MODULE 1

UNDERSTANDING DEVELOPMENT
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this module, students are expected to be able to.
1. Explain and clarify the basic concepts involved in human
development.
2. Enumerate and explain the principles of development and
critically assess some
issues in human development.
3. Compare the
their contribution in

various theories of development and explain

the understanding of the developmental process.

4. Analyze their own experiences and development in the light
of the principles,
issues and theories discussed in this module.

CHAPTER 1
BASIC CONCEPTS, PRINCIPLES AND ISSUES IN
DEVELOPMENT
DEFINING DEVELOPMENT
What is Development?
Development is usually viewed as a process of growth and
maturation that an individual undergoes throughout his/her lifetime.
The study of human development is, above all, the study of change.
Bukatko and Daehler (1998) describes development as encompassing
all the physical and psychological changes a human being undergoes
in a lifetime, from the moment of conception until death.
Regardless of the terms we use to pose these and other questions, we
can think of development as a progressive series of changes that
occur in the predictable pattern as the result of interactions between
biological and environmental factors (Salkind, 2004).
In looking at development, it is important to consider the following
points:
Development is the result of complex interactions between
biological and environmental influences.
At no other time of life does change take place at such a rapid
pace as in childhood and adolescence.
The range and complexity of every young persons achievements
in the first two decades of life can only be called extraordinary.
Development as a Field of Study
Developmental Psychology is the discipline concerned with
the scientific study of changes in human behaviors and mental
activities as they occur over a lifetime. Developmental psychologists

3
rely on the general principles of scientific research to collect
information about growth and change in children.
An essential ingredient of the scientific process is the construction of
a theory, which is a set of ideas or propositions that helps to
organize or explain observable phenomena. These theories will be
described and explored in this module.
The early scientific studies of children, concentrated on specific
areas of child behavior such as speech, emotions, or play interests and
activities. This field was called child psychology which centered
on the psychological phenomena of the preschool and school-age
child.
In time, it became apparent that studying different areas of child
behavior at different age levels was not be enough. Thus, interest
began to shift, and the name child psychology was changed to child
development which emphasizes that the focus was now on the
pattern of the childs development rather than certain aspects of
development.
PRINCIPLES AND ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENT
Developmental psychologists argue that an accurate picture of
the developmental pattern is fundamental to an understanding of
children and adolescents. Likewise, knowledge of the factors that
cause variations in development are essential.
In 1978 , Elizabeth Hurlock
outlined ten principles of
development. Though certain modifications were made, to this date,
these principles are still the subject of discussion in understanding
the processes and issues on human development. These 10 principles
are outlined below (Hurlock, 1978).
1. Development Involves Changes
2. Early Development is More Critical Than Later Development
3. Development is the Product of Maturation and Learning
4. The Developmental Pattern is Predictable
5. The Developmental Pattern Has Predictable Characteristics
6. There are Individual Differences in Development
7. There are Periods in the Developmental Pattern
8. There are Social Expectations for Every Developmental Period
9. Every Area of Development Has Potential Hazards

4
10.

Happiness Varies at Different Periods in Development

Let us examine each principle of development and see how it can help
us in understanding children and adolescents.
1. Development Involves Changes
From conception to the time of death, the person undergoes a lot
of changes. Thus, we often say that a person grows and develops.
Growth refers to quantitative changes such as increases in size
and structure. On the other hand, development involves both
qualitative and quantitative changes. It may be defined as a
progressive series of orderly, coherent changes (Hurlock, 1978).
Progressive means directional or leading forward, and
coherent suggests a definite relationship between the changes
taking place and those that precede of follow them.
For example, as a result of the growth of the brain, the child has a
greater capacity for learning, for remembering, and for reasoning.
The child grows mentally as well as physically.
The goal of developmental changes is self-realization or the
achievement of genetic potentials. Whether the person will reach
his full potential depend what obstacles are encountered and how
the person overcomes these obstacles.
2. Early
Development
Development

is

More

Critical

than

Later

Histories of maladjusted children from preschool years to high

school or college revealed that most of them were poorly adjusted
as young children. In his studies of personality maladjustment,
Sigmund Freud found that personality disorders could be traced to
unfavorable childhood experiences or faulty upbringing. Likewise,
Erikson pointed out in his psychosocial stages of development that
what happens in childhood determines mans later behavior as an
adult. For example, in his babyhood a child learns either to have
trust or mistrust, depending on his experiences with people
around him.
Most psychologists and educators agree that the preschool years
from 2 to 5 years are very critical because it is the period during
which the foundations are laid for the complex behavioral
structures that are built in a childs lifetime.

5
3. Development is the Product of Maturation and Learning
Maturation or intrinsic maturing is the unfolding of
characteristics potentially present in the individual that come from
his/her genetic endowment.
Learning is development that comes from exercise and effort,
which depends on the opportunities to learn that is provided by the
environment.
Both maturation and learning or heredity and environment play
an important role in the development. The development of physical
and mental traits comes from an intrinsic maturing of these traits
and from exercise and effort on the part of the individual
For example, a child will learn to walk only if the bones have
matured enough to allow him to stand. But this also involves
creeping, crawling, sitting, and eventually walking. But learning
can be facilitated when the individual is given environmental
support.
4. The Developmental Pattern is Predictable
The human species follows a pattern of development peculiar to
the species. In both prenatal and postnatal development, there is
usually a genetic sequence with certain traits appearing at fixed
intervals.
In physical development, there are two laws of the directional
sequence of development, the cephalocaudal and the
proximodistal laws. In the cephalocaudal law, development
spreads over the body from head to foot. In the proximodistal law,
development proceeds from the central axis of the body toward the
extremities.
Patterns of mental development are also as predictable as those of
physical development.
5. The
Developmental
Characteristics

Pattern

Has

Predictable

The following are some predictable characteristics common to

development of children
a) Similarity in developmental patterns all children follow a
similar developmental pattern with one stage leading to the
next.
b) Development proceeds from general to specific responses in
mental and motor responses, general activity always precedes
specific activities.

6
c) Development in continuous although it occurs at different
rates (sometimes slow or rapid), development continues from
conception to death
d) Different Areas Develop at Different Rates like physical traits,
intellectual capacities develop at different rates and reach
maturity at different ages.
e) There is correlation in development Studies show that
desirable traits tend to go together. No negative correlations
were found between intelligence and size, strength, physical
well-being, or emotional stability.
6. There are Individual Differences in Development
Although the pattern of development is similar for all children,
they differ in the rate and manner in which they follow the
predictable pattern. Some children develop in a smooth gradual
fashion while others move in spurts. They do not reach the same
point of development at the same age.
What causes these differences in development?
7. There are Periods in the Developmental Pattern
Because certain traits are prominent at different ages, it is possible
to mark off major periods in development which are characterized
by biological events and changes in the individuals behavior.
According to Hurlock (1978), these periods are as follows :
a) Prenatal period conception to birth
b) Infancy birth to 10-14 days; period of the neonate
c) Babyhood 2 weeks to 2 years
d) Early Childhood 2 to 6 years
e) Late Childhood 6 years to puberty (13 years in girls and 14
years in boys)
f) Puberty (11 to 16 years) approximately 2 years overlap the
end of childhood and 2 years overlap the beginning of
adolescence.
Beyond childhood, the major developmental periods are:
g) Adolescence 13 to 19 years
h) Adulthood divided into early, middle, and late adulthood

8. There are Social Expectations for Every Developmental

Period
Social expectations or developmental tasks are defined by
Robert Havighurst (1952) as a task which arises at or about a
certain period in the life of an individual, successful achievement of
which leads to his happiness and success with later tasks, while
failure leads to unhappiness in the individual, disapproval by
society, and difficulty with later tasks. Some developmental tasks
result from physical maturation such as learning to walk while
other arise from cultural pressures of society, such as learning to
read.
Developmental tasks serve 3 important purposes:
a) as guidelines to help parents and teachers know what children
should learn at a given age.
b) As motivating forces for children to learn what the social group
expects them to learn at that age.
c) They tell parents and teachers what will be expected of children
in the immediate and remote future, to help them prepare
children to meet these expectations.
9. Every Area of Development Has Potential Hazards
At every age, there are hazards in some areas of development that
interfere with the normal pattern. Some of these hazards are
environmental, while others come from within. They affect the
physical, psychological and social adjustments that the child or
adolescent is attempting to make. As a result, they change the
developmental pattern by producing a plateau in which no forward
movement occurs, or may cause a regression to a lower stage. This
results to adjustment problems on the part of the individual.
10.
Happiness
Development

Varies

at

Different

Periods

in

Traditional belief mark childhood as the happiest period of life.

This is because almost everyone find the helplessness of babies and
children appealing and tries to make them happy. But some babies
and children are unwanted, neglected, mistreated, and abused.
Thus, this period can be a very unhappy stage in their lives.
Puberty can be an unhappy and tumultuous stage for many
children. Social and emotional adjustments at this stage

8
accompany the many physical changes which may be difficult for
the child to handle.
Happiness (well-being) or the lack of it has such a great impact on
the personal and social adjustments of children and adolescents.
How Happiness Affects Childhood Adjustment
Happy children are normally healthy and energetic.
Unhappiness saps their strength and energy and lowers
their general physical well-being.
Happy children turn their energies into purposeful
activities, while unhappy children dissipate their energies
in brooding, daydreaming, and self-pity.
Happiness improves childrens looks by giving them a
cheerful
expression.
People
react
positively
to
cheerfulness and negatively to the whipped-dog
expression characteristic of an unhappy child.
Happiness supplies a strong motivation to do things, while
unhappiness stifles motivation.
Happy children accept frustrations more calmly and try to
understand the reasons for frustrations. Unhappy children
react with temper outbursts, and this militates against
their learning why frustrations exist.
Happiness encourages social contacts and participation in
social activities. Unhappiness encourages children to be
withdrawn and self-oriented.
With repetition, happiness becomes a habit. In the same
way, unhappiness can develop into a habit.
A happy childhood does not guarantee adult success, but
it lays the foundation for success, while unhappiness lays
the foundation for failure.
ISSUES IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
The issues raised by developmental psychologists continue to stir
debate and new questions in understanding human development.
Some of the most intriguing issues are outlined below. Examine each
issue and discuss how they impact on the study of children and
adolescents.

1. What Roles Do Nature and Nurture Play in Development?

With many decades of debate and research over the issue of
nature versus nurture, many have come to believe that it is not a
question of the greater importance of environmental influences or
hereditary factors, or how much of it is present; rather, what is
important is the way in which these two elements interact (Anastasi,
1958, in Salkind, 2004).
The Interactional Model can help to explain the relative effects of
genetic and environmental influences on development. Unless one set
of influences, environment or hereditary is clearly dominant, there is a
subtle interplay or interaction between the roles of heredity and
environment.
2. The Process That Guides Development Maturation and
Learning
Maturation is a biological process in which developmental changes
are controlled by internal factors. Events that result from maturation
(such as walking or secondary sex changes at puberty) are
characteristic of the species; they are not learned. Learning refers to
developmental changes that result from exercise or practice, and the
outcomes of learning are highly individualized and specific.
3. The shape
discontinuous?

of

development.

Is

it

Continuous

of

Salkind (2004) explains that those who view development as a

continuous process believe that (a) changes occur in small, gradual
steps, (b) the outcomes of development are more of the same and
not qualitatively different from what was present earlier; and (c) the
same general laws underlie the process at all points along the
developmental continuum. Theories of development that tend to stress
the importance of environmental factors, such as behavioral
approaches, view development as continuous.
Those who view development as discontinuous believe (a) that
developmental changes are abrupt and represent qualitative
differences from what existed before and (b) that different general
laws characterize various developmental changes. Theorists like Jean
Piaget believe that development is characterized by a series of
independent, qualitatively different stages.
4. How prominent are individual differences in development?

10
Although all individuals have a great deal in common, we are all
different as well. By understanding how various theories of
development explain these differences, one can gain some insight into
the differences among these theories. Even from birth, individual
differences are apparent in humans.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES

Critical Thinking:
1. Why are early foundations important in development? Do
children really outgrow undesirable traits as they grow older?
2. Explain further maturation sets limits to what a person can do
or become.
3. Discuss the importance of readiness to learn or teachable
moment in learning and development.
4. Differentiate longitudinal study from cross sectional study which
are used in studying human development. Cite examples to
explain the advantages and disadvantages of using each type of
study.

References
1. Bee, Helen Lifespan Development 2nd edition. 1998 Addison
Wesley Educational Publishers Inc.:New York.
2. Bukatko, Danuta and Daehler, Marvin W. Child Development: A
Thematic Approach 3rd edition. Houghton Mifflin Company:
Boston
3. Hurlock, Elizabeth B. Child Development
McGraw-Hill Book Company: New York.

6 th Edition (1978)

4. Salkind, Neil J.
An Introduction to Theories of Human
Development (2004) SAGE Publications Inc: California.

CHAPTER 2
THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
Theory: Definition and Function
According to Salkind (2004) a theory is a group of logically related
statements (for example, formulas, ideas and rules) that explains
events that happened in the past and helps to predict future events.

11
Good theories, grounded in careful research, help us think about and
understand processes and issues in development. They serve the
following purposes: a) to guide scientists in collecting information
needed to describe some aspect of a phenomenon. b) to help scientists
in integrating a set of facts into general categories and (c ) to help
scientists present material and information in an organized and
coherent way, so that answers to questions are not just random,
groundless efforts.
All of the theories of development presented in this module have
significant contributions to our understanding of the developmental
process. Different theories are in agreement to some points and differ
on others.
MATURATION AND BIOLOGICAL MODELS
As a physician, Arnold Gesell believed that the sequence of
development of the organism is essentially under the control of
biological systems and the process of maturation.
Although
environment is of some importance, it acts only in a supportive role
and does not provide any impetus for change.
Gesell summarized his theory in five distinct principles of
development, which he later applied to behavior. All these principles
assume that the formation of structures is necessary before any event
outside the organism can have an influence on development.(Salkind,
2004)
1. Principle of Developmental Direction development has
direction and this direction is basically a function of
preprogrammed genetic mechanisms. This principle is
supported by the cephalocaudal and proximodistal trends
in development.
2. Principle of Reciprocal Interweaving opposing sets of
forces are dominant at different times during the
developmental cycle. The work of these opposing forces
results in integration and progression toward a higher
level of developmental maturity.
3. Principle of Functional Asymmetry behaviors go through
periods of asymmetric development that allow the
organism to achieve a measure of maturity a later stages.
4. Principle of Individuating Maturation development
involves predetermined sequential patterning that is

12
revealed as the organism matures.
importance of a growth matrix.

It

stresses

the

5. Principle of Self-Regulatory Fluctuation every stage of

disequilibrium or imbalance in development is followed by
a stage of equilibrium.
Gesell also emphasizes the importance of wide-ranging and stable
individual differences. He breaks down individual differences in
behavioral development into four areas: motor behavior, adaptive
behavior, language behavior, and personal-social behavior.
The maturation model stresses the importance of biological influences
on development and has had its greatest impact on child rearing
practices.
PSYCHODYNAMIC OR PSYCHOSOCIAL MODELS
The psychodynamic (or psychoanalytic) model, developed initially by
Sigmund Freud, assumes that development consists of dynamic,
structural, and sequential components, each of which is influenced by
a continuously renewed need for the gratification of basic instincts.
(Salkind, 2004). How psychic energy energy of life or libidinal
energy is channeled through these different components constitutes
the basis of developmental process and individual differences.
Freud describes three separate, yet interdependent, psychological
structures the id, the ego and the superego and the ways in
which they regulate behavior.
Freuds Psychosexual Theory of Development
Freud proposed that many aspects of the individuals
personality originate in an early and broad form of childhood sexuality
and that gratification of this sexuality changes throughout the various
stages of development. He believed that human behavior is fueled by
biological instincts that produce psychological forces or libidinal
energy which requires eventual discharge.
Freuds Stages of Psychosexual Development (from Bukatko and
Daehler, 1998, with modifications)
Stage

Focus

Consequence

for

Personality
Oral (birth Libidinal
energy Inadequate oral gratification
to
12 centered
on
the may lead to fixations in the form
months
mouth. Gratification of thumb sucking, or other oral

13
through
sucking, activity such as over eating, or
chewing, eating, and other forms of taking things in
biting.
(such as wealth or power) ;
possible
biting
(sarcastic)
personality.
Anal
years)

(1-3 Libidinal
energy
centered
on
anal
region. Gratification
through
controlling
and expelling fecal
wastes.

If toilet training demands are

too lax, fixations may occur in
being
messy,
disorderly,
wasteful,
or
excessively
demonstrative.
Strict
toilet
training
may
result
in
possessive, retentive (frugal and
stingy) personality and excessive
concern with cleanliness and
orderliness.

Phallic (3-5 Libidinal

energy
years
centered on genitals.
Gratification
possible
through
expressions of desire
for
opposite-sex
parent.

Beginning rivalry with members

of the same sex. Fixations
appear as inordinate ties to
opposite-sex parent or difficulty
in
achieving
appropriate
relationships with members of
the same and opposite sex.

Latency (5 Libidinal energy is

years
to suppressed and not
adolescence shown through any
body region

Energies are channeled to

emotionally safe areas, such as
intellectual, athletic, and social
achievements.

Genital
(adolescenc
e
and
beyond)

Complete independence from

parents becomes possible. A
balance between love and work
marks
normal
psychosexual
development.

Libidinal
energy
centered on mature
forms
of
genital
stimulation.
Gratification directed
toward reproduc- tive
functions.

Freud believed that the persons progression through these stages is

greatly influenced by maturation. However, the environment also
plays a critical role in this normal progression. Lack of opportunity to
have needs sufficiently met or express them adequately may have
negative consequences on how the child relates to others and for
feelings of self-worth.

14
Eriksons Psychosocial Theory
Erik Erikson followed Freuds developmental theory to chart eight
stages of development. Instead of biological and sexual explanations,
he emphasized psychosocial needs and conflicts that need to be
resolved at each stage of development. His theory of development
highlights the childs need to initiate adaptive modes of functioning
while meeting the variety of demands imposed by the society in which
he/she lives.
According to Erikson, psychological development results from the
interaction between biological needs and social demands.
Eriksons Stages of Psychosocial Development (Bukatko and
Daehler, 1998)
Stage

Adaptive Mode

Significant
Outcomes

Events

and

Basic
Trust Incorporation to Babies must find consistency,
vs. Mistrust take in (and give predictability and reliability in the
(birth to 1 in return)
caregivers behavior. Out of these
year)
experiences babies learn to trust
the world and themselves or to
gain a sense of hope.
Autonomy vs. Control to hold
Shame
and on and to let go
doubt
(1-3
years)

The child begins to explore, make

messes, say no, and make
choices. He comes to understand
what is socially acceptable or
unacceptable without losing the
feeling of being able to manage or
the sense of will.

Initiative
Guilt

vs. Intrusion to go The child begin to make plans, set

after
goals, and persist in both physical
and social changes. Even though
(3-6 years)
frustration is inevitable, the
childs
goal
is
to
remain
enthusiastic and bold and to gain
a sense of purpose.
Industry vs. Construction to
Inferiority ( 6 build things and
years
to relationships
puberty)

The child acquires and extends

skills to the wider culture,
performs work in the sense of
education or support of the family.
Failure and feelings of inadequacy
occur, but the child must be able

15
to feel competent and achieve a
sense of skill.
Identity vs. Integration to be The adolescent attempts to bring
Identity
oneself (or not to together experiences to discover
Confusion
be oneself)
his or her identity and place in
society. This trying out of many
(puberty
to
roles should lead to an answer to
adulthood)
the question Who am I? or a
sense of fidelity to self.
Intimacy vs.
Isolation
(young
adulthood)

Generativity
vs.
Stagnation
(middle
adulthood)

Solidarity to lose The young adult who has achieved

and find oneself in a sense of identity is no longer
another
self-absorbed and can now share
himself with another. Inability to
do so contributes to feelings of
isolation and self absorption and
the absence of a sense of love.
Productivity - to The adult not only produces
make and take things and ideas through work but
care of
also creates and cares for the next
generation. Lack of productive
endeavors leads to boredom,
stagnation, and the absence of a
sense of caring.

Integrity vs. Acceptance to be

Despair (old (by having been)
age)
and to face not
being

The older adult reviews his life

and
reevaluates
its
worth.
Acceptance of that life, even
though all goals have not been
achieved,
and
of
death
contributes to a sense of wisdom.

Significant Contributions
1. Many practitioners have adopted Eriksons theory as a useful
framework from which to deal with parents and children. Educators
often find Eriksons descriptions of the developmental tasks useful
when they are choosing and designing curricula.
2. The commonsense dimensions of Eriksons stages are appealing
and because in his writings he pays central attention to schools,
neighborhoods, cultural values, and social patterns, his readers find
examples of experiences they can identify with.
BEHAVIORAL-LEARNING MODELS

16

The behavioral perspective views development as a function of

learning and as something that proceeds according to certain laws or
principles of learning. Most important, it places the major impetus for
growth and development outside of the individual in the
environment, rather than within the organism itself.
Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior as a
result of such experiences as exploration, observation, and practice.
The basic assumptions of behavioral models are:
1. Development is a function of learning.
2. Development is the result of different types of learning
3. Individual differences in development reflect differences
in the histories and past experiences of individuals.
4. Development results from the organization of existing
behaviors. It progresses from simple behaviors to more
complex ones, all subject to the laws of learning.
5. Biological factors set general limits on the kinds of
behaviors that develop, but the environment determines
the behaviors in which the individual engages.
6. The development of the individual is not directly related to
biologically determined stages.
Behavior analysis is a theoretical account of development that relies
on several basic principles of learning, particularly classical and
operant conditioning, to explain developmental changes in behavior
(Bukatko and Daehler, 1998).
Ivan Pavlovs Classical Conditioning is a type of learning that
occurs when two different events happen simultaneously and one of
the events takes on the quality of eliciting the other (or the original
event). The application of Pavlovs work on the conditioned reflex to
the process of development can be summed up by two points:
(Salkind, 2004).
1. Learning is governed by relationships between stimuli in the
environment and the organisms reaction to those stimuli.
2. The way one response generalizes to other stimuli (and in turn
is differentiated from other stimuli) explains how an organism

17
becomes increasingly complex in its multifaceted relationship to
the environment.
B. F. Skinners Operant Conditioning assume that behavior is a
function of its consequences or what follows it. When a behavior is
reinforced by a stimulus, the strength of the association between the
stimulus and the behavior is increased.
Operant and classical conditioning have been shown to have
enormous potential to change behavior. If the consequences of
behavior (such as studying) are good (such as high grades), that
behavior is likely to continue in the future. If the consequences of the
behavior (such as staying out past curfew) are not good (such as loss
of privileges), the behavior will change (perhaps the person will come
home an earlier hour or not go out at all on weeknights).
Operant and classical conditioning have become powerful means by
which teachers, therapists, and caregivers bring about changes in
behavior ranging from the elimination of temper tantrums or thumb
sucking to encouraging healthy diets and habits.
Social Learning Theory
This theory emphasizes the importance of learning through
observation and imitation (modeling) of the behaviors displayed by
others. It underscores observational learning, the acquisition of
behaviors from listening to and watching other people, as a
particularly important means of learning new behaviors.
Albert Banduras theory, now known as social cognitive theory
incorporate four cognitive processes which he believes are important
in observational learning. Attentional processes determine what
information will be acquired from models and memory processes
convert these observations into stored mental representations.
Production processes then transform these mental representations
into matching behaviors, and motivational processes define which
behaviors are likely to be performed.
COGNITIVE-DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL
The cognitive-developmental model in human development stresses
the individuals active rather that reactive role in the developmental
process and in the social and cultural context within which he or she
develops. The basic assumptions of the model are as follows:
1. Development occurs in a series of qualitatively distinct stages.
2. These stages always follow the same sequence, but they do not
necessarily occur at the same times for all individuals.

18
3. These stages are hierarchically organized, such that later stages
subsume the characteristics of earlier ones.
Of primary interest to the cognitive-developmental psychologist is the
sequence of stages and the process of transition from one stage to the
next. It is for this reason that researchers have focused on the set of
stage-related behaviors and their correlates across such dimensions
as cognitive or social development. For example, a psychologist might
be interested in examining how children of different ages (and
presumably different developmental stages) solve a similar type of
problem.
After observing many children of different ages, the
psychologist can postulate the existence of different types of
underlying structures that are responsible for the strategies children
use.
A great deal of Jean Piagets work has been directed towards
reaching a better understanding of the thinking processes that
children at different developmental levels use to solve problems. In
Piagets model, development entails four factors: maturation,
experience, social transmission, and equilibration. He outlined four
stages of intellectual or cognitive development namely: Sensorimotor
(birth 2 years), Pre-operational (2-7 years), Concrete Operational (712 years), Formal Operational (12 years adulthood).
According to Piaget:
1. Development is a discontinuous process characterized by
abrupt changes from stage to stage.
2. Disequilibrium is the motivation for further development.
Another cognitive-developmental theorist, Lev Vygotsky, also placed
a great deal of importance on accomplishments of the individual in his
or her own actions. But unlike Piaget, Vygotsky emphasized the role
that culture and outside influences play in leading the individual
toward the next level of development.
According to Vygotsky:
1. Children construct their own knowledge through activity and
interaction with culture and society.
2. Development cannot be separated from the social context within
which it occurs.
3. Learning can lead or set the stage for development.
4. Language plays a central role in mental development.
A critical element of Vygotskys theory is the concept of the zone of
proximal development, or ZPD, which is the distance between the
childs potential level of development and what the child can currently
do.

19
The greatest impacts of the cognitive-developmental approach have
been in the different areas of education.
An Overview of Major Theories of Development (Salkind, 2004)
Maturationa Psychodyna
l
and mic
Biological

Behavioral

CognitiveDevelopme
ntal

What
are The sequence Humans are Developmen Developmen
the basic
and content
conflicted
t
is
a
t is the
assumptio
of
beings, and
function of
result
of
ns of this
development
individual
the laws of
the
theory?
is
differences
learning,
persons
determined
as well as
and
active
mostly
by
normal
environme
particibiological
growth
nt
has
pation
in
factors and
result from
important
the
the
the
influences
developme
evolutionary
resolution
on growth
ntal
history
of
of
those
and
process in
the species.
conflicts.
developme
inter
nt.
action with
important
environme
ntal
influences.

An Overview of Major Theories of Development (Salkind, 2004)

What is the Recapitulatio

Embryologic
philosophi
n
theory,
al
cal
reformation
rationale
and
for
the
predetermin
theory?
ism

Tabula rasa Predetermin

(blank
ism
slate)

What
are Growth
of Effects
of Frequency
the
biological
instincts on
of
important
needs and

Stagerelated
transforma

20

variables
most often
studied in
this
theory?

systems

the
way
instincts
are
satisfied

behaviors

tions and
qualitative
changes
from
one
stage
to
another

What is the Use

of Case studies Conditionin Observation
primary
cinematic
and
the
g
and
of
social
method
records,
indirect
modeling
and
used in the
anthropologi
examinatio
paradigms
cognitive
theory to
cal
data,
n
of
problem
study
normative
unconsciou
solving
developme
investigation
s processes
during
nt?
, and animal
transitions
studies
from stage
to stage
In
what Child rearing, Personality
Systematic
Understandi
areas has
the
developme
analysis
ng of how
the theory
importance
nt and the
and
thinking
had
its
of biological
relationshi
treatment
and
greatest
determinant
p between
of
cognition
impact?
s, aspects of
culture and
behavior
develop in
cultural and
behavior
and
light
of
historical
educationa
cultural
development
l
conditions
applicatio
and
ns
demands

ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES:
Critical Thinking:

21
1. What role does age play as a general marker of changes in
development?
2. Cite examples to explain this assumption Development results
from the organization of existing behaviors. It progresses from
simple behaviors to more complex ones, all subject to the laws
of learning.
Activity
1. Find out Gesells research using motion pictures or cinema
records to study infants during the first year of life and 5 years
later. Explain his findings and its impact to understanding
development.
2. Interview an adolescent and trace his/her development using
Erik Eriksons theory on psychosocial development. Consider
the psychosocial crises encountered by the adolescent, how
these were resolved, and the significant events and outcomes.

22

CHAPTER 3
DEVELOPMENT OVER THE LIFE SPAN
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
1. Prenatal
The Birth Process
2. Infancy
3. Early Childhood
4. Later Childhood
5. Adolescence
Puberty
6. Adulthood
Early Adulthood
Middle Adulthood
Later Adulthood

AREAS OF DEVELOPMENT
1. Physical and Motor Development
2. Speech and Language Development
3. Social Development
4. Mental or Cognitive Development
5. Emotional or Affective Development
6. Moral and Spiritual Development
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES
Critical Thinking:
Activity/Project:

23
1. Trace your own development or that of a person close to you.
List down the developmental milestones at each level and
indicate its impact on your current status as an adult.