List of human diseases associated with infectious

pathogens
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about diseases with possible (but as yet unconfirmed) infectious microbial causes. For
a list of diseases with proven infectious causes, see List of infectious diseases.
This article provides a list of diseases with possible (but unconfirmed) infectious etiologies.
Many chronic diseases are linked or associated with infectious pathogens. A disease is said to be
linked or associated with an infectious pathogen when that pathogen is found more frequently
in patients with the disease than in healthy controls. Often, infectious pathogens associated with a
disease may be suspected of playing a causal role in that disease and some scientists believe
a substantial portion of chronic diseases may in part be caused by infectious agents though
association alone does not automatically prove causality (because correlation does not imply
causation).
[1][2]

[3]

Indeed, the terms linked and associated are used here in a strict technical sense: they mean there is
a frequent co-occurrence of certain pathogens in certain diseases; but it should not be read
that linked and associated imply there is a proven causal relationship between pathogen and
disease. An observed association only flags up the possibility that there might be a causal relation.
For an infectious pathogenic microbe that has been noted to frequently accompany a disease, there
are several logical possibilities that can explain this observed association:

An epithelial cell infected with Chlamydia pneumoniae bacteria.

The pathogen is an "innocent bystander" that plays no causal role in the etiology of the
disease, but for some reason is more prevalent in patients with the disease (perhaps
because the disease compromises the immune response, for example).

The pathogen predisposes to disease development (increases the risk of getting the
disease), but the pathogen does not cause the disease (for example, genital herpes
increases the risk of acquiring HIV).
[4]

The pathogen is a necessary, but not sufficient, cause of the disease: in other words, the
pathogen can cause the disease, but does so only in combination with one or more other
causal factors (such as host genetic factors, or toxin exposure).

The pathogen is a direct and singular cause of the disease, but this causality has yet to
be proven.

Determining whether a pathogen plays a causal role in a chronic disease is often difficult for the
following reasons:
[5]

The time between contracting an infectious pathogen and the appearance of the first
disease symptoms can be lengthy, sometimes decades.

An infectious pathogen may not cause disease in every person.

An infection may be asymptomatic in its acute phase (when first contracted), and so go
unnoticed; symptoms may only appear much later in the form of a chronic disease.

Sometimes, only specific strains of a pathogen are linked to a disease; other strains of
the same microbe may be harmless.

A pathogen may precipitate the disease only in combination with one or more other
causal factors.

There may be more than one pathogen that can precipitate a given disease.

A given pathogen may not always cause the same disease infection with it may lead
to one of several different diseases.

There may be pathogens that are not readily detectable that play a causal role in a
disease.

For obvious ethical reasons, you cannot inoculate infectious pathogens into humans to
see if these do cause the disease or not.

A pathogenic microbe may cause disease by relatively easy to track direct means, such
as by infecting and destroying cells; or may cause disease via more complex and
convoluted indirect means, such as through the damage created by
inflammatory cytokines or autoimmune processes that are induced by the microbial
infection (for example, tuberculosis infection induces an inflammatory cytokine that then
itself causes severe tissue damage).
[6][7]

A pathogenic microbe may not necessarily be present in the diseased tissues or organs
(bacterial toxins for example can travel and damage tissues at sites distant from the
infection site; and inflammatory or autoimmune processes precipitated by infectious
pathogens can also act at tissue sites far removed from the infection).

In spite of the difficulties in obtaining proof of causality, evolutionary biologist Paul W.

Ewald and physicist Gregory M. Cochran are noted for their assertion that many common
chronic diseases of currently unknown etiology are likely caused by chronic low-level
microbial infection, countering the prevailing view that genesare predominantly
responsible for the development of chronic disease. Ewald and Cochran support
their thesis with the logic of evolutionary biology, with Ewald explaining that: "chronic
diseases, if they are common and damaging, must be powerful eliminators of any genetic
instruction that may cause them."
[8][9]

[10]

In other words, any disease-causing gene that reduces survival and reproduction will
eliminate itself over a number of generations, just by evolutionary pressures; therefore

such genetic diseases are self-extinguishing. Ewald says the only genetic diseases that
will persist are those that provide a compensating benefit. For example, genes that encode
for sickle cell anemia disease are maintained and persist down generations, as these genes
also protect against malaria, which kills millions worldwide each year.
[10]

Infectious pathogens are one of several potential causes of disease; other causal factors
include: environmental toxins, certain types of radiation exposure, diet and lifestyle
factors, stress, genetics, and epigenetics. All these factors are generally explored as
potential causes of a disease.
Diseases may also be multifactorial, such that the disease only manifests when multiple
causal factors occur in combination. For example: in a murine model, Crohn's disease can
be precipitated by a norovirus, but only when both a specific gene variant is present and a
certain toxin has damaged the gut. Thus a pathogen's causal role in a disease may well be
contingent upon several other causal factors.
[11]

[12]

Infectious pathogen-associated diseases include many of the most common and

costly chronic illnesses. About 70% of all deaths in the United States result from chronic
diseases, with the treatment of chronic diseases accounting for 75% of all US healthcare
costs (amounting to $1.7 trillion in 2009).
[13]

[5]

[14]

List of diseases associated with infectious Bacteria[edit]

In the list of diseases associated with infectious pathogens given below, bear in mind that
there is no definitive proof that the associated pathogens do play a causal role in the
disease, just a possibility that they might. Further research is required to determine whether
or not these pathogens participate causally in their associated diseases. Note that this list
covers some of the most common human diseases associated with infectious pathogens,
but it is not intended to be a comprehensive list.
Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease is associated with the bacteria Chlamydia

pneumoniae[15] and Helicobacter pylori,[16] and with the protozoan
parasite Toxoplasma gondii.[17] Herpes simplex virus 1 is associated with
Alzheimer's disease in individuals who possess the APOE-4 form of the
APOE gene (APOE-4 enables the herpes virus to enter the brain). [18]

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the most common of five forms of motor

neuron disease, is associated with echovirus (anenterovirus) infection of
the central nervous system,[19] and with retrovirus[20] activity (it is not known
whether this retrovirus activity arises from a human endogenous retrovirus,
or from an exogenous retrovirus).

Anorexia nervosa

Infection with Borrelia[21] species bacteria is associated with anorexia

nervosa. In rare cases, anorexia nervosa may arise after infection
with Streptococcus[22] species bacteria. Anorexia (which is distinct from
anorexia nervosa) is associated with the protozoan parasite Dientamoeba
fragilis.[23]

Anxiety disorder

Anxiety is associated with cytomegalovirus,[24] and the

bacterium Helicobacter pylori.[25]

Asthma

Asthma is associated with rhinovirus, human respiratory syncytial virus,

and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.[27]Chlamydia pneumoniae is

particularly associated with adult-onset asthma. [28]
[26]

Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is associated with the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.[29]

[30]

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and learning disorders are

associated with the bacteria Borrelia burgdorferi andStreptococcus, and
with HIV and enterovirus 71. Febrile seizures due to human herpesvirus
6 or influenza A are a risk factor for ADHD. Viral infections during
pregnancy, at birth, and in early childhood are risk factors for ADHD. [31]

Autism

Autism is linked to congenital infection with rubella

virus or cytomegalovirus.[32][33] Clostridia bacteria species are associated
with autism (these bacteria are present in greater numbers in the guts of
autistic children).[34]

Autoimmune diseases

Autoimmune diseases are strongly associated with enteroviruses such

as Coxsackie B virus.[35] Autoimmune diseases are also associated
with Epstein-Barr virus,[36] cytomegalovirus,[37] parvovirus B19,[38] and HIV,
[39]
and the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.[40] Autoimmune thyroid
disease is associated with Epstein-Barr virus[41] and Helicobacter pylori.[42]

Bipolar disorder

Bipolar disorder is associated with bornavirus,[43] and

with Borrelia[21] species bacteria. The level of cognitive impairment in
bipolar disorder is associated with herpes simplex virus 1.[44]

Cancer

Some estimates currently attribute 15% to 20% of all cancers to infectious

pathogen causes.[45][46] In future, this percentage may be revised upwards if
the pathogens currently associated with cancers (such as those listed
below) are proven to actually cause those cancers. (Note: for the sake of
completeness, some infectious pathogens known to cause cancers are
included in the list, in addition to the infectious pathogens associated with
cancers.)
Adrenal tumor is associated with BK virus and simian virus 40.[47]
Anal cancer is associated with human papillomaviruses.[48]
Bladder cancer can be caused by Schistosoma helminths.[49]
Brain tumor. Glioblastoma multiforme is associated
with cytomegalovirus,[50] BK virus, JC virus, and simian virus 40.[51]
Breast cancer is associated with mouse mammary tumor virus, EpsteinBarr virus, and human papillomaviruses.[52]
Carcinoid tumors are associated with enterovirus infections.[53]
Cervical cancer can be caused by human papillomaviruses.[54]
Colorectal cancer is associated with the bacteria Helicobacter
pylori, Streptococcus bovis and Fusobacterium nucleatum,[55] withhuman
papillomaviruses,[56] and with the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.[57] JC
virus may be a risk factor for colorectal cancer.[58]
Gallbladder cancer is associated with the bacterium Salmonella typhi.[59]
Hodgkin's lymphoma is associated with Epstein-Barr virus,[60] hepatitis C
virus,[61] and HIV.[62]
Kaposi's Sarcoma can be caused by Kaposi's sarcoma

herpesvirus and HIV.

Liver cancer. Hepatocellular carcinoma can be caused by hepatitis B
virus, hepatitis C virus,[63] and by the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.[64]
Lung cancer is associated with the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae,
[65]
with human papillomaviruses, and with Merkel cell polyomavirus.[66]
Leukemia. Adult T-cell leukemia can be caused by human T-cell leukemia
virus-1.
Mesothelioma is associated with simian virus 40,[67] especially in
conjunction with asbestos exposure.
Nasopharyngeal carcinoma can be caused by Epstein-Barr virus.
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is associated with HIV and simian virus 40.[68]
Oropharyngeal cancer can be caused by human papillomaviruses.
Ovarian cancer is associated with mumps virus.
Pancreatic cancer is associated with hepatitis B virus and the
bacterium Helicobacter pylori.
Prostate cancer is associated with xenotropic murine leukemia virusrelated virus and BK virus.
Skin neoplasm is associated with human papillomaviruses.
Squamous cell carcinoma is associated with human papillomaviruses.
Stomach cancer is associated with the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.
Thyroid cancer is associated with simian virus 40.

Chronic fatigue syndrome

Chronic fatigue syndrome (also known as myalgic encephalomyelitis) is

associated with enteroviruses (such as Coxsackie B virus),[69][70] human
herpesvirus 6 variant A,[71] human herpesvirus 7,[72] and parvovirus B19.[73]
[74]
The bacteria Coxiella burnetii[75] and Chlamydia pneumoniae[76] are
known causes of chronic fatigue syndrome (antibiotics can cure these
bacterial forms of chronic fatigue syndrome).

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (which includes both chronic

bronchitis and emphysema) is associated with Chlamydia
pneumoniae[77] and Epstein-Barr virus.[78]

Crohn's disease

One study found ileocecal Crohn's disease is associated with viral species
from the enterovirus genus (but note that all the study cohort with ileocecal
Crohn's disease had disease-associated mutations in either their NOD2 or
ATG16L1 genes).[79] Crohn's disease is associated with Mycobacterium
avium subspecies paratuberculosis.[80] In a murine model, Crohn's disease is
precipitated by the norovirus CR6 strain,[12][81] but only in combination with
a variant of the Crohns susceptibility gene ATG16L1, and chemical toxic
damage to the gut. In other words, in this mouse model, Crohns is
precipitated only when these three causal factors (virus, gene, and toxin)
act in combination.

Coronary heart disease

Coronary heart disease is associated with herpes simplex virus 1 and the
bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.[82]

Dementia

Dementia is associated with herpes simplex virus type 1, herpes simplex

virus type 2, cytomegalovirus, West Nile virus, bornavirus, and HIV.
Dementia is also associated with the helminth Taenia solium (pork
tapeworm), and with Borrelia[21] species bacteria.

Depression

Depression is associated with cytomegalovirus[24] and West Nile virus,

[83]
and the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.[84] It is thought that
depression may be precipitated by the effect of immune signals (such as
pro-inflammatory cytokines) reaching the brain from infections located in
the peripheries of the body.[85][86]
Major depressive disorder is associated with bornavirus,[43] as well
as Bartonella[87] and Borrelia[21] species bacteria.
Seasonal affective disorder is associated with Epstein-Barr virus.[88]

Diabetes mellitus type 1

Diabetes mellitus type 1 is associated with viral species from

the enterovirus genus,[89][90] specifically echovirus 4[91] and Coxsackie B
virus (the latter it is thought may infect and destroy the insulin producing
beta-cells in the pancreas and also damage these cells via indirect
autoimmune mechanisms).[92][93] One study found Coxsackie B1 virus
associated with a higher risk of the beta cell autoimmunity that portends
type 1 diabetes; though Coxsackie B3 and B6 viruses were found to be
associated with a reduced risk of such autoimmunity (possibly due to
immune cross-protection against Coxsackie B1 virus).[94] In boys,
human parechovirusinfection has been linked to a subsequent appearance
of diabetes-associated autoantibodies.[95]

Diabetes mellitus type 2

Diabetes mellitus type 2 is associated with cytomegalovirus,[96] hepatitis C

virus,[97] enteroviruses,[90] and Ljungan virus.[98]

Dilated cardiomyopathy

Dilated cardiomyopathy is associated with enteroviruses such

as Coxsackie B virus.[99]

Epilepsy

Epilepsy is associated with human herpesvirus 6.[100]

GuillainBarr syndrome

GuillainBarr syndrome is associated with the bacterium Campylobacter

jejuni, and with the viruses cytomegalovirus[101] andenterovirus.[102]

Irritable bowel syndrome

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is associated with the

bacteria enteroaggregative Escherichia coli[103] and Mycobacterium avium
subspecies paratuberculosis,[104] the protozoan parasite Giardia lamblia,
[105]
and pathogenic strains of the protozoan parasiteBlastocystis hominis.
[106]
Irritable bowel syndrome in those with HIV is associated with the
protozoan Dientamoeba fragilis.[23]

Low back pain

Lower back pain is associated with a spinal disc infection with anaerobic
bacteria, especially the bacterium Propionibacterium acnes.[107][108]

Lupus

Lupus is associated with the viruses parvovirus B19,[109] Epstein-Barr virus,

[110]
and cytomegalovirus.[111]

Metabolic syndrome

Metabolic syndrome is associated with the bacteria Chlamydia

pneumoniae[112] and Helicobacter pylori, as well as the
virusescytomegalovirus and herpes simplex virus 1.[113]

Multiple sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis, a demyelinating disease, is associated with Epstein-Barr

virus,[114] human herpesvirus 6,[115] varicella zoster virus,[116] and the
bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.[117]

Myocardial infarction

Myocardial infarction (heart attack) is associated with Chlamydia

pneumoniae,[118] cytomegalovirus[119] and Coxsackie B virus (anenterovirus).
[120]
(Coxsackie B virus is also associated with sudden unexpected death due
to myocarditis).[121]

Obesity

Obesity is associated with adenovirus 36, which is found in 30% of obese

people, but only in 11% of non-obese people.[122][123] It has further been
demonstrated that animals experimentally infected with adenovirus 36 (or
adenovirus 5, or adenovirus 37) will develop increased obesity.
[124]
Adenovirus 36 induces obesity by infecting fat cells (adipocytes),
wherein the expression of the adenovirus E4orf1 gene turns on both the
cell's fat producing enzymes and also instigates the generation of new fat
cells.[125]Evidence suggests that obesity can be a viral disease, and that the
worldwide obesity epidemic that began in the 1980s may be in part due to
viral infection.[126][127]
Obesity is also associated with higher gut levels of
certain Firmicutes bacteria in relation to Bacteroidetes bacteria.
Overweight individuals tend have more Firmicutes bacteria (such
as Clostridium, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, and Helicobacter pylori) in
their gut, whereas normal weight individuals tend have more Bacteroidetes
bacteria.[128]

Obsessivecompulsive disorder

Obsessivecompulsive disorder is associated

with Streptococcus[129] and Borrelia[21] species bacteria.

Panic disorder

Panic disorder is associated with Borrelia[21] and Bartonella[87] species

bacteria.[87]

Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease is associated with influenza A virus,[130] as well as the

protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.[131]

Psoriasis

Psoriasis is associated with a Helicobacter pylori trigger.[132]

Rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis is associated with parvovirus B19.[109] Antibodies

to Borrelia outer surface protein A are associated with rheumatoid arthritis.
[133]

Sarcoidosis

Sarcoidosis is associated with Mycobacteria[134] species, and the

bacteria Helicobacter pylori[135] and Borrelia burgdorferi.[136]

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is associated with bornavirus,[43] the bacterium Chlamydia

trachomatis,[137] as well as Borrelia species bacteria.[21]Schizophrenia is also
linked to neonatal infection with Coxsackie B virus (an enterovirus),
which one study found carries an increased risk of adult onset

schizophrenia.[138] Prenatal exposure to influenza virus in the first trimester

of pregnancy increases the risk of schizophrenia by 7-fold. [139]

Stroke

Stroke is associated with the bacteria Chlamydia pneumoniae,

[140]
Helicobacter pylori,[141] Mycobacterium tuberculosis,[142] andMycoplasma
pneumoniae,[143] as well as the virus varicella zoster virus[144] and the
fungus Histoplasma.[145]

Thromboangiitis obliterans

Thromboangiitis obliterans is associated with Rickettsia species bacteria.

[146]

Tourette syndrome

Tourette syndrome is associated with the bacterium Streptococcus.

[129]
Aggravating or contributory microbes in Tourette's may include the
bacteria Mycoplasma pneumoniae,[147] Chlamydia pneumoniae, Chlamydia
trachomatis, and the protozoan parasiteToxoplasma gondii.[148]

Vasculitis

Vasculitis is associated with HIV, parvovirus B19,[109] and hepatitis B virus.

The hepatitis C virus is an established cause of vasculitis.

Cross reference: Pathogens and their associated diseases [edit]

For some selected pathogens, the set of their disease associations is shown in the bar
graphs below. For each bar below, the pathogen in question has been found more frequently
in patients with the listed diseases than it has in healthy controls but it has not been
proven that the pathogen plays any causal role in the listed diseases; though usually
investigations to examine whether it might participate causally are ongoing. By contrast, the
diseases below enclosed in brackets ( ) indicate that the pathogen is a proven cause of that
disease.
Cytomegalovirus

Enteroviruses

Anxiety disorder
Autism
Autoimmune diseases
Brain tumor
Dementia
Depression
Diabetes mellitus type 2
GuillainBarr syndrome
Lupus
Metabolic syndrome
Myocardial infarction

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

ADHD
Autoimmune diseases
Carcinoid tumors
Chronic fatigue syndrome
Crohn's disease

Diabetes mellitus type 1

Diabetes mellitus type 2
Dilated cardiomyopathy
GuillainBarr syndrome
Myocardial infarction
Schizophrenia

Epstein-Barr virus

Autoimmune diseases
Breast cancer
Esophageal cancer
Hodgkin's lymphoma
(Nasopharyngeal carcinoma)
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Seasonal affective disorder
Lupus
Multiple sclerosis

Hepatitis B virus

(Hepatocellular carcinoma)
Pancreatic cancer
Vasculitis

Hepatitis C virus
Hodgkin's lymphoma
(Hepatocellular carcinoma)
Diabetes mellitus type 2
(Vasculitis)

Herpes simplex virus

Alzheimer's disease
Bipolar disorder
Coronary heart disease
Dementia
Metabolic syndrome

HIV

ADHD
Autoimmune diseases
Hodgkin's lymphoma
(Kaposi's Sarcoma)
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma
Dementia
Vasculitis

Human herpesvirus 6
ADHD
Chronic fatigue syndrome
Epilepsy
Multiple sclerosis

Influenza A

ADHD
Parkinson's disease

Parvovirus B19
Autoimmune diseases
Chronic fatigue syndrome
Lupus
Rheumatoid arthritis
Vasculitis

Bartonella
Major depressive disorder
Panic disorder

Borrelia
Anorexia nervosa
ADHD
Bipolar disorder
Dementia
Depression
Obsessivecompulsive disorder
Rheumatoid arthritis
Sarcoidosis
Schizophrenia

Chlamydia pneumoniae

Helicobacter pylori

Alzheimer's disease
Asthma
Atherosclerosis
Lung cancer
(Chronic fatigue syndrome)
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Coronary heart disease
Metabolic syndrome
Multiple sclerosis
Myocardial infarction
Stroke
Tourette syndrome
Anxiety disorder
Alzheimer's disease
Autoimmune diseases
Pancreatic cancer
Stomach cancer
(Stomach ulcers)
Metabolic syndrome
Obesity
Psoriasis
Sarcoidosis
Stroke

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Autoimmune diseases
Stroke

Streptococcus

Anorexia nervosa
ADHD
Colorectal cancer
Obsessivecompulsive disorder
Tourette syndrome

Toxoplasma gondii
Alzheimer's disease
Depression
Parkinson's disease
Tourette syndrome