 200 ft) x 35 ft + (250 ft x 200 ft) =
81,500 ft2
A / R = 81,500 ft2 / 10 ft2-F-h/Btu = 8,150 Btu/h-F
V pcp = 10,000 cfm x 60 min/hr x 0.018 Btu/F-ft3 = 10,800 Btu/h-F
HC = A / R + V pcp = 8,150 Btu/h-F + 10,800 Btu/h-F = 18,950 Btu/h-F
Tb = Tia Qi / HC = 70 F 341,300 Btu/h / 18,950 Btu/h-F = 52.0 F
Qh = HC (Tb Toa)+ = 18,950 Btu/h-F (52.0 F 30 F) = 416,700 Btu/h
Qf = Qh / Effh = 416,700 Btu/h / 0.80 = 520,875 Btu/hr

Calculating Annual Fuel Use with the Degree-Day

Method
A useful method for calculating annual heating and cooling energy use
is called the degree-day method. As before, the balance temperature,
Tb, is defined as the outside air temperature when the building needs
no heating. This means, whenever Toa < Tbal, the building needs
heating and whenever Toa > Tbal the building needs cooling.
In the past, average daily temperatures were readily available but
hourly temperatures were not. Thus, it was common to use average
daily temperatures to determine the heating and cooling temperature
drivers. To calculate annual heating degree days (HDD), sum the
difference between the balance and average daily outdoor air
temperatures for all days during the year when Toa < Tbal.
365

HDD (Tbal) =
(11)

i 1

(Tbal Toa)+

To calculate annual cooling degree days (CDD), sum the difference

between the balance and average daily outdoor air temperatures for
all days during the year when Toa > Tbal.
365

CDD (Tbal) =

i 1

(Toa - Tbal)+

(12)
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Annual heating and cooling equipment energy use are then:

Qf = [HC / Effh] HDD
(13)
Qe = [CC / Effc] CDD
(14)
Thus, heating and cooling degree days provide an effective way to
summarize the heating and cooling driving potentials of a given
climate. For example, consider the following degree days data,
calculated with different balance temperatures from TMY3 data for
Dayton, Ohio and Phoenix, Arizona. At a 65 F balance temperature, a
the heating load for facility in Dayton, OH would be 4.62 times greater
than a similar facility in Phoenix Arizona. Similarly, the cooling load for
a facility in Phoenix, Arizona would be 4.17 times greater than for a
similar facility in Dayton, OH.
Fraction Difference = HDDTb=65,Dayton HDDTb=55,Phoenix / HDDTb=55,Phoenix
Fraction Difference = (5,902 1,050) / 1,050 = 462%
Fraction Difference = CDDTb=65, Phoenix CDDTb=55, Dayton / CDDTb=55, Dayton
Fraction Difference = (4,643 898) / 4,643 = 417%

Annual heating and cooling degree days (F-day/year) for Dayton, Ohio
and Phoenix, AZ based on TMY3 data.
In many residences, the heating and cooling balance temperatures are
about 65 F. Thus, it became common practice to assume the balance
temperature is 65 F and calculate degree days based on this

assumption. Base 65-F heating and cooling degree days for a given
time period are often posted on the internet and reported by weather
services. However, in manufacturing facilities with a wide range of
internal temperatures and widely varying amounts of internal heat
gain, the assumption of 65-F balance temperature is often incorrect.
The loss of accuracy from using base 65 F degree days to calculate
energy use depends on the difference between the actual building
balance temperature and the assumed 65 F balance temperature. For
example, using HDD from Dayton, Ohio calculated with a balance
temperature of 65 F when the actual building balance temperature is
55 F would overestimate annual heating energy use by 62%.
Fraction Change = HDDTb=65 HDDTb=55 / HDDTb=55 = (5,902 - 3,659) /
3,659 = 61%
Thus, the use of nominal base 65 F heating and cooling degree days to
calculate heating and cooling energy use is not recommended.
However, the degree-day method is accurate and useful when balance
temperatures are calculated and heating or cooling degree days to the
appropriate balance temperature are used.
Example
Calculate annual fuel use using HDDs for a facility in Dayton, Ohio with
the following characteristics:
Length = 200 feet, width = 200 feet, ceiling height = 30 feet
Average thermal resistance of walls and ceilings = 10 ft2-F-hr/Btu
Average ventilation rate = 10,000 cfm
Average indoor air temperature during heating season = 65 F
Average internal electrical power = 75 kW
Efficiency of heating system = 80%
Solution:
A = (200 ft + 200 ft + 200 ft + 200 ft) x 30 ft + (200 ft x 200 ft) =
64,000 ft2
A / R = 64,000 ft2 / 10 ft2-F-hr/Btu = 6,400 Btu/hr-F
V pcp = 10,000 cfm x 60 min/hr x 0.018 Btu/F-ft3 = 10,800 Btu/hr-F
HC = A/R + V pcp = 6,400 Btu/hr-F + 10,800 Btu/hr-F = 17,200 Btu/hrF
Qint = 75 kW x 3,413 Btu/kWh = 255,975 Btu/hr
Tb = Tsp Qint / HC = 65 F - 255,975 Btu/hr / 17,200 Btu/hr-F = 50.1 F
(from table) HDD(50) = 2,757 F-day/yr
Qf = HC / Effh HDD(50)
Qf = 17,200 Btu/hr-F / 0.80 x 2,757 F-day/yr x 24 hr/dy x 106
Btu/mmBtu
Qf = 1,423 mmBtu/yr
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A graph showing monthly space-heating fuel use versus outdoor air

temperature for this facility is plotted below.

Determining Building Parameters from Using Inverse

Modeling
The most common type of building energy use modeling begins with
estimates of building parameters such as area, thermal resistance and
ventilation rate and proceeds to calculate fuel use. This procedure is
called forward modeling. Inverse modeling, begins with measured
building fuel use and weather data and calculates building parameters
such as heating coefficient, balance temperature and effective internal
heat gain from the relationship between fuel use and weather data.
This section describes the use of the inverse modeling approach.
In the methods presented above, the facilitys heating coefficient,
balance temperature and effective internal heat gain were calculated
based on estimates of envelope area, thermal resistance, ventilation
rate and effective internal heat gain. However, the facilitys actual
heating coefficient, balance temperature and effective internal heat
gain can be determined by modeling monthly fuel use as a function of
monthly average temperature using a three-parameter heating, 3PH,
model. This inverse method significantly improves the accuracy of the
baseline energy use model.

10

In a 3PH model, fuel use, Qf, is modeled in terms of three regression

coefficients versus outdoor air temperature, Toa, as:
Qf = Qfi + HS (Tcp Toa)+
(15)
The three regression coefficients determined from the regression are
weather independent fuel use, Qfi, heating slope, HS, and change-point
temperature, Tcp. The heating slope, HS, is the quotient of the heating
coefficient, HC, and heating system efficiency, Effh.
HS = HC / Effh
(16)
Thus, the heating coefficient is:
HC = HS Effh
(17)
The balance temperature, Tb, is the change-point temperature, Tcp.
Tb = Tcp

(18)

The internal heat gain, Qi, can be calculated using the equation for
balance temperature:
Qi = HC (Tia Tb)

(19)

As before, net hourly heating load can then be calculated using the
explicit or balance temperature methods:
Qh = [ HC (Tia Toa) Qi ]+ = HC (Tb Toa)+
Similarly, annual heating fuel use can be calculated from the heating
degree-days calculated with balance temperature Tb, HDD(Tb), as:
Qf = [HC / Effh] HDD(Tb) = HS HDD(Tb)
(20)
Thus, statistical analysis of monthly fuel use can be used in place of, or
as a check against, estimates of a buildings envelope area, envelop
thermal resistance, ventilation rate and internal loads.

11

Example
A 3PH model of facility natural gas use versus outdoor air temperature
yields the following coefficients:
Heating slope = 0.500 mmBtu/day-F
Change-point temperature = 55 F
Independent fuel use = 0
Calculate fuel use for the facility when:
Indoor air temperature = 70 F
Outdoor air temperature = 30 F
Efficiency of heating system = 80%
Solution:
HC = HS Effh = 0.500 mmBtu/day-F x 0.80 x 106 Btu/mmBtu / 24 h/day
= 16,677 Btu/h-F
Tb = Tcp = 55 F
Qh = HC (Tb Toa)+ = 16,677 Btu/h-F (55 F 30 F)+ = 416,677 Btu/h
Qf = Qh / Effh = 416,677 Btu/hr / 0.80 = 520,833 Btu/h
Or, using the explicit method:
Qi = HC (Tia Tb) = 16,677 Btu/h-F (70 F 55 F) = 250,000 Btu/h
Qh = [HC (Tia Toa) Qi ]+
Qh = [ 16,677 Btu/h-F (70 30) F 250,000 Btu/hr ]+ = 416,677 Btu/h
Qf = Qh / Effh = 416,677 Btu/hr / 0.80 = 520,833 Btu/h

Heating System Equipment

The principle types of heating units used in manufacturing facilities
are:

Make-up air units (MAUs)

Indoor air heaters
Air handlers
Infrared heating units

Characteristics of these types of heating units are discussed below.

Proper selection and operation of heating system equipment can
significantly reduce heating energy costs.
Make-up Air Units
Make-up air units, MAUs, supply outdoor air to replace air discharged
through ventilation fans and from process heating equipment.
Because MAUs bring large quantities of makeup air into the facility, the
air is typically heated using direct-fire burners which mix the products
of combustion with the supply air. Hence, the heating efficiency of
direct-fire MAUs is 100%. It is easy to tell if a MAU uses direct fire
12

burners by noting whether the unit has an exhaust stack. If not, then
the products of combustion are added to the ventilation air and the
thermal efficiency of the unit is 100%. If it does, then the hot products
of combustion are exhausted through the stack and the thermal
efficiency of the unit is typically about 80%.
In the MAU shown below, outside air is drawn into the unit on the right,
passes through filters, is heated by a direct fire natural gas burner, and
is blown into the facility on the right by a centrifugal fan.

Make-up air unit. Source www.greenheck.com.

The burner firing rate of make-up air units is controlled by a thermostat
located at the exit of the MAU or on the plant floor. When the
thermostat is located at the exit of the MAU, the control algorithm is
typically to enable the burner whenever the outside air temperature
drops below some outside air set-point temperature, and then varying
burner firing rate to heat the air to the discharge air set-point
temperature. This type of control makes it difficult to maintain space
temperature within a narrow range. Locating the thermostat in the
conditioned space, and controlling burner firing rate to add enough
heat to maintain the space temperature within the set-point dead band
temperature improves control.
Some makeup air units have variable speed fans or outdoor air
dampers that are controlled to maintain a slight positive pressure in
the facility. This type of differential pressure control effectively
eliminates infiltration through the facility envelope and ensures that all
outside air is heated using 100%-efficient direct-fire burners.
Indoor-Air Heaters
Indoor-air heaters blow indoor air across heating coils, much like
residential furnaces. There are many types of indoor-air heaters.
Ceiling-mounted gas-fired indoor-air heaters are often called unit

13

heaters. Ceiling mounted units with steam or hot-water coils are

often called fan-coil units. Floor-mounted heaters that collect air
from the bottom of the unit and discharge heated air from the top are
often called air rotation units.

Gas-fired unit heater. Source www.lenox.com.

Because indoor-air heaters heat indoor air, the products of combustion
in gas-fired units must be exhausted and the thermal efficiency of the
units is typically 80%. In steam or hot-water heated fan-coil units, the
thermal efficiency is the efficiency of the steam or hot water system.
Although the thermal efficiency of indoor-air heaters is 80% compared
to 100% for makeup air units, heating with indoor-air heaters is more
efficient than heating with makeup air units when outside air is not
required because much of the heat delivered by makeup air units is
simply to raise the temperature of the outside air to room temperature.
Air Handlers
Air handlers mix indoor and outdoor air supply the mixed air to the
facility. Air handlers come in many configurations. The unit shown
below on the left uses a direct-fire burner to add heat to the outdoor
air, then supplies a mixture of return and outside air to the facility. The
roof-top air-handler unit on the right mixes indoor and outdoor air then
draws the mixed air through heating and cooling coils before delivering
it to the facility.

Direct-fire air handler and rooftop air handler units. Source

www.greenheck.com and www.carrier.com.

14

The thermal efficiency of air-handlers depends on the type. The

thermal efficiency of electric and direct-fired units is 100%. The
thermal efficiency of most indirect-fired units is 80%. In units that
utilize steam or hot-water heating coils, the thermal efficiency is the
efficiency of the steam or hot water system.
In many units, the fraction of supply air made up by outdoor air can be
varied. In cooling situations, varying the fraction of outdoor air to
reduce cooling coil energy use is called economizer control. In heating
situations, the fraction of outdoor air should be minimized to provide
just enough outside air to meet ventilation requirements.
Infrared Heaters
Infrared heaters provide heat primarily by radiating infrared radiation
directly from the unit heater to people and the solid objects on the
floor. Because infrared heating does not rely on heated air as a heat
transfer medium, it is especially effective in areas with high ventilation
or infiltration loads, such as near dock doors, and in facilities with high
ceilings where air-heating devices would have to heat large volumes of
air.
Gas-fired unit heaters direct hot combustion gasses through long dark
tubes topped with reflectors to direct radiant energy to the floor. Gasfired unit heaters have exhaust stacks and are about 80% efficient.
Electric radiant heaters are 100% efficient; however, in most cases the
reduced cost of natural gas compared to electricity makes up for the
difference in efficiency and natural gas fired units are more economical
to operate.

Gas-fired u-tube infrared heating unit.

Because gas-fired radiant heaters deliver heat to people at floor level
so effectively, the air temperature near the ceiling is frequently less
than it would be for air-heating units. Thus, the average air

15

temperature in the facility is reduced. The reduced average air

temperature lowers heat loss through the envelope and to ventilation
air and reduces overall heating energy use. Thus, the use of infrared
heaters is an example of how delivering heat effectively can reduce
overall heating energy use.

Add Insulation to Under-Insulated Envelope

Components
The thermal resistance of glass, metal and un-insulated concrete and
masonry is minimal. For example, the total thermal resistance of a
single-pane window is about 1 hr-ft2-F/Btu and over 90% of the thermal
resistance is from the interior and exterior convection coefficients.
Thus, adding insulation to these building components dramatically
reduces heat loss.
The cost-effectiveness of adding insulation decreases as the level of
existing insulation increases. The figure below shows the diminishing
returns from adding insulation with thermal resistance of 10 hr-ft2-F/Btu
to a building component as a function of the initial thermal resistance
of the component. As shown below, adding insulation with thermal
resistance of 10 hr-ft2-F/Btu to a wall with an initial thermal resistance
of 1 hr-ft2-F/Btu results in 16 times more energy savings than adding
the same amount of insulation to a wall with an initial thermal
resistance of 10 hr-ft2-F/Btu.

16

Heat loss savings from adding R = 10 hr-ft2-F/Btu insulation to a

building component plotted against the initial thermal resistance of the
building component when Tia Toa = 35 F.
Common ways of adding insulation to under-insulated building
components include:
o Spray-on insulation for under-insulated walls
o Increase roof insulation when replacing roof
o Add double-polycarbonate sheets over windows
o Replacing un-insulated dock doors with insulated dock doors
Example: Inverse DD Method
Model coefficients of 3PH model of natural gas use for a facility in
Dayton, OH are:
HS = 88.5 (mmBtu/mo-F)
Tb = 63.8 (F)
Independent NG use = 0.00 (mmBtu/mo)
The indoor air temperature is 70 F. The facility is heated by a mix of
100% efficient make-up air units and 80% efficient indoor air heaters;
with an average heating efficiency of 90%. Calculate the annual fuel
savings if the R value of the 200,000 ft2 roof is increased from R = 3 hrft2-F/Btu to R = 6 hr-ft2-F/Btu during a required resurfacing of the roof.
Solution:

17

The initial heating coefficient, HC1, is:

HC1 = HS Effh = 88.5 (mmBtu/mo-F) x 0.90 x 10^6 Btu/mmBtu / 730
hours/month
HC1 = 109,110 (Btu/hr-F)
The internal heat gain, Qi, is:
Qi = HC1 (Tia - Tb) = 109,110 (Btu/hr-F) (70.0 63.8) F = 676,479
(Btu/h)
The initial HDDs calculated with Tb = 63.8 F for Dayton, OH are about:
HDD(64 F) = 5,655 (F-day/year)
The initial annual fuel use is:
Qf1 = HC / Effh HDD(Tb)
Qf1 = 109,110 (Btu/hr-F) / 0.90 5,655 (F-day/year) x 24 (hours/day) /
106 (Btu/mmBtu)
Qf1 = 16,454 (mmBtu/yr)
Heat transfer through the roof is:
Qr = A / R (Tia-Toa)
Thus, the heating coefficient for the roof, HCr, is:
HCr = Ar / Rr
The change in the heating coefficient from insulating the roof, HC, is:
HC = A / R1 - A / R2 = A (1 /R1 1 / R2)
HC = 200,000 ft2 x (1/3 1/6) Btu/hr-ft2-F = 33,333 Btu/hr-F
The new heating coefficient, HC2, would be:
HC2 = HC1 - HC = 109,110 (Btu/hr-F) 33,333 (Btu/h-F) = 75,777
(Btu/h-F)
The new balance temperature would be:
Tb2 = Tia - Qi/HC2 = 70 F - 676,479 (Btu/h) / 75,777 (Btu/h-F) = 61.1
(F)

18

The new HDDs calculated with Tb = 61.1 F for Dayton, OH are about:
HDD2(61 F) = 4,939 (F-day/year)
The new annual fuel use is:
Qf2 = HC2 / Effh HDD2(Tb)
Qf2 = 75,777 (Btu/hr-F) / 0.90 4,939 (F-day/year) x 24 (hours/day) /
106 (Btu/mmBtu)
Qf2 = 9,980 (mmBtu/yr)
Annual fuel savings are:
Qfs = Qf1 Qf2 = 16,454 (mmBtu/yr) - 9,980 mmBtu/yr = 6,473
mmBtu/yr
Heating fuel use before and after the proposed change is plotted
against outdoor air temperature in the figure below. The reduction in
heat loss through the roof reduced the heating slope and reduced the
heating balance temperature.

If no 3PH model of natural gas use versus outdoor air temperature is

available, similar results could be obtained by estimating envelope
area, thermal resistance, ventilation rate and effective internal heat
gain. The following example demonstrates this procedure.

19

Example: Forward DD Method

Consider a facility in Dayton, Ohio whose length is 500 ft, width is 400
ft and ceiling height is 30 ft. The walls have 10 ft-high single-pane
windows with thermal resistance 1 hr-ft2-F/Btu on all sides. The
thermal resistance of the roof is 3 hr-ft2-F/Btu, the thermal resistance of
the walls is 10 hr-ft2-F/Btu. The ventilation rate is 19,000 cfm and the
average electrical power requirement of equipment in the facility is
200 kW. The indoor air temperature is 70 F. The facility is heated by a
mix of 100% efficient make-up air units and 80% efficient indoor air
heaters; with an average heating efficiency of 90%. Calculate the
annual fuel savings if the R value of the 200,000 ft2 roof is increased
from R = 3 hr-ft2-F/Btu to R = 6 hr-ft2-F/Btu during a required
resurfacing of the roof.
Solution:
The areas, thermal resistances and heating coefficients (A / R) of the
primary envelope components are shown in the table below.

Thus, the envelope A/R is 88,267 Btu/hr-F. The product of the

ventilation rate, air density and specific heat is:
19,000 cfm x 0.018 Btu/ft3-F x 60 min/hr = 20,520 Btu/hr-F
The initial heating coefficient, HC1, is:
HC1 = 88,267 Btu/hr-F + 20,520 Btu/hr-F = 108,787 (Btu/hr-F)
The internal heat gain, Qi, is:
Qi = Qe x 3,412 Btu/hr = 200 kW x 3,412 Btu/kWh = 682,600 (Btu/h)
The initial balance temperature is:
Tb = Tia Qi / HC1 = 70 F - 682,600 (Btu/h) / 108,787 (Btu/h-F) =
63.7 (F)
The initial HDDs calculated with Tb = 63.7 F for Dayton, OH are about:

20

HDD(64 F) = 5,655 (F-day/year)

The initial annual fuel use is:
Qf1 = HC / Effh HDD(Tb)
Qf1 = 108,787 (Btu/hr-F) / 0.90 5,655 (F-day/year) x 24 (hours/day) /
106 (Btu/mmBtu)
Qf1 = 16,405 (mmBtu/yr)
As before, heat transfer through the roof is:
Qr = A / R (Tia-Toa)
Thus, the heating coefficient for the roof, HCr, is:
HCr = Ar / Rr
The change in the heating coefficient from insulating the roof, HC, is:
HC = A / R1 - A / R2 = A (1 /R1 1 / R2)
HC = 200,000 ft2 x (1/3 1/6) Btu/hr-ft2-F = 33,333 Btu/hr-F
The new heating coefficient, HC2, would be:
HC2 = HC1 - HC = 108,787 (Btu/hr-F) 33,333 (Btu/h-F) = 75,454
(Btu/h-F)
The new balance temperature would be:
Tb2 = Tia Qi / HC2 = 70 F - 682,600 (Btu/h) / 75,454 (Btu/h-F) = 61.0
(F)
The new HDDs calculated with Tb = 61.0 F for Dayton, OH are about:
HDD2(61 F) = 4,939 (F-day/year)
The new annual fuel use is:
Qf2 = HC2 / Effh HDD2(Tb)
Qf2 = 75,454 (Btu/hr-F) / 0.90 4,939 (F-day/year) x 24 (hours/day) /
106 (Btu/mmBtu)
Qf2 = 9,938 (mmBtu/yr)
Annual fuel savings are:

21

Qfs = Qf1 Qf2 = 16,405 (mmBtu/yr) - 9,938 mmBtu/yr = 6,467

mmBtu/yr
Heating fuel use before and after the proposed change is plotted
against outdoor air temperature in the figure below. The reduction in
heat loss through the roof reduced the heating slope and reduced the
heating balance temperature.

Reduce Ventilation Loads

The method to calculate savings from reducing ventilation loads is the
same as for adding insulation. In each case, the heating coefficient is
reduced and new balance temperatures must be calculated to estimate
savings. Common ways of reducing ventilation loads include:
o Seal exhaust fan openings
o Close dock doors using motion sensors or garage door
openers
o Turn off dust collectors when not in use
o Turn off unnecessary exhaust air fans during winter
o Introduce make-up air near exhaust air locations

22

Use Programmable Thermostats to Reset Temperature

during Unoccupied Periods
Lower interior set-point temperatures during unoccupied periods
during the heating season lowers heating loads. Similarly, increasing
interior set-point temperatures during unoccupied periods during the
cooling season lowers cooling loads. Small reductions in set-point
temperature can significantly reduce heating and cooling energy use,
because the heating and cooling loads are proportional to difference
between indoor and outdoor air temperature. For example, if Toa = 50
F, then reducing Tia from 70 F to 60 F decreases heating load by 50%.
A steady state analysis of heating and cooling energy use with
modified temperature set-points would simply modify the average
indoor air temperature to determine reduced heating and cooling
loads. However, in practice, the thermal mass of the building reduces
interior temperature swings and hence reduces savings. For example,
the graph below shows set-point and indoor air temperatures over a 24
hour period for a building with a night temperature set back. The setpoint temperature is reduced from 70 F to 60 F overnight, but the
actual indoor air temperature does not reach 60 F until 8 am. Because
the heating load is driven by the difference between the actual indoor
air temperature and the outside air temperature, the actual reduction
in heating load is less than would be estimated using a steady-state
analysis. Thus, thermal mass effects reduce the savings estimated
using steady state analysis.

For example, in the Figure above the heating load reduction during the
unoccupied period calculated using a steady state analysis, Qs,ss,
would be about:
23

Qs,ss = HC (70 60) = 10 HC

However, a dynamic analysis shows that the actual average indoor air
temperature during the set back period is about 64 F, rather than 60 F.
Thus, the heating load reduction during the unoccupied period
calculated using a dynamic analysis, Qs,d, would be about:
Qs,d = HC (70 64) = 6 HC
It follows that the actual savings would be about 60% of the savings
estimated using a steady state analysis.
Example: Inverse DD Method
Model coefficients of 3PH model of natural gas use for a facility in
Dayton, OH are:
HS = 88.5 (mmBtu/mo-F)
Tb = 63.8 (F)
Independent NG use = 0.00 (mmBtu/mo)
The indoor air temperature is 70 F. The facility is heated by a mix of
100% efficient make-up air units and 80% efficient indoor air heaters;
with an average heating efficiency of 90%. Calculate the annual fuel
savings if the average indoor air temperature were reduced to 66 F by
reducing thermostat set point temperature during unoccupied hours.
Assume the actual savings would be about 60% of the savings
estimated using a steady state analysis.
Solution:
The initial heating coefficient, HC1, is:
HC1 = HS Effh = 88.5 (mmBtu/mo-F) x 0.90 x 10^6 Btu/mmBtu / 730
hours/month
HC1 = 109,110 (Btu/hr-F)
The internal heat gain, Qi, is:
Qi = HC1 (Tia - Tb) = 109,110 (Btu/hr-F) (70.0 63.8) F = 676,479
(Btu/h)
The initial HDDs calculated with Tb = 63.8 F for Dayton, OH are about:
HDD(64 F) = 5,655 (F-day/year)
24

The initial annual fuel use is:

Qf1
Qf1
106
Qf1

= HC / Effh HDD(Tb)
= 109,110 (Btu/hr-F) / 0.90 5,655 (F-day/year) x 24 (hours/day) /
(Btu/mmBtu)
= 16,454 (mmBtu/yr)

The new balance temperature would be:

Tb2 = Tia2 - Qi/HC = 66 F - 676,479 (Btu/h) / 109,110 (Btu/h-F) =
59.8 (F)
The new HDDs calculated with Tb = 59.8 F for Dayton, OH are about:
HDD2(60 F) = 4,711 (F-day/year)
The new annual fuel use is:
Qf2 = HC / Effh HDD2(Tb)
Qf2 = 109,110 (Btu/hr-F) / 0.90 4,711 (F-day/year) x 24 (hours/day) /
106 (Btu/mmBtu)
Qf2 = 13,707 (mmBtu/yr)
Annual fuel savings are:
Qfs = Qf1 Qf2 = 16,454 (mmBtu/yr) - 13,707 mmBtu/yr x 60% =
2,747 mmBtu/yr
Heating fuel use before and after the proposed change is plotted
against outdoor air temperature in the figure below. The reduction in
indoor air set-point temperature reduced the heating balance
temperature, while the heating slope remained constant..

25

Heating Delivery Effectiveness

Ventilation rates in industrial facilities are frequently 6 to 8 air changes
per hour compared to an average infiltration rate of less than 1 air
change per hour for residences. At high ventilation rates, most of the
space heating or cooling energy added/removed from the space is due
to ventilation, it is important that heating systems be designed to
deliver the heat where it is needed. Heat added near the ceiling can
easily be swept out without delivering any warmth to the occupants.
For this reason, gas-fired IR heaters, which warm the floor and
equipment, are often cost effective. In general, we assume that the
effective efficiency of IR heaters is 25% better than space heaters.
To avoid cold spots near doors or openings in the envelope of the
building, it is necessary to balance the airflow into and out of the
building. In buildings with negative pressure, cold air is sucked in
making it very uncomfortable for the occupants. In these cases, add
gas-heated make-up air units until the airflow is balanced.

Case Study of Reducing Ventilation and Balancing

Plant Air Pressure
Ventilation rates in industrial facilities are frequently 6 to 8 air changes
per hour compared to an average infiltration rate of less than 1 air
change per hour for residences. At high ventilation rates, most of the
space heating or cooling energy added/removed from the space is
simply to heat or cool the ventilation air. Thus, reducing unnecessary
ventilation yields large heating and cooling savings.
26

A plant instituted an employee awareness program to balance plant air

pressure during winter and reduce space heating costs. The program
encouraged workers to do two things. First, turn off exhaust fans when
not needed. Second, if cooling was needed, turn on a make up air unit
which directed cool air into the overheated zone and pushed warm air
from the zone to cooler area in the plant. Gas use from before and
after the program was analyzed below to determine the effectiveness
of the program.
A time series graph of pre and post-program gas use is shown below,
with pre gas use in blue and post gas use in red. The graph shows that
gas use increases during winter and is near zero during summer, and
that winter gas use is significantly less after the program was
instituted. However, the reduction could have been caused by a
warmer winter during the post period.

The graph below shows XY plots of pre and post gas use versus
average outdoor air temperature, with 3PH models of each graph.
Both models have R2 values of 0.97, which indicates that the models
accurately predict gas use as a function of outdoor air temperature.
The models show that at any given temperature, gas use decreased
during the post period. Thus, the reduction was not caused by warmer
weather. The reduction in the facilitys heating coefficient both
reduced the heating slope and reduced the facilitys balance
temperature.

27

The graph below shows a time series view of pre and post gas use,
with the weather-adjusted baseline superimposed over the post gas
use. Savings are represented by the difference between the adjusted
baseline and the post gas use. Winter gas use in post period was
2,980 mmBtu. Winter weather-adjusted baseline gas use was 6,117
mmBtu. Winter weather-adjusted savings were 3,137 mmBtu, which
represents a reduction of about 51%. This example demonstrates the
importance of reducing air flow through a facility and balancing
indoor/outdoor plant air pressure during winter.

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Cooling System Efficiency

The principle types of cooling units used in manufacturing facilities are:
Roof-top units
Air handlers and chillers
Rooftop Units
Rooftop units are packaged heating, ventilating and air conditioning
units that include air handler, heating and cooling coils, combustion or
electric heating, and direct expansion cooling. In most rooftop units,
outdoor and return air are mixed before entering a supply air fan that
moves the air over a heating coil and then a cooling coil before
delivering it to the facility. If heat is provided to the heating coil by
natural gas, the heating efficiency is typically 80%. If heat is provided
to the heating coil by electricity, the heating efficiency is 100%. The
cooling coils contain refrigerant that passes though an expansion valve
to reduce refrigerant pressure and temperature before entering the
cooling coil. This type of cooling is called direct expansion cooling, in
comparison to cooling coils that contain chilled water from a chiller.
The average efficiency of direct expansion air conditioners is reported
as Seasonal Energy Efficiency Rating (SEER) in units of Btu of heat
removed per W-hr of electricity consumed. SEER includes the
electricity consumed by the air conditioner compressor, condenser fans
and evaporator (supply air) fans. Minimum SEER requirements have
increased over the years. In 2007, the minimum SEER for a new
rooftop unit was increased to 12 Btu/W-hr.

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Air Handlers and Chillers

In most air handlers, outdoor and return air are mixed before entering
a supply air fan that moves the air over a heating coil and then a
cooling coil before delivering it to the facility. Heat is typically
delivered to the heating coil as hot water or steam. Cooling is typically
delivered to the cooling coil as chilled water. Hence, the heating and
cooling efficiencies are the efficiencies of the boilers and chillers that
supply heating and cooling to the air handlers.
The efficiency of air-cooled electric chillers is reported as Energy
Efficiency Rating (EER) in units of Btu of heat removed per Wh of
electricity consumed. EER is typically reported for specific operating
conditions such as entering condenser and evaporator air
temperatures; thus EER is not a seasonal average. EER includes the
electricity consumed by the chiller compressor and condenser fans, but
not by the chilled water distribution pumps.
The efficiency of water-cooled electric chillers is typically characterized
in terms of kW of electricity consumed by the compressor per ton of
heat removed. kW/ton ratings are typically reported for specific
operating conditions and not as seasonal averages. Further kW/ton
ratings do not include the electricity consumed by the condenser
pumps, cooling tower fans or chilled water distribution pumps.
The efficiency of absorption chillers is typically characterized as nondimensional COP and is about 1 unit of cooling produced per unit of
heat required.

Calculating Cooling Energy Use

Calculating Hourly Cooling Energy Use
Cooling loads in manufacturing facilities are primarily driven by heat
gain through the building envelope, cooling ventilation or infiltration
air, and internal heat gains. The rate of heat gain through the building
envelope, Qenv, is:
Qenv = A / R (Toa Tia)
The rate of sensible heat gain with ventilation or infiltration air, Qair,s,
is:
Qair,s = V pcp (Toa Tia)
The rate of latent heat removed from ventilation or infiltration air by
the air conditioner, Qair,l, is:
30

Qair,l = V p hfg (woa wda)+

Where V is the air flow rate, p is the air density, hfg is the enthalpy of
evaporation of water, woa is the outside air specific humidity and wda
is the specific humidity of air discharged by the air conditioner. For
water at atmospheric pressure, the enthalpy of evaporation is about:
hfg = 970 Btu/lb
For air at standard conditions, the density is about:
p = 0.075 lbs/ft3
Most air conditioners discharge saturated air at about 58 F, and the
specific humidity is about:
wda = 0.011 lbw/lba
For air conditioners controlled by thermostats, the air conditioner will
operate when the net sensible cooling load is positive. When
operating, the latent cooling will become part of the load. Thus, the
net cooling load, Qc, is
If (Qenv + Qair,s + Qi) > 0 then
Qc = (Qenv + Qair,s + Qi) + Qair,l
Else
Qc = 0
End if
To maintain the facility at a constant temperature, the cooling system
must remove heat at the same rate that heat is gained. The electricity
consumed by the cooling system, Qe, must take into account the
efficiency of the cooling system, Effc.
Qe = Qc / Effc
Example Problem:
Calculate hourly cooling electricity use for a facility with the following
characteristics:
Length = 250 feet, width = 200 feet, ceiling height = 35 feet
Average thermal resistance of walls and ceilings = 10 ft2-F-hr/Btu
Average ventilation rate = 10,000 cfm
Indoor air temperature = 70 F
31

Outdoor air temperature = 85 F

Outdoor air temperature specific humidity = 0.013 lbw/lba
Average facility electricity use = 100 kW
Air conditioner SEER = 12 Btu/Wh
Solution:
A = (250 + 200 + 250 + 200) ft x 35 ft + (250 ft x 200 ft) = 81,500 ft2
Qenv = A / R (Toa Tia) = 81,500 ft2 / 10 ft2-F-hr/Btu x (85 70) F =
122,250 Btu/h
Qair,s = V pcp (Toa Tia) = 10,000 cfm x 60 min/hr x 0.018 Btu/F-ft3
x (85 70) F = 162,000 Btu/h
Qair,l = V p hfg (woa wda) = 10,000 cfm x 60 min/hr x 0.075 lba/ft3 x
970 Btu/lbw x (0.013 0.011) lbw/lba = 87,300 Btu/h
Qi = 100 kW x 3,413 Btu/kWh = 341,300 Btu/h
Determine if Qenv + Qair,s + Qi > 0: (122,250 + 162,000 + 341,300)
Btu/h > 0
Qc = Qenv + Qair,s + Qair,l + Qi = (122,250 + 162,000 + 87,300 +
341,300) Btu/h = 712,850 Btu/h
Qe = Qc / Effc = 712,850 Btu/hr / (12 Btu/Wh x 1,000 W/kW) = 59
kWh/h
Calculating Annual Cooling Energy Use
To calculate annual cooling electricity use, sum hourly values over the
year.
Example Problem:
Calculate annual cooling electricity use for a facility with the following
characteristics:
Length = 250 feet, width = 200 feet, ceiling height = 35 feet
Average thermal resistance of walls and ceilings = 10 ft2-F-hr/Btu
Average ventilation rate = 10,000 cfm
Indoor air temperature = 70 F
Average facility electricity use = 100 kW
Air conditioner SEER = 12 Btu/Wh
Located in Dayton, Ohio
Solution:
A = (250 + 200 + 250 + 200) ft x 35 ft + (250 ft x 200 ft) = 81,500 ft2
Qenv = A / R (Toa Tia) = 81,500 ft2 / 10 ft2-F-hr/Btu x (Toa 70) F
Qair,s = V pcp (Toa Tia) = 10,000 cfm x 60 min/hr x 0.018 Btu/F-ft3
x (Toa 70) F
Qair,l = V p hfg (woa wda) = 10,000 cfm x 60 min/hr x 0.075 lba/ft3 x
970 Btu/lbw x (woa 0.011)+ lbw/lba
Qi = 100 kW x 3,413 Btu/kWh = 341,300 Btu/h

32

When (Qenv + Qair,s + Qi) > 0, Qc = (Qenv + Qair,s + Qi) + Qair,l

Qc = Qc dt = 1,342 mmBtu/yr
Qe = Qc / Effc = 1,342 mmBtu/yr x 106 Btu/mmBtu / (12 Btu/Wh x
1,000 W/kW) = 111,805 kWh/yr

33