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If
A , we write
xA .
+
Z - Positive integers {1, 2, 3...}
integers
a
:b 0
b
line
a , b R , and
a+ib , where
i 2=1 .
x 2+1=0
is an empty set.
Interval Notation
Say
and
o
o
o
o
o
[ = include endpoint
( = exclude endpoint
[] = include both endpoints (closed interval)
() = exclude both endpoints (open interval)
(] or [) = exclude one endpoint and include the other
(neither open nor closed)
Examples
( a , b ) ={ x R :a< x< b }
[a ,b ]= { x R :a x b }
= { x R :a x< b }
= { x R :a x }
=R
1.1.2 Subsets
Suppose
If
and
are 2 sets.
B , every element of
is a subset of
element of
B .
Set
B
Set
A
x A
i.e. If
If
If B contains A,
xB,
implies
B ,
is a subset of
A is a subset of B
A B
B A
x, y ,z R
1. If
x< y , then
2. If
x> y
3. If
x> y , and
4. If
and
x+ z < y + z
z> 0 , then
xz > yz
z< 0
xz < yz
than
y> x >0
is an
5. If
y > x> 0
6. If
0< x < y
then
1 1
0< <
y x
1
1
<
3 x1
x1
x1
is
( x1 )2 and
( x1 )
1
( x1 )2 <
3
x1
1
( x1 )2 <(x1)
3
{x if x <0
|x|= x if x 0
i.
|x|=|x|
ii.
|xy|=|x|| y|
iii.
| xy|=||xy|| y 0
is denoted
iv.
v.
xR ,
|x|= x 2
vi.
x R,
|x| =x 2
vii.
y R : y>0 ,
-
y >a
Example:
Solve the following inequality:
<1
| x3
x1|
|x3|
<1
|x1|
|x3|<|x1|
Squaring both positive sides and using vi.,
( x3 )2 < ( x1 )2
Expanding and solving we have
1.4 Functions
x> 2 .
A function
f : AB
f ( x) B .
Set A: Domain
Codomain
Range
x A
FUNCTION f
Set B:
f ( x)
of the function
f . It is
f . It is the set
of
in Set A.
Range (f )
The expression
f (x)
f (x)
{f (x) B : x A }
is the value of
at the point
in A.
f (x)
x .
is the function.
x .
.e.g.
f : RR
2
f ( x )=x x Dom( f )
1.4.1 Combining functions
f : AB
If
g:A B
and
xA :
( f + g )( x )=f ( x ) + g ( x )
( f g ) ( x ) =f ( x )g( x )
( f g )( x )=f ( x ) g( x )
( gf ) ( x ) = fg(( xx)) , g ( x ) 0
1.4.2 Compositions
f :C D
Suppose,
Range(g)
f g :
and
is a subset of
A D
g:A B
( f g )( x )=f ( g ( x ) ) x A
f .
1.5 Polynomials
A function
n
f : RR
f ( x )=a n x +a n1 x
n1
is a polynomial if
2
+ +a2 x + a1 x +a o x R
Where:
n( degree) N
Odd degrees produce graph
is a
The constants
an
ao , . an R :an 0
polynomials and:
Dom ( f ) ={x R: q( x ) 0 }
f ( x )=
p (x )
, x Dom(f )
q(x)
and
are
sin
cos
30
45
60
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
tan
1
3
1.6.2
Ratio
sin
cos
sec =
1
cos
cosec =
cot =
1
sin
cos
sin
tan x tan y
1 tan x tan y
2 tan x
2
1tan x
2 cos2 x 1
12 sin 2 x
f ( x )=asin x+ bcosx
Any function
forms:
y=Rsin ( x a ) y =Rcos(x a)
R= a 2+b2
and
b
a
tana=
th
f ( x )=e x
f ( x )=ln x
f ( x )=x n ,n Z
f ( x )= x
+,, , ,
is also an elementary
function.
1
x+1
Solution
Start by drawing the graph of
Here we have
y=x +1
values of
in a dotted line.
y= x +1 , we need to
graph of
y=
y=0 , when
y= x +1 .
x=1 .
asymptote at
1
x+1 , so we need to obtain the graph
Immediately, where
at
something small
parts of
2.
( x y )2 prove that
a) By expanding
numbers
and
b) Deduce that
and
x 2+ y 2 2 xy
a+b
ab
2
y=x 2 +
1
2
x
a) We need to prove
x y
Because
x + y 2 xy
is squared,
by considering
( x y )2
( x y )2 must always be 0 .
So,
( x y )2 0
x 22 xy + y 2 0
x 2 + y 2 2 xy
b) Following the above process but letting
x= a ,
and
y= b ,
( a b ) 0
a2 ab+ b 0
a+ b
ab
2
c) Before we consider
a+b
2
that,
a+b
ab . We see
2
ab
ab
a+b
2
is when it is equal to
a=x2 , b=
Let
x +
2
1
2
x
= x (
1
2
x
1
)
2
x
y .
x 2+
1
=2
2
x
y min =2
(given when
x= 1 )
3. Prove that
( x+ y )2 4 xy
1 1
4
+ 2 2 2
2
x y x +y
( x y )2 0
x 22 xy + y 2 0
4 xy
Adding
to both sides,
x 2+2 xy + y 2 4 xy
2
( x + y ) 4 xy
1 1
4
+ 2 2 2
2
x y x +y
1 1
4
+ 2 2 2
2
x y x +y
x2 + y2
4
2 2
2 2
x y
x +y
2
( x 2+ y 2) 4 x 2 y 2
Square rooting both sides,
x 2+ y 2 2 xy
x 2 xy + y 0
Adding
4 xy
x 2+2 xy + y 2 4 xy
( x + y )2 4 xy
Which we know is true.
4.
a) Prove that
x=1
x=1 ,
Case 2:
So if
f ( 1 )=3
> 0,
x1
x 31=( x1 ) (x 2 + x+ 1) ,
x .
1+ x+ x + x + x
f ( x )=
x 1
x1
x=1
separately because
x> 1 ,
x 31 and
x1
f ( x ) >0
Case 2b
When
x< 1 ,
x 31 and
x1
f ( x ) >0 .
f ( x) > 0
b)
Using the same argument,
Note,
Case 1:
If
x=1
x=1 ,
Case 2:
f ( 1 )=
x1
> 0,
So if
x 51=( x1 ) ( x 4 + x 3 + x 2 + x+1) ,
5
x 1
f ( x )=1+ x + x 2+ x 3 + x 4 =
x1
Note in Case 1, we had to deal with
x=1
separately because
x> 1 ,
x 51 and
x1
f ( x ) >0
Case 2b
When
x< 1 ,
x 1 and
x1
f ( x ) >0 .
f ( x) > 0
c) Generalising,
2
f ( x )=1+ x + x + .+ x
2n
x 2 n+11
x1
x1
We can use the same argument to prove that
f ( x ) >0