Roman Senate

The Roman Senate was a political institution in ancient

Rome. It was one of the most enduring institutions in Roman history, being established in the rst days of the city
(traditionally founded in 753 BC). It survived the overthrow of the kings in 509 BC, the fall of the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC, the division of the Roman
Empire in 395 AD, the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, and the barbarian rule of Rome in the
5th, 6th, and 7th centuries.

The senate was a political institution in the ancient

Roman kingdom. The word senate derives from the Latin
word senex, which means old man"; the word thus means
assembly of elders. The prehistoric Indo-Europeans
who settled Italy in the centuries before the legendary
founding of Rome in 753 BC[1] were structured into tribal
communities,[2] and these communities often included an
aristocratic board of tribal elders.[3]

During the days of the kingdom, it was little more than

an advisory council to the king. The last king of Rome,
Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, was overthrown following a
coup d'tat led by Lucius Junius Brutus, who founded the
Republic.

The early Roman family was called a gens or clan,[2] and

each clan was an aggregation of families under a common
living male patriarch, called a pater (the Latin word for
father).[4] When the early Roman gentes were aggregating to form a common community, the patres from the
leading clans were selected[5] for the confederated board
of elders that would become the Roman senate.[4] Over
time, the patres came to recognize the need for a single
leader, and so they elected a king (rex),[4] and vested in
him their sovereign power.[6] When the king died, that
sovereign power naturally reverted to the patres.[4]

During the early Republic, the Senate was politically

weak, while the executive magistrates were quite powerful. Since the transition from monarchy to constitutional
rule was probably gradual, it took several generations before the Senate was able to assert itself over the executive magistrates. By the middle Republic, the Senate had
reached the apex of its republican power. The late Republic saw a decline in the Senates power, which began
following the reforms of the tribunes Tiberius and Gaius
Gracchus.

The senate is said to have been created by Romes rst

king, Romulus, initially consisting of 100 men. The descendants of those 100 men subsequently became the
patrician class.[7] Romes fth king, Lucius Tarquinius
After the transition of the Republic into the Principate, Priscus, chose a further 100 senators. They were chosen
the Senate lost much of its political power as well as its from the minor leading families, and were accordingly
prestige. Following the constitutional reforms of the Em- called the patres minorum gentium.[8]
peror Diocletian, the Senate became politically irrelevant, Romes seventh and nal king, Lucius Tarquinius Superand never regained the power that it had once held. When bus, executed many of the leading men in the senate,
the seat of government was transferred out of Rome, the and did not replace them, thereby diminishing their numSenate was reduced to a municipal body. This decline in ber. However, in 509 BC Romes rst consuls, Lucius
status was reinforced when the emperor Constantine the Junius Brutus and Publius Valerius Publicola chose from
Great created an additional senate in Constantinople.
amongst the leading equites new men for the senate, these
After the Western Roman Empire fell in 476, the Senate
in the west functioned for a time under barbarian rule before being restored after the reconquest of much of the
Western Roman Empires territories during the reign of
Justinian I. The Senate in Rome ultimately disappeared
at some point between 603 and 630. However, the Eastern Senate survived in Constantinople, until the ancient
institution nally vanished there with the capture of the
city in 1204.

being called conscripti, and thus increased the size of the

senate to 300.[9]
The senate of the Roman kingdom held three principal
responsibilities: It functioned as the ultimate repository
for the executive power,[10] it served as the kings council, and it functioned as a legislative body in concert with
the people of Rome.[11] During the years of the monarchy, the senates most important function was to elect
new kings. While the king was technically elected by the
people, it was actually the senate who chose each new
king.[10]

Senate of the Roman Kingdom

The period between the death of one king, and the election of a new king, was called the interregnum,[10] durMain articles: Senate of the Roman Kingdom and ing which time the Interrex nominated a candidate to
replace the king.[12] After the senate gave its initial apConstitution of the Roman Kingdom
1

SENATE OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

proval to the nominee, he was then formally elected

by the people,[13] and then received the senates nal
approval.[12] At least one king, Servius Tullius, was
elected by the senate alone, and not by the people.[14]

If a senatus consultum conicted with a law (lex) that was

passed by an assembly, the law overrode the senatus consultum because the senatus consultum had its authority
based in precedent and not in law. A senatus consultum,
[17]
The senates most signicant task, outside of regal elec- however, could serve to interpret a law.
tions, was to function as the kings council, and while Through these decrees, the senate directed the magisthe king could ignore any advice it oered, its growing trates, especially the Roman consuls (the chief magisprestige helped make the advice that it oered increas- trates) in their prosecution of military conicts. The seningly dicult to ignore. Technically, the senate could ate also had an enormous degree of power over the civil
also make new laws, although it would be incorrect to government in Rome. This was especially the case with
view the senates decrees as legislation in the modern regards to its management of state nances, as only it
sense. Only the king could decree new laws, although he could authorize the disbursal of public funds from the
often involved both the senate and the curiate assembly treasury. As the Roman Republic grew, the senate also
(the popular assembly) in the process.[11]
supervised the administration of the provinces, which
were governed by former consuls and praetors, in that it
decided which magistrate should govern which province.

Senate of the Roman Republic

Since the 3rd century the senate also played a pivotal role
in cases of emergency. It could call for the appointment
of a dictator (a right resting with each consul with or withMain articles: Constitution of the Roman Republic and out the senates involvement). However, after 202, the ofSenate of the Roman Republic
ce of dictator fell out of use (and was revived only two
When the Republic began, the Senate functioned as an more times) and was replaced with the senatus consultum
ultimum (ultimate decree of the senate), a senatorial decree which authorised the consuls to employ any means
necessary to solve the crisis.[18]
While senate meetings could take place either inside
or outside of the formal boundary of the city (the
pomerium), no meeting could take place more than a mile
outside of it.[19] The senate operated while under various
religious restrictions. For example, before any meeting
could begin, a sacrice to the gods was made, and a search
for divine omens (the auspices) was taken.[20]

Representation of a sitting of the Roman senate: Cicero attacks

Catiline, from a 19th-century fresco in Palazzo Madama, Rome,
house of the Italian Senate. It is worth noting that idealistic medieval and subsequent artistic depictions of the forum in session
are almost uniformly inaccurate. Illustrations commonly show
the senators arranged in a semicircle around an open space where
orators were deemed to stand; in reality the structure of the existing Curia Julia building, which dates in its current form from the
Emperor Diocletian, shows that the senators sat in straight and
parallel lines on either side of the interior of the building. In current media depictions in lm this is shown correctly in The Fall of
the Roman Empire, and incorrectly in, for example, Spartacus.

advisory council. It consisted of 300 Senators, who were

initially patrician and served for life. Before long, plebeians were also admitted, although they were denied the
senior magistracies for a longer period.[15]

Meetings usually began at dawn, and a magistrate who

wished to summon the senate had to issue a compulsory
order.[21] The senate meetings were public,[19] and were
directed by a presiding magistrate, usually a consul.[6]
While in session, the senate had the power to act on its
own, and even against the will of the presiding magistrate
if it wished. The presiding magistrate began each meeting
with a speech,[22] and then referred an issue to the senators, who would discuss the issue by order of seniority.[19]
Senators had several other ways in which they could inuence (or frustrate) a presiding magistrate. For example, all senators had to speak before a vote could be
held, and since all meetings had to end by nightfall,[16]
a senator could talk a proposal to death (a libuster or
diem consumere) if he could keep the debate going until nightfall.[22] When it was time to call a vote, the presiding magistrate could bring up whatever proposals he
wished, and every vote was between a proposal and its
negative.[23]

Senators were entitled to wear a tunic with a broad purple

stripe, maroon shoes, and an iron (later gold) ring.[15]
At any point before a motion passed, the proposed motion
The Senate of the Roman Republic passed decrees called could be vetoed, usually by a tribune. If there was no veto,
senatus consulta, which in form constituted advice from and the matter was of minor importance, it could be voted
the senate to a magistrate. While these decrees did not on by a voice vote or by a show of hands. If there was no
hold legal force, they usually were obeyed in practice.[16] veto, and the matter was of a signicant nature, there was

3
usually a physical division of the house,[19] with senators The rst emperor, Augustus, reduced the size of the senvoting by taking a place on either side of the chamber.
ate from 900 members to 600, even though there were
Senate membership was controlled by the Censors. only about 100 to 200 active senators at one time. After
By the time of Gaius Marius, ownership of prop- this point, the size of the senate was never again draserty worth at least one million sesterces was required tically altered. Under the empire, as was the case durfor membership.[15] The ethical requirements of sena- ing the late republic, one could become a senator by benancial duties),
tors were signicant. In contrast to members of the ing elected quaestor (a magistrate with[25]
In addition to
but
only
if
one
was
of
senatorial
rank.
Equestrian order, senators could not engage in banking
quaestors, elected ocials holding a range of senior poor any form of public contract. They could not own
senatorial rank by virtue of
a ship that was large enough to participate in foreign sitions were routinely granted
the oces that they held.[26]
[19]
commerce, they could not leave Italy without permission from the senate and they were not paid a salary. If an individual was not of senatorial rank, there were
Election to magisterial oce resulted in automatic sen- two ways for him to become a senator. Under the rst
ate membership.[24]
method, the emperor granted that individual the authority
to stand for election to the quaestorship,[25] while under
the second method, the emperor appointed that individual to the senate by issuing a decree.[27] Under the em3 Senate of the Roman Empire
pire, the power that the emperor held over the senate was
absolute.[28]
Main articles: Constitution of the Roman Empire,
Senate of the Roman Empire and Constitution of the During senate meetings, the emperor sat between the
two consuls,[29] and usually acted as the presiding ocer.
Late Roman Empire
Senators of the early empire could ask extraneous questions or request that a certain action be taken by the senAfter the fall of the Roman Republic, the constitutional
ate. Higher ranking senators spoke before those of lower
balance of power shifted from the Roman senate to the
rank, although the emperor could speak at any time.[29]
Roman emperor. Though retaining its legal position as
under the republic, in practice, however, the actual au- Besides the emperor, consuls and praetors could also prethority of the imperial senate was negligible, as the em- side over the senate. Since no senator could stand for
peror held the true power in the state. As such, mem- election to a magisterial oce without the emperors apbership in the senate became sought after by individuals proval, senators usually did not vote against bills that had
seeking prestige and social standing, rather than actual been presented by the emperor. If a senator disapproved
of a bill, he usually showed his disapproval by not attendauthority.
ing the senate meeting on the day that the bill was to be
During the reigns of the rst emperors, legislative, judivoted on.[30]
cial, and electoral powers were all transferred from the
Roman assemblies to the senate. However, since the em- While the Roman assemblies continued to meet after the
peror held control over the senate, the senate acted as a founding of the empire, their powers were all transferred
vehicle through which he exercised his autocratic powers. to the senate, and so senatorial decrees (senatus consulta)
acquired the full force of law.[28] The legislative powers
of the imperial senate were principally of a nancial and
an administrative nature, although the senate did retain a
range of powers over the provinces.[28]
During the early Roman Empire, all judicial powers that
had been held by the Roman assemblies were also transferred to the senate. For example, the senate now held
jurisdiction over criminal trials. In these cases, a consul
presided, the senators constituted the jury, and the verdict
was handed down in the form of a decree (senatus consultum),[28][31] and, while a verdict could not be appealed,
the emperor could pardon a convicted individual through
a veto. The emperor Tiberius transferred all electoral
powers from the assemblies to the senate,[31] and, while
theoretically the senate elected new magistrates, the approval of the emperor was always needed before an election could be nalized.
The Curia Julia in the Roman Forum, the seat of the imperial
Senate.

Around 300 AD, the emperor Diocletian enacted a series

of constitutional reforms. In one such reform, he asserted
the right of the emperor to take power without the theo-

4
retical consent of the senate, thus depriving the senate of
its status as the ultimate depository of supreme power.
Diocletians reforms also ended whatever illusion had remained that the senate had independent legislative, judicial, or electoral powers. The senate did, however, retain
its legislative powers over public games in Rome, and over
the senatorial order.

SENATE OF THE EASTERN ROMAN EMPIRE

the almost complete disappearance of the senatorial order

and the decline of the prestigious institution.[33][34]

It is not clearly known when the Roman senate disappeared in the West, but it is known from the Gregorian
register that the senate acclaimed new statues of Emperor
Phocas and Empress Leontia in 603.[35] The institution is
assumed to have vanished by 630 when the Curia Julia
The senate also retained the power to try treason cases, was transformed into a church by Pope Honorius I.
and to elect some magistrates, but only with the permission of the emperor. In the nal years of the empire, the
senate would sometimes try to appoint their own emperor, 4.2 Medieval era
such as in the case of Eugenius, who was later defeated by
forces loyal to Theodosius I. The senate remained the last In later medieval times, the title senator was still in ocstronghold of the traditional Roman religion in the face of casional use, but it had become a meaningless adjunct tithe spreading Christianity, and several times attempted to tle of nobility and no longer implied membership in an
facilitate the return of the Altar of Victory (rst removed organized governing body.
by Constantius II) to the senatorial curia.
In 1144, the Commune of Rome attempted to establish a
government modeled on the old Roman republic in opposition to the temporal power of the higher nobles and the
pope. This included setting up a senate along the lines of
4 Post-Imperial Senate in Rome
the ancient one. The revolutionaries divided Rome into
fourteen regions, each electing four senators for a total of
After the fall of the western Roman Empire, the sen56 (though one source, often repeated, gives a total of
ate continued to function under the barbarian chieftain
50). These senators, the rst real senators since the 7th
Odoacer, and then under Ostrogothic rule. The authority
century, elected as their leader, Giordano Pierleoni, son
of the senate rose considerably under barbarian leaders,
of the Roman consul Pier Leoni, with the title patrician,
who sought to protect the institution. This period was
because consul was also a deprecated noble styling.
characterized by the rise of prominent Roman senatorial
families, such as the Anicii, while the senates leader, the This renovated form of government was constantly emprinceps senatus, often served as the right hand of the battled. By the end of the 12th century, it had undergone
barbarian leader. It is known that the senate successfully a radical transformation, with the reduction of the numinstalled Laurentius as pope in 498, despite the fact that ber of senators to a single one - Summus Senator - being
both King Theodoric and Emperor Anastasius supported thereafter the title of the head of the civil government of
Rome. (For example, in modern terms, this is compathe other candidate, Symmachus.
rable to the reduction of a board of commissioners to a
The peaceful coexistence of senatorial and barbarian rule
single commissioner, such as the political head of the pocontinued until the Ostrogothic leader Theodahad found
lice department of New York City.) Between 1191 and
himself at war with Emperor Justinian I and took the sen1193, this was a certain Benedetto called Carus homo or
ators as hostages. Several senators were executed in 552
carissimo.
as revenge for the death of the Ostrogothic king, Totila.
After Rome was recaptured by the imperial (Byzantine)
army, the senate was restored, but the institution (like
classical Rome itself) had been mortally weakened by 5 Senate of the Eastern Roman
the long war. Many senators had been killed and many
Empire
of those who had ed to the east chose to remain there,
thanks to favorable legislation passed by Emperor JusMain article: Byzantine Senate
tinian, who, however, abolished virtually all senatorial ofces in Italy. The importance of the Roman senate thus
The senate continued to exist in Constantinople, howdeclined rapidly.[32]
ever. In the second half of the 10th century a new ofce, prodrus (Greek: ), was created as head
4.1 Relationships with Constantinople
of the senate by Emperor Nicephorus Phocas. Up to the
mid-11th century, only eunuchs could become prodrus,
In 578 and again in 580, the senate sent envoys to Con- but later this restriction was lifted and several prodri
stantinople. They delivered 3000 pounds (believed to could be appointed, of which the senior prodrus, or probe around 960 kg) of gold as a gift to the new em- toprodrus (Greek: ), served as the head
peror, Tiberius II Constantinus, along with a plea for help of the senate. There were two types of meetings pracagainst the Lombards, who had invaded Italy ten years tised: silentium, in which only magistrates currently in
earlier. Pope Gregory I, in a sermon from 593, lamented oce participated and conventus, in which all syncletics

5
(Greek: , senators) could participate. The
senate in Constantinople existed at least until the beginning of the 13th century, its last known act being the election of Nicolas Canabus as emperor in 1204 during the
Fourth Crusade.[36]

7 Further reading
Ihne, Wilhelm. Researches Into the History of the
Roman Constitution. William Pickering. 1853.

See also

Johnston, Harold Whetstone. Orations and Letters

of Cicero: With Historical Introduction, An Outline
of the Roman Constitution, Notes, Vocabulary and
Index. Scott, Foresman and Company. 1891.

Acta Senatus

Mommsen, Theodor. Roman Constitutional Law.

1871-1888

Aedile
Byzantine Senate
Centuria
Curia

Tighe, Ambrose. The Development of the Roman

Constitution. D. Apple & Co. 1886.
Von Fritz, Kurt. The Theory of the Mixed Constitution in Antiquity. Columbia University Press, New
York. 1975.
The Histories by Polybius

comitia curiata

Cambridge Ancient History, Volumes 913.

Gerousia

Richard A. Talbert, The Senate of Imperial Rome

(Princeton, Princeton Univerversity Press, 1984).

SPQR

A. Cameron, The Later Roman Empire, (Fontana

Press, 1993).

Cursus honorum
Interrex

M. Crawford, The Roman Republic, (Fontana Press,

1978).

Master of the Horse

Erich S. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman

Republic (U California Press, 1974).

Pontifex Maximus

Fergus Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World,

(London, Duckworth, 1977, 1992).

Princeps senatus
Promagistrate
Roman consul
Roman Dictator
Roman Empire
Roman Kingdom
Roman Law
Roman Republic

Andrew Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1999).
Holkeskamp, Karl-Joachim, Senatus populusque
Romanus. Die politische Kultur der Republik - Dimensionen und Deutungen (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner
Verlag, 2004).
Krieckhaus, Andreas, Senatorische Familien und
ihre patriae (1./2. Jahrhundert n. Chr.) (Hamburg:
Verlag Dr. Kovac, 2006) (Studien zur Geschichtesforschung des Altertums, 14).
Werner Eck, Monument und Inschrift. Gesammelte
Aufstze zur senatorischen Reprsentation in der
Kaiserzeit (Berlin/New York: W. de Gruyter, 2010).

Roman censor
Plebeian Council
Praetor
Quaestor

7.1 Primary sources

Ciceros De Re Publica, Book Two
Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of
the Roman Government; by Polybius

8 NOTES
Livy, Ab urbe condita
Lintott, Andrew (1999). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press (ISBN 0-19926108-3).
Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1841). The Political Works
of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on
the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws.
Translated from the original, with Dissertations and
Notes in Two Volumes. By Francis Barham, Esq.
London: Edmund Spettigue. Vol. 1.

8 Notes
[1] Abbott, 3
[2] Abbott, 1
[3] Abbott, 12
[4] Abbott, 6
[5] Abbott, 16
[6] Byrd, 42
[7] Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:8

Polybius (1823). The General History of Polybius:

Translated from the Greek. By James Hampton.
Oxford: Printed by W. Baxter. Fifth Edition, Vol
2.
Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship
of Caesar. The University of Michigan Press (ISBN
0-472-08125-X).

[8] Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:35

[9] Livy, Ab urbe condita, 2.1
[10] Abbott, 10
[11] Abbott, 17
[12] Abbott, 14
[13] Byrd, 20

Schnurer, Gustov (1956). Church And Culture In [14] Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1.41
The Middle Ages 350-814. Kessinger Publishing
[15] McCullough, 1026
(ISBN 9-781425-423223).
[16] Byrd, 44

7.2

Secondary source material

[17] Abbott, 233

Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the

Romans and their Decline, by Montesquieu

[18] Abbott, 240

The Roman Constitution to the Time of Cicero

[20] Lintott, 72

What a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome Can

Teach Us

[21] Lintott, 75

Websters Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913)

[23] Lintott, 83

Brewer, E. Cobham; Dictionary of Phrase and Fable

(1898).

[24] Byrd, 36

McCullough, Colleen; The Grass Crown HarperCollins (1992), ISBN 0-380-71082-X

[26] Metz, David. Daily Life of the Ancient Romans. pp. 59 &
60. ISBN 978-0-87220-957-2.

Wood, Reverend James, The Nuttall Encyclopdia

(1907) - a work now in public domain.

[27] Abbott, 382

[19] Byrd, 34

[22] Lintott, 78

[25] Abbott, 381

[28] Abbott, 385

Byrd, Robert (1995). The Senate of the Roman Re- [29] Abbott, 383
public. U.S. Government Printing Oce, Senate [30] Abbott, 384
Document 103-23.
Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics,
ISBN 0-543-92749-0.
Hooke, Nathaniel; The Roman History, from the
Building of Rome to the Ruin of the Commonwealth,
F. Rivington (Rome). Original in New York Public
Library

[31] Abbott, 386

[32] Schnurer, 339
[33] Bronwen Neil; Matthew J. Dal Santo (9 September 2013).
A Companion to Gregory the Great. BRILL. p. 3. ISBN
978-90-04-25776-4. (translated from the original Latin)
For since the Senate has failed, the people have perished,
and the suerings and groans of the few who remain are
multiplied each day. Rome, now empty, is burning!

[34] Kate Cooper; Julia Hillner (13 September 2007).

Religion, Dynasty, and Patronage in Early Christian Rome,
300900. Cambridge University Press. p. 23. ISBN 9781-139-46838-1.
[35] Jerey Richards. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early
Middle Ages, 476-752, p. 246
[36] Phillips, Jonathan. The Fourth Crusade and the Siege of
Constantinople. 2004. pp. 222-226.

9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1

Text

Roman Senate Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Senate?oldid=676321362 Contributors: Charles Matthews, Adam Bishop,

Furrykef, Topbanana, Wetman, Dimadick, Jason Potter, Wereon, Everyking, Ezod, Geni, Kuralyov, M.e, Pmanderson, Lacrimosus, Discospinster, El C, Alansohn, Jordan117, Wikidea, Nicknack009, Woohookitty, WadeSimMiser, Kmg90, Rjwilmsi, Hiberniantears, The wub,
Str1977, Metropolitan90, Jared Preston, DVdm, Peter G Werner, Madsmh, RussBot, Kurt Leyman, NawlinWiki, Wknight94, Nikkimaria,
OtherDave, The Bearded One, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Rrius, Flamarande, Hmains, Chris the speller, RayAYang, Alphathon, Rrburke,
JesseRafe, Chrylis, DavidMann, Salamurai, Will Beback, Esrever, Nishkid64, JohnI, RandomCritic, Ian Dalziel, A. Parrot, JHunterJ, Grblomerth, Revcasy, Anthony Bradbury, Hemlock Martinis, MC10, Buistr, Epbr123, ChargersFan, Cteckerman, North Shoreman, JAnDbot, Cynwolfe, Doug Coldwell, Animum, Anaxial, Tgeairn, J.delanoy, Nev1, Trusilver, Pajfarmor, NewEnglandYankee, Nikthestunned,
VolkovBot, Zidonuke, Dojarca, Mark Miller, LeaveSleaves, Jalo, Simmaren, Billinghurst, Hmwith, SieBot, SheepNotGoats, Happysailor,
Flyer22, Avnjay, Tombomp, Wickedjacob, RomanHistorian, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Icarusgeek, Kafka Liz, Jan1nad, Der Golem, Excirial,
Jusdafax, Ykhwong, Douglas Coldwell, ChrisHodgesUK, Thingg, BarretB, Koumz, RyanCross, Addbot, Proofreader77, Blanche of Kings
Lynn, InvictusCaesar100, Fluernutter, Download, SomeUsr, LinkFA-Bot, Lightbot, Teles, LuK3, Nacor, Boris19870728, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, Fraggle81, Legobot II, Julia W, Harneses, AnomieBOT, Orange Knight of Passion, Galoubet, ArthurBot, Brane.Blokar, Xqbot,
Rdyornot, DSisyphBot, RibotBOT, Kyng, Amaury, Mattis, Bbq896, Julius4U, Daerlun, Parker1979, Ryan5522, Grandiose, Finn Froding,
I dream of horses, RedBot, Ongar the World-Weary, Meaghan, Urg writer, Tim1357, Abc518, Lightlowemon, Diannaa, Pepperpaws, Sideways713, 13sullj, Desertrac, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Laurel Lodged, F, Josve05a, Tolly4bolly, Andy milanacus, Alfayomega, Senjuto,
Donner60, ClueBot NG, Vacation9, Frietjes, O.Koslowski, ScottSteiner, Helpful Pixie Bot, Atongmy, Roberticus, Blitzface, AvocatoBot,
Davidiad, Tutelary, Haymouse, Khazar2, Dexbot, Hmainsbot1, Mogism, Lugia2453, Malikconn, AureaMediocritasMedenAgan, Nexvex,
Ginsuloft, TJxSJ, Eldhrmnir, Monster882, Gurnosdoom1, Whistlemethis, Eeyoresdream, Mediavalia, Aperiarcam and Anonymous: 222

9.2

Images

File:Curia_Iulia.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Curia_Iulia.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

File:Maccari-Cicero.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Maccari-Cicero.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: [1] Original artist: Cesare Maccari
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
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