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PROJECTED AIDS

INDRODUCTION
Audio visual aids are being increasingly used in modern day educational programmes. It has
become inevitable to make the classroom teaching colourful and vivid. These are the devices,
by which the teacher help the students to clarify, establish and correlate concepts and
appreciate them through utilization of more than one sensory channel. They are the means of
communication that help to make learning more meaningful, more interesting and more
effective. Audio visual aids supplement the teachers explanation and are called teaching aids,
since teachers, plan prepare and use them in the classroom. It is to be remembered that in any
situation, teaching aids can never be able to replace a teacher.
DEFINITION
Audio visual aids are any devices that can be used to make the learning experience
more concrete, more realistic, and more dynamic. (Kinder)
Audio visual aids as all materials used in the classroom or in other teaching
situations, to facilitate the understanding of the written or spoken words.(Dent)
Audio visual aids are supplementary devices by which the teacher, through the
utilization of more than one sensory channel is able to clarify, establish and correlate
concepts, interpretations and appreciations.(Mc kown and Roberts)
Audio visual aids are those sensory objects or images which initiate or stimulate and
reinforce learning.(Burton)
HISTORY OF AUDIO - VISUAL AIDS
A Dutch Humanist theologist & writer Erasmus (1466-1536) disclosed memorization as a
technique of learning and advocated that the children should learn through the aids of pictures
or other visuals. While John Amos Comenius (1592-1670) prepared a book known as Orbis
Sensilium Pictus (the world of sense objects) which contained near about 150 pictures on
aspects of every day life. This is considered as an illustrated book for the children education.
The term visual education was use by Nelson Greence in 1926.
FEATURES OF GOOD TEACHING AIDS

1. They should meaningful & purposeful.


2. They should be accurate in all respects.
3. They should be simple.
4. They should be cheap.
5. As far as they should be update.
6. They should motivate the learner as well as to the teacher also.
PRINCIPLES OF AUDIO VISUAL AIDS
For effective teaching to take place a a good method must be adopted by the teacher. The
teacher is always free to choose effective audio visual aids in the class room. Of courses there
are also certain principles of Audio Visual Aids in teaching methodology. They are as
follows:
1. Principle of Selection

The age level


Other personality angles
They should have specific educational values
They should help in the realization of learning desired objectives.

2. Principle of Preparation
As far as possible, the local material should be used in the preparation of aids.
The teacher also must receive training in the preparation of aids.
The teacher him/herself can prepare some aids or can take help of students
also.
3. Principle of Physical Control
This is concerned with the arrangement of keeping aids safely and also to
facilitate to their lending to the teachers for use.
4. Principle of Proper Presentation

Teacher should carefully visualize the use of teaching aids before their actual
presentation.
They should be well acquainted themselves with the use & manipulation of
the aids to be shown in the class room.
The aids should be displayed properly. So that, all the students can see it,
observe it, and can derive maximum benefits from it.
5. Principle of Response
This is the important principle. This tells the teacher guide the students to
respond actively to the audio visual stimulus so that they derive the maximum
benefits in learning.
6. Principle of Evaluation
This Principle stipulates that there should be continuous evaluation of Audio
Visual Aids materials & accompanying techniques in the light of desired
objectives
USES OF AV AIDS IN TEACHING

Best motivators
Concrete
Firsthand experience
Variety
Greater retention
Attractive
Promotes learning
Saves energy and time
Realistic
Vividness
Meets the individual needs
Aids in mass education
Promotes scientific temper
Develop higher faculties
Reinforces learning

ADVANTAGES OF AV AIDS
They provide concrete basis for conceptual thinking.
They stimulate interest among students.

They making learning more permanent and realistic.


They help to communicate ideas clearly and precisely.
They stimulate self-activity on the part of students.
They promote group dynamics among students.
They provide experience not easily obtained through other materials.
They economise time, effort and materials.
They help in sharing experiences.
They are potent starters and motivators.
They provide variety of classroom techniques.
They give a true picture of object.
It develops continuity of thoughts in teaching.
Motivates the people to do a better and purposeful teaching career.
It can motivate goal seeking and evaluate outcome.

DISADVANTAGES OF AV AIDS

Audio visual aids are not the panacea for all instructional ills.
They are not aids to teaching, but to learning.
They are not ends but means to facilitate good learning.
They should not be misused.

CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF AV AIDS


1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Type of objective to be achieved.


Entry behaviour of the learners.
Size of the class
Nature of the subject matter
Availability of resources.
Availability of time
Teachers competency to use a specific method/media

PROBLEMS IN UTILIZING AUDIOVISUAL AIDS


1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)

Apathy of the teachers


Indifference of the students
Ineffective aids
Electrical problems
Lack of knowledge in preparation and handling
Language difficulties
Financial problems

CLASSIFICATION I
1. Auditory Aids: - These aids produce sound and act through the ear. These are:

a) Gramophone
b) Tape Recorder
c) Radio.
2. Visual Aids: - These aids presents pictures and matters act through the eyes. These
are:a) The chalk-board
b) The flannel-board
c) The bulletin-board
d) Projected aids: such as slides, epidiascope film-strips and motion pictures etc.
e) Representationscharts, sketches, flash cards, posters, cartoons, pictures etc.
3. Audio-Visual aids: - These aids produce both pictorial and sounds which influence
mind both through the eyes and ears. These are:a) Television
b) Sound motion pictures
4. Activity aids: - These aids induce direct participation of students and teachers to get
first hand knowledge. These are:a) Tours, Excursion, field trips.
b) Collection of specimens, models, pictures, coins etc.
c) Preparation of models, charts, puppets etc.
d) Dramatics, Demonstration.
5.Traditional media :Eg: Puppets, dramas, folk songs and folkdance.
CLASSIFICATION II

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PROJECTED AIDS
EPIDIASCOPE
This device has an additional advantage over the magic lantern by projecting opaque
object beside transparent slides on the screen. With its help, any picture can be enlarged on
the screen without tearing off from the book. No slide is needed for this purpose. In this way,
the device serves two purposes. When is used to project an opaque object it works as
episcope and when it is used to project slides (by operating a lever), then it serves as
diascope. That is why, it is named as epidiascope. It employs the principle c horizontal line
projection with a lamp, plane mirror and projection lens. A strong light from the lamp falls on
the opaque object. A plane mirror placed at an angle of 45 over the object reflects the light
so that it passes through the projection lens forming a magnified image on the screen.
Use of Epidiascope in Teaching-Learning

Epidiascope can play an important role in the teaching and learning of various school subjects
in the following manner:
1. Various slides related to the subject material can be easily shown by projecting on the
screen in their enlarged forms with the help of this device. Thus, if the figure or
illustration is very small and it is required that the whole class should see it clearly, a
transparent slide of this small figure can be prepared by the subject teacher with the
involvement of his students (for projecting on the screen in its enlarged size through
the help of an epidiascope). Since slides can also be available from the markets or
borrowed from the relevant sources, a teacher may not feel handicapped and thus may
resort to their proper use by obtaining them from the concerned sources.
2. The major advantage of epidiascope lies in its ability to directly project the
nontransparent or opaque objects available in their real form (without converting them
into their slides) on the screen in an enlarged size. Consequently, various types of
useful material related to teaching contents may be successfully presented for the
proper view of the entire class. Such material may include:
a. Graphic and pictorial materials like pictures, charts, maps, diagrams,
timelines, cartoons, posters, graphs, etc.
b. All types of printed material.
c. Handwritten material, drawing and sketches.
d. Stamps, coins, stone minerals, remain of historical or cultural interests, fossils,
bones, etc.
e. Specimen of living and non-living objects.
f. Models, dioramas, pieces of arts, figures, etc.
3. The use of epidiascope may have another extra advantage on account of its capacity to
help in the preparation of graphic aids like pictures, charts, maps, diagrams, graphs,
timelines, etc. For such purpose, the illustrated material like pictures or maps given in
the books, magazine, and other sources may be directly put on the platform of the
epidiascope to be projected on the sheet of a paper stitched or clamped on the screen
and then the necessary drawings or sketches may be drawn with the help of coloured
pencils.
PROJECTORS
Projectors, occupy a prominent place in the instructions of various subjects of the school
curriculum. In our classrooms, we generally make use of the following three types of
projectors:

Slides cum filmstrip projector


Overhead projector
Opaque projector
Let us try to discuss these three types of projectors with respect to their construction, working
and use
Slide cum Filmstrips Projector:
As the name suggests, this type of projectors are helpful in projecting slides as well as
filmstrips on the screen and thus making it possible to view, in an enlarged form, the graphics
like pictures, charts, diagrams, photographs, maps, cartoons, posters, graphs and timelines
related to the subject. Generally, for the projection of this type of projectors, we make use of
the 2 x 2 slides and 35 mm filmstrips. The construction and mechanism of this type of
projectors have been diagrammatically presented.
The basic design of a slide-cum-filmstrip projector is same as that of lantern slide projector.
The variation lies in:

The mechanism for channelising and moving the filmstrip through the projector,
Nearness of projection lens to the aperture in comparison to that of the lantern slide

projector, and
Provision of a cooling fan for protecting the filmstrip or slides from over heating.

For the use of this type of projectors, the teacher in charge should try to gain competency in
the task of handling the switches meant for the operation of various functions of the
equipment along with the certain needed precautions. After that he can insert the desired
filmstrips or slides one by one at the proper time of their instructional use and. keep them on
the screen as long as it is necessary. Such projection of the filmstrips or slides on the screen,
then, should be accompanied by the relevant verbal commentary for the needed exposition,
explanation and illustration of the subject matter. A teacher himself can make the commentary
or he can take the help of a student for this purpose. For better results, one can take the help
of a tape recorder by taking precaution in synthesizing the recorded commentary with the
things projected on the screen.
OVERHEAD PROJECTOR
The overhead projector, although having similar optical elements, represents a lot of
improvement over magic lantern, slide, and film projectors. The uniqueness may be
summarized as follows:

It contains an area of vertical projection besides the straight horizontal path of light
available with the usual projectors. The path of the light rays is again changed to a
horizontal one by a mirror placed at 45 angle and continues over the shoulder of the
teacher to the screen as may be evident from the diagram shown.
It contains a large aperture of the size 25 x 25 cm or 20 x 20 cm for placing the slides
and other visual materials.
It provides for the focusing of the image on the screen by vertical movements of the
projection head (containing the objective lens and mirror).
There is a provision of a constant flow of air past the lamp by a cooling fan in the
base of the projector.
Overhead projector is the projecting medium on which, with the help of transparencies or
overhead transparency film (OHP film), group education can be given. While using OHP, the
teacher can maintain eye contact with the students. This can be used in a well lit room.
Transparencies can be prepared using acetate sheet with specially made marker pens.
Complicated diagrams can be transferred to the acetate from the original material by
Xeroxing.
Important points in using OHP:
1. Transparencies are plastic sheets, readily available in A4 size on which we can write
information.
2. The transparency is then used with an overhead projector to show the written material
on a screen.
3. This instructional medium is probably next to the chalkboard and handouts in
frequency of use.
4. OHP is used to demonstrate visually important points, show diagrams, highlight
issues, build up information as to teach, and to support other methods of visual
communication.
5. Transparencies can be done by using special OHP pens. There are basically two kinds
of pen such as
Spirit- based pens whose images are permanent.
Water based pens whose images can be erased with plain water.
6. Use large bold letters and clear simple drawings with as few lines and tables as
possible.
7. Apart from pens, photocopies, laser printers, dot matrix printers and plotters can also
used to make transparencies. These may be black and white or inkjet color.
8. The principle involved here is that text or diagrams can be transferred from paper to
paper by a variety of means.

9. Instead of paper, the information is transferred to transparencies to be used for


presentation in a lecture, seminar, conference or workshop.
Useful steps in preparing OHP transparencies:
Leave a margin at the slides, top to bottom. This will ensure that all information can
be displayed at once.
Plan the text and diagrams carefully. Try to summarize the main points.
Teachers should not attempt to convey your entire talk on the OPH
Advantages of overhead projector
This equipment as compared to epidiascope and slide-cum-film projector proves to be more
valuable in the task of teaching and learning of all the subjects of the school curriculum, as
may be revealed through the following discussion:
1. Since the image in this projector is projected over the shoulder of the teacher, he faces
the class in usual way at all the times. With the class in full view, it is possible for him
to observe the reactions of the students, adjust his responses and actions accordingly,
and exercise the desirable control over the teaching-learning situations.
2. The optical system of this type of projector permits placing the projector close to the
screen and blackboard. Therefore, the teacher can place it even on his table in front of
the blackboard. He can teach in a usual manner by facing his class and, at the same
time, he is capable of operating the machine. There is no need of separate projector
operator or the accompanying instructor for the teacher to assist him.
3. Since a high power electric bulb (750 watt or 1000 watt) is used in the projection
lamp and not much light is wasted in the projection operation, there is no need of
darkening the room for the appropriate visibility of the image on the screen.
Consequently, the problems regarding the arrangement for proper variation and
cooling of the rooms do not arise.
4. The aperture of this projector is comparatively large. Consequently, it may allow the
use of large slides of the size 25 x 25 cm or 20 x 20 cm. The large size of the slides
may further facilitate the preparation of art work for slides.
5. Since the slides in this projector are placed on top of the glass aperture, there is no
difficulty in changing the slides. Moreover, the teacher may also see the slides exactly
as the students do and thus is able to integrate his comments and teaching with what is
being projected on the screen.
6. The main advantage of this projector lies in the fact that the projection screen can be
very well utilized by the teacher as a blackboard. He can write or draw at will on the

slide or cellophane sheet stretched over the platform with a marking pencil while the
object is being projected, without turning away from the class. These marks can be
removed afterwards from the slide or the sheet by wiping them with a clean cloth.
7. Usually, the teacher has to go close to the blackboard for explaining the things written
or sketched on it. However, while making use of this equipment, he does not have to
move from machine to the blackboard. He can use a pointer or pencil to point out
important details of a slide.
8. The projection platform carrying slides can also be used to display a variety of
teaching aids. A sheet of transparent plastic or cellophane may be placed on this
platform for this purpose. Very useful and relevant drawing and sketches can be
drawn on this sheet and the same may be properly projected on the screen.
Consequently, the practical knowledge regarding the process of election work of the
assembly or parliament in session, the organizational structure of an institution or a
factory, and demonstration work concerning map drawing can be properly shown on
the screen. Not only the graphics, but also the liquid material can be made visible on
the screen by placing a transparent disc containing the liquid material on the
projection platform.
9. The operational task of this projector also does not involve any difficulty. It simply
requires turning of the power switch, placing the slide on the projection platform and
focusing the image on the screen.
Disadvantages:
1. The picture does not come clear due to wrong selection of projection sites, power
interruption or true of incorrect angle.
2. In the absence of white wall or screen, this is not useful.
3. This is expensive and its use is impossible, if the project goes out of order.
Opaque Projector
The slide-cum-film projector and overhead projector discussed so far can only be used to
project the transparent material. The opaque material, like picture, diagram and specimen can
not be projected by these projectors. The third type of projectors, namely opaque projector
does away with this difficulty. It can be utilized to project and display all types of objects,
whether transparent or opaque, on the screen and hence, it proves to be more useful and
effective in comparison to other types of projectors.

Design and working of an opaque projector


In opaque projector the principle of reflected light is used for the projection rather than the
direct light transmission.
The projection area in the opaque projector lies at the base of the projector. The objects
that are to be projected on the screen are positioned on the projection platform. The
projection bulb and the reflector art located in front of the projection platform at an angle of
300
The entire platform is surrounded by a series of mirrors that reflect light from the
projection bulb on to the materials being projected. This reflected light arrangement projects
the material from the direct intense light of the high-powered projection bulb. As the light
after being reflected from the projective material move: upward, it is obstructed by large
mirror placed at an angle of 450 . This mirror reflects the image of the projective material on
the screen through a large objective lens.
Educational advantages of opaque projector
An opaque projector can be very valuable in the task of teaching and learning of the various
subjects of the school curriculum in the following manner:
a. Any material, whether transparent or non-transparent, related to instruction can be
properly projected on the screen for viewing by the entire class with the help of this
projector.
b. In this projector it is not essential to prepare slides of the graphic material for its
visual display on the screen. Material like photographs, pictures, graphs, diagrams,
and handwritten or printed material can be projected on the screen in its original form
without converting it first to slides.
c. The most striking use of the opaque projector lies in the fact that it needs almost no
arrangement or preparation with regard to mounting for the display of graphic
material on the screen. The pictures, illustrations, maps and diagrams given in the
books, magazines and other sources can be properly projected on the screen without
getting them removed from their original sources. If what is written, sketched or
drawn on a piece of paper or a page of a textbook or other reference source should
needs to be observed by the entire class, one has to simply place this piece of paper or
page of the book (without getting it removed) on the projection platform of the
equipment for getting a properly enlarged image of the screen.
d. All types of three-dimensional aid material such as actual objects, specimen, models
and mock-ups can be projected on the screen by placing them on the platform of this

equipment. Their enlarged images on the screen are clearly visible to the entire class
for the study of minute details and other characteristics. Not only that, but the living
material can also be exhibited through such projection.
POWER POINT /LCD PRESENTATION
This aid has been largely superseded by data projectors. Since many smaller teaching and
training rooms may not be fitted with data projectors, the following guidance is provided. A
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) panel connected to a computer and placed on an overhead
projector will enable to project computer generated images onto a display screen for the
whole class to read. To be effective LCDs, an overhead projector which contains a very
powerful lamp than is available in the usual type of projector usually need to be placed on.
Guidelines for PowerPoint Presentations
PowerPoint is an extremely popular presentation and an alternative to using overhead
transparencies for the production of interesting and visually attractive presentations.
The main advantage in using PowerPoint is the flexibility, both in terms of the
content of the presentation and the way in which the information is displayed. Graphs,
drawings, tables and organizational charts make presentation more interesting, but as a
general rule keep presentations simple arid clear. PowerPoint is most effectively used to
emphasize the main features of the topic. Guidelines for PowerPoint presentations are given
below:

Limit the number of slides, to not more than 12 for a terminate presentation
Ensure text contrasts with the background, but avoid patterned backgrounds
Comply 'With copyright jaw when pictures, charts, tables-or diagrams are used
Standardize position, colours and styles
Use only one or two animation or transition effects
Advantages of a PowerPoint Presentation

The sequence of content can be interspersed with summary screens listing for
example, search steps
It is less susceptible to last minute technical difficulties or unexpected events.
Disadvantages of a Power Point Presentation
The teacher cannot interact with the content to illustrate points raised by students
PowerPoint can take up to a minute to load-a-presentation
It is time-consuming to prepare for teachers

Technical faults can raise and if the computer is not supported by UPS, it cannot be
used during power failure
A floppy may not open or the file can get corrupted by the viruses.

FILM
Films are recognized as one of the most powerful media for education. In films the
action is stimulated by projecting a series of still pictures at a rapid succession. In sound films
are projected per second. This rapid projection makes them seem to move when it is basically
an optical illusion.
The films are available in standard size of 8, 16, 35 and 70 mm films are best accepted
for educational purposes in schools and 8 mm for individual instructions. They can be
projected in the class-rooms and does not require special booths to projects. Whereas 35mm
and 70mm films are best used for entertainment purposes in theatres and require special
booths to operate them.
ADVANTAGES OF FILMS IN TEACHING

Promote reality based learning by seeing and observing a particular demonstration or


work in various stages e.g. giving an injection, bandaging.
Heighten reality by eliminating distractions and pointing out important relationships that
might have been overlooked otherwise.
Compel attention of the viewers through motions, movements and activities.
Enlarge or reduce the actual size of object by combining a camera and microscope to
photograph objects and actions too small to be seen by naked eyes e.g. amoeba.
Condense time and space by omitting unnecessary material and concentrating on
important aspects.
Provide an easily reproduced record of an operation e.g how a counselor handles
behavioural problems, events of deaths due to a particular disease such as plague.
Creates reality and allows to reveal the invisible through animated drawing e.g
functioning of an eye or ear, working of a machine.
Influence and change attitude of the learners which are not yet firmly established.
Overcome barriers of literacy, even the slowest learning person can react to the message
presented.
Promote an understanding of abstract relationships by clarifying ideas, event through
visual and auditory devices e.g. photographs combined with animated drawing, charts and
diagrams.
Provide supplementary or enrichment experiences for individual student
Provide a review of summary of the information learned in other ways by the class.
Provide an occasional break for entertainment.

LIMITATIONS OF FILMS

Projecting equipment is heavy

Darkening and electricity facilities are required


Very costly hardware and software both
Has a fixed sequence, difficult to up-date
Often seen as recreational devices
Audience variability in relation to age, educational background and socio-cultural factors
may affect its effectiveness.
Films literacy is required.

Size of films

purposes

8mm films

used for individual or domestic purposes

16mm films

educational/entertainment

35mm films

commercial/educational

70mm films

commercial/ entertainment

TYPES OF FILMS
1. Silent films has sprocket holes on both sides. No sound tract. This can be projected on
both silent or sound film projector
2. Sound films - has sprocket holes on one side and sound track on other. Can be projected
only on sound film projector.
PARTS OF THE FILM PROJECTORS
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Feed reel
Film gate
Sprocket
Take up reel and supply reel
Focusing lens
Sound drum
Projection lamp
Shutter
Photo electrical reel
Editor lamp
Amplifier

STEPS IN OPERATING AND AFTER CARE

Secure suitable teaching films


Oder in advance, at least thirty days and review the film before using
Check accompanying instruction , manual and film guide
Set up the projector, have sufficient extension cord, plugs and extra projection lamp.
Check sitting arrangement , lights and ventilation

Darken the room after threading the films


Prepare students before presenting the film, explain them the objective of the films
Show the films in a smooth, professional manner
Evaluate students understanding of the lesson
Re-show films, if necessary
Replacement the film in a proper container and catalogue it, and also the projector after
covering it.
Use films information as soon as possible.

CATEGORIES OF EDUCATIONAL FILMS


The educational films can be classified into:
1. Entertainment films the entertainment film aims at emotional rather than intellectual
appeal. This may or may not have educational contribution because it is designed
particularly for entertainment. However, there are entertainment films that do make
contribution towards the educational objectives of the curriculum e.g. eye of the blind,
woman in white films.
2. Advertising films the primary purposes of these films is selling of the goods of the
advertising sponsoring the films. Recently many industrial films are also prepared in a
way that they have utility in the course of studies.
3. Documentary films the documentary films is one which deals wit a social situation. It
attempts in a realistic, undisguised and authentic manner, to interpret the events, the
cultures of the problems of the day for the purposes of assting man to understand his
place in society and to stimulate thinking and planning for the future. Many documentary
films may be used for instructional purposes and are excellent teaching aids in the field of
social problems e.g. preventing of AIDS etc.
4. Text films these films are specially prepared for integrating in a course. These may
provide information, show a process, and demonstrate a skill or any other activity. These
are also called how to do films. Training can be provided through these films by their
proper selection and utilization.
A study conducted on Using film clips to enhance nursing education.
Film clips in nursing education provide a unique way to promote active learning.
Several methods for using film clips and combining them with other teaching
strategies are discussed. Suggestions for the use of popular clips, logistical
aspects of showing clips in class, and legal issues associated with copyright are
addressed. Faculty are encouraged to use this strategy to evoke emotional
responses, generate discussion, enhance clinical decision making, and provide
vicarious learning.

CONCLUSION
Audio-visual material must be seen in their relationship to teaching as a whole and
to the learning process as a whole. Until teacher understands the relationship between audiovisual materials and teaching learning process. He cannot be except to make intelligent or

fruitful use of the techniques, which offer so much assistance in day today activities of
teachers.
By audio-visual aids, we usually mean the most modern or the most recently used
of these methods (films, filmstrips, radio and television). This is a summary identification of
very old methods and very modern instruments, and one should react against it. Visual aids
are far older. They correspond to a profound tendency among the immense majority of men:
to materialize their thoughts in the form of graphic or sonorous images or to give their
thoughts a concrete frame of reference. Plato himself took care to set the scenery of his
dialogues, and he used concrete words and concrete comparisons (for example, the cave) as
foundations for his most abstract ideas
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. KP Neeraja,Textbook of Nursing Education,New Delhi:Jaypee Brothers;2003.P.4078,351
2. BT Basavanthappa,Nursing Education,NewDelhi:jaypee Brothers;2003.p.561-578
3. Barbara A. Moyer,Nursing Education,NewDelhi:Jaypee Brothers;2008.p.306
4. Clement, Text book on communication and education technology. Jaypee publishers,
page no: 302- 316
5. B.Sankaranarayan, Learning and teaching nursing, 3rd edition, page no: 165 -198

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