Chapter 6

6.9

Let
T

= surface tension
= force per unit length on wire

Then, work done in moving wire of length L through distance x = (T L) x

Work done
=
Increase in area of soap film
Surface energy =
(Units: J m2
m t2
2

mt2

(T L) x
=T
Lx
Surface tension
Force
m t2
=
= mt2
length

= mt2
= mt2 )

6.10 From eqn. (6.5)

e
es

n
k
T
r
e
ln
es
ln

es
Relative humidity

=
=
=
=
=
=
=

2
nkT r
0.76 J m2
3.3 1028 m3
1.38 1023
273 K
0.2 106 m

2 (0.76)
(3.3 1028 ) (1.38 1023 ) (273) (0.2 106 )

= 6.113 103
= 1.00613
=

100.6%

90

6.11 See Fig. 6.3.

6.12 From eqn. (6.8)

20
e0
1 +
= exp 0
es
n kT r

Ms

imMw

4 3 0
r m
3

4 3 0
2 0
r . Also, since 0
1 , we have
3
n kT r

0
2
imMw

l
1+ 0

1 4
n kT r
Ms r3
3
1
2 0
imMw

[ ]
l 1+ 0

4
n kT r
r
Ms r3 0
| {z 4}
3
very small

For a very weak solution m

e0
es

a
e0
l1+ b
es
r

where,

2 0
imMw
and b =
0
4
n kT
Ms 0
3
Second term represents the eect of the curvature of the drop in increasing
e0 . Third term represents the eect of dissolved salt in decreasing e0 es .
Peak in the Khler curve (i.e., in e0 es ) with r occurs when

d e0
= 0,
dr es
a=

that is, when

0 l a
or, when
r2 l

91

3b
a

3b
r2

e0
at its peak value is
es
0
a 1/2
a 3/2
e
l 1+a
b
es max
3b
3b
3 1/2 2/3 3/2
a
b a
l 1+

3b
3b
3 1/2 3 1/2
a
a
l 1+

3b
33 b
3 1/2
1/2
a
1 a3
l 1+

3b
3 3b
3 1/2
2 a
l 1+
3 3b

The magnitude of

e0
es

max

l1+

4a3
27b

1/2

6.13

Volume (or mass in grams) of rainwater collected over 1 cm2 in 1 year =

100 cm3 (or grams). If N = number of cloud droplets/cm3

N (mass of a single cloud droplet) = LW C in g cm3

= 0.3 106
0.3 106
mass of a single cloud droplet (in grams) =
N

But, in 1 year 100 grams of rain is collected

Number of cloud droplets removed by rain per year
100
100
=
mass of single drop
0.3 106 /N
100 N
=
0.3 106
= 0.3 109 N
' 3 108 N
=

92

Number of cloud droplets removed per second

3 108 N
3.65 24 60 60
' 9.5 N

'

Number of CCN in column of atmosphere with 1 cm2 areal cross sectional

and 5 km high

= 1 5 105 N
9.5 N
5 105 N
= 1.9 105 /sec

Fraction of CCN removed/day = 1.9 105 (24 60 60)

= 1.64

Fraction of CCN removed/sec =

Hence, all of CCN are removed in less than 1 day. (Note: From (____)
Residence time
=
=
=
=

Amount of species
Rate of removal of species
5 105 N
sec
9.5 N
0.52 105 sec
14.5 hrs
15 hrs

6.14

93

6.15

When drops are falling at terminal fall speed, the frictional drag per unit
mass of air is
(a) Fd = Downward force on drops/unit mass of air

mass of drops
=
g
mass of air
Since, air density = =
Fd

Also, for air

mass of air
volume of air

(mass of drops) g
(volume of air)

g
= 3 103 kg m3

p = Rd T

Rd T
Fd = 3 103 g
p

3 103 (9.81) (287) (273)

=
500 102
3 9.81 287 273
=
107
5
= 461174 107
Fd = 0.0461 N kg 1
(b) Without drops being present
Downward force acting on a unit mass of air = g

94

When drops are present

Downward force acting on a unit mass of air

Pressure at ground = pg =
But

dp
dz

pg

= (g + 0.0461)
= (9.81 + 0.0461)
= 9.8561 N kg1

dp

pg

= g
Z
Z
=
gdz = g
o

dz

(1)

Now the pressure of 3g/m3 = 3 103 kg/m3 of water in air, will

have negligible eect on the density of air, which is 1.275 kg m3
at surface. Therefore from (1) we can write
pg g
Similarly, at cloud height
pg

Hence,

p (air alone))
p (air + cloud water)

=
=

g
g + 0.0461
9.81
9.8561

(2)

Since
p = Rd T
the air in question (i.e., air containing water vapor) has density
=

p (air + cloud water)

Rd T

(3)

If the air had no cloud water, but is required to have density given
by (3), then
p (air only)
Density =
Rd Tv
95

or,
p (air + cloud water)
p (air alone)
=
Rd T
Rd Tv
where Tv is the virtual temperature require g the air alone is to have
density .
p (air alone)
Tv =
T
(4)
p (air + cloud water)
From (2) and (4)
Tv

9.81
T
9.8561
= 0.9953 (273)
= 271.72 K
=

Therefore, the (negative) virtual temeprature correction is 273

271.72 = 1.28 C.
6.16 (a) The cloud liquid water content (LWC) is given by
Z
4
LW C =
r3 n(r)dr
3
o
where n(r) is the concentration of droplets or radius r, and
Z
N=
n(r)dr

(1)

(2)

From (1) and (2)

4
(r)3 N
3
where r is the mean droplet radius ' re . Therefore
LW C =

LW C =

4
re3 N
3

(3)

(b) Also,
c = 2hre2 N

(4)

From (3) and (4)

LW C =

c
4
re3
3
2hre2

or,
LW C =

96

2 re c

3
h

(5)

(c)
From (5) and (6)

LW P = LW C kg m3 h (m)
LW P =

(6)

2
re c
3

6.17

Entrained air will be coooled to its wet-bulb temperature. From skew

T ln p chart: At 500 hPa and T = 253, saturation mixing ratio = 1.6
g/kg. Therefore,
Relative humidity =
20 =

actual mixing ratio

100
saturation mixing ratio
actual mixing ratio
100
1.6

Actual mixing ratio

= 1.6 0.2
= 0.32 g/kg

Dew point of air before it is entrained into cloud = 37 C

Using Normans rule, the wet-bulb temperature
= 23 C
of the entrained air

If air parcel is brought down along a saturated adiabat to 1000 hPa, its
temperature is found to be 12 C.
If final relative humidity is 50%, by trial and error from chart (by going
down a saturated adiabat and then a dry adiabat) final temperature is
19 C.
6.18 (a) From eqn. (6.18) in Chapter 6:

Lv
T T0
Lv
dm
d0
dws
+
(ws w)
0 =
0
0
0
c
T
T
c
T
m

p
p
For no condensation (dws = 0) and no entrainment (dm = 0), and
d0
(5.28) becomes
= 0 or d0 = 0. This is the dry air ascending

adiabatically case.
97

(b) For condensation but no entrainment (dm = 0)

d0
Lv dws
0 =
cp T 0

or

dQ
d0
= ds
0 =
T0

which is equivalent to (3.98).

cp

(c) For condensation and entrainment, the terms inside [

] in (7.18)
d0
Lv dws
is
positive,
with
entrainment
are both positive. Since,
cp T 0
0
is less than without entrainment. That is, the rate of decrease of 0
with increasing height is less with entrainment. The three situations
can be depicted schematically as follows:

See from (iii) that entrainment causes T to decrease faster with z than
for s .
6.19 Let the radius of the termal at height z above the ground be r, then
r = z

(1)

= constant. The entrainment rate is

3 dr
1 dm
1 d 4 3
=
r =
3
m dt
4r dt 3
r dt

(2)

From (1) and (2)

3 dz
1 dm
=
m dt
r dt
6.20 (a) For ascent with no condensation LWC = 0, therefore:
dz
dS
= Q1
dt
dt
since,
S=
98

e
es

(1)

dS
=
dt
We will first evaluate

de
dt

es

de
des
e
dt
dt

e=

e2s

(2)

w
p
+w

where, w = mixing ratio, which is constant if there is no condensation.

w dp
de
=

dt
+ w dt
or
de
w dp dz
=
(3)
dt
+ w dz dt
But,
dp
= g
(4)
dz
and
(T = Tv )
(5)
p = Rd T
From (3), (4), (5):
de
eg dz
=
dt
Rd T dt

(6)

des
We will now evaluate
dt
From the Clausius-Clapeyron eqn:
des
Lv
Lv
=
'
dT
T (2 1 )
T (2 )
and,
1
T
2
des
Lv es

=
dT
Rv T 2
des
Lv es dT

=
dt
Rv T 2 dt
es = Rv

or,
Lv es dT dz
des
=
dt
Rv T 2 dz dt
But,

dT
g
Dry adiabatic lapse rate
=+ =
(because there is no condensation)
dz
cp

des
Lv es g dz
=
dt
Rv T 2 cp dt
99

(7)

From (2), (6) and (7):

1 e
dS
=
dt
T es
Since

e
'1
es
1
dS
'
dt
T

Lv g
g

Rd cp T
Rd

Lv g
g

Rd cp T
Rd

dz
dt

dz
dt

(8)

Comparing (1) and (8):

g
Q1 =
T Rd

(b) If we assume no vertical air motion

condensation occurs, then:

Lv
1
cp T

dz
' 0 and p = constant while
dt

dS
d (LW C)
= Q2
dt
dt
Equation (2) still holds, and we will now evaluate
e=

(9)
de
for this case.
dt

w
p
+w

w now varies, but p is constant. Therefore,

de

dw
=
p
dt
( + w)2 dt
But,
dw
dt
de

dt

d (LW C)
dt
d (LW C)

=
2p
dt
( + w)

Since
p = Rd T

(T = Tv )

and
w
de
d (LW C)
1
' Rd T
dt

dt

100

(10)

des
We now evaluate
for this case. As before, from the Clausiusdt
Clapeyron eqn. and the gas eqn. for vater vapor, we get:
des
dt

Lv es dT
Rv T 2 dt
Lv es
d (LW C)
dT
2
Rv T d (LW C)
dt

'
=

(11)

But,
d (LW C) = dw

and

dQ = Lv d (LW C) = Lv dw

also,

dQ = cp dT
Hence,
cp dT = Lv dw

or

dT =

Lv dw
cp

(12)

From (11) and (12):

des
L2 es d (LW C)
=+ v2
dt
Rv T cp
dt

(13)

From (2), (10) and (13):

dS
=
dt

es

des
de
e
dt
dt

e2s

Therefore,
1
e
L2v d (LW C)
d (LW C)
dS
=

Rd T
dt
es
dt
es Rv T 2 cp
dt
Substitute
p = Rd T so that T = p/ Rd
d (LW C)
dS
1
e L2v Rd d (LW C)
Rd T
=

dt
es
dt
es Rv T cp p
dt
e
' 1,
Or, since
es

Rd T
dS
L2v d (LW C)
+
'
dt
es
T pcp
dt

From (9) and (14):

Q2 =

101

Rd T
L2v
+
es
pT cp

(14)

6.21

dh
dt

= w u1

(1)

u1

2gL r12
9

(2)

From (6.21)
dr1
dt
r12

= GS

r1

= 2G St

(3)

From (1), (2) and (3)

dh
4gL G S
=w
t
dt
9

4gL SG
dh =
dt
9
o
4gL SG t2
h = wt
9
2
p = wt

tdt

2gL SG t2
9

6.22 Use the skew T ln p chart as described in Exercise 3.10.

Entrainment reduces LWC below adiabatic value. Accumulation of LWC
(e.g., when fall speed of drops = updraft of air) could cause LWC to
increase above adiabatic values in some regions of the cloud.

102

6.23

dm
= r2 V Ee (LW C)
dt
But,
m=

4 3
r 2
3

4
dr
L 3 r2
= r2 V Ec (LW C)
3
dt
dr
V Ec

(LW C)
=
dt
4L

4
LW C = (0.001)3 L 100 in g cm3
3

where L = density of liquid water in g cm3 = 1

4
LW C = 107 g cm3
3

3
Also, Ec = 1 and V = 6 10 r where V is in cm s1 and r in cm.
4
6 103 r 107 0.8
dr
3

=
dt
4

or

dr
= 1.6104 t
r
Z t
dr
dt = 1.6104 t
= 1.6104
r
o

0.1 cm
0.01 cm

ln 0.1 ln 0.01
=t
1.6d104
t = 4579 secs
t = 76.3 mins

103

6.24

V = 6 103 r

where V is in cm s1 and r in cm

V = 6 103 104 r = 0.6r

where V is in cm s1 and r in m. Let x = distance of drop (in cm) below

cloud base, then
dx
= V = 0.6r
(A)
dt
where r is in m.
dx = 0.6r dt (x in cm r in m)
From (6.21)
r

or

dr
= G S = 7 102
dt

(r in m)

as a fraction

dx (cm)
rdr = 7 102 S
0.6r

7 102 S
r2 dr =
dx
0.6
5
Z
Z R(m)
700S 510 cm
2
r dr =
dx

0.6 0 cm
1000 m
3 R(m)

700S
=
5 105
3 1000
0.6
104

(B)

If RH = 60% the supersaturation is (as a fraction)

e
e es
=
1=
RH
1 = 0.6 1 = 0.4
es
es
(as a fraction)
S = 0.4

r3
3

R(m)

700 (0.4)
5 105
0.6

1000

10003
R3

3
3

7 (0.4) (5) 107

0.6
= 23.33 107

= 109 3 23.33 107

R3

=
=
R =
=

1 9 0.7 109
0.3 109

3 0.3 103
0.6694 103 m

Radius
at cloud = 0.67 mm
base
Time taken: And from (B) above
dt =

rdr = 700S

1000 m

rdr
700ST

dt

where T = time (in secs) for drop to reach ground

r2
2

= 700ST

1000
2

1000
r2

2
2
r2

= 700ST
= 10002 + 2 (700) ST

But from (A) above

dx
= 0.6r
dt

105

Hence

1/2

= 0.6 106 + 1400St

Z T
cm
1/2
6
dx = 0.6
dt
10 + 1400St
dx
dt

5105
o

T
3/2 1
2 6
= 0.6
10 + 1400St
3
1400S o

3/2 2 109
2 6
= 0.6

10 + 1400ST
4200S
4200S

5 10

But S = 0.4
5 105 =

3/2
6
1.2
1.2 109

10 = 560T
4200 (0.4)
4200 (0.4)

5 105 4200 (0.4)

+ 109
1.2

=
=
=
=

2/3

= 106 = 560T

2/3

7 108 + 109
106

560
560
2/3 .

106
560
0.7 109 + 109
560
.

2/3
560
1785.7 0.3 109

2/3
106 560
1785.714 (0.3)

T = 1785.714 (0.6694)2

= 1785.714 800.172
= 985.54 secs
T = 16.4 mins

106
560

6.25 (a)
Let N
Nt

= total number of drops

= number of drops frozen at time t

Then

Nt
N
Number of drops that nucleat between time o and t + dt is
P (V, t) =

Nt+dt = Nt + (N Nt ) V JLS dt

106

Dividing both sides by N

P (V, t + dt) = P (V, t) + [1 P (V, t) V JLS dt]
Since
P (V, t + dt) = P (V, t) +

d
[P (V, t)] dt
dt

it follows that
d
P (V, t) = [1 P (V, t)] V JLS
dt
Hence,

P (V,t)

dP (V, t)
=
1 P (V, t)

ln [1 P (V, t)] =
But =

dT
dt
ln [1 P (V, t)] =

V JLS dt

o
t

V JLS dt

V R Tt
JLS dT
o

where Tt is temperature at time t.

(b) From the equation following (6.34) in Exercise (6.4):
n = ln (1 P )
4
ln (1 P ) =
3

D
2

103 exp a (T1 T )

Since from (a) above

ln (1 P )
V

exp a (T1 T )

V and have inverse eect on the medium freezing temperature T .

107

6.26

Let
N
m
Total mass of crystals
Total mass of liquid water
(in gm)

=
=
=
=

total number of crystals in cloud

mass of each crystal (in grams)
mN grams
2 (10 3) 109
|
{z
}
volume of cloud
in m3

mN = 2 30 109 = 6 1010 grams

But, since there are 1/liter of ice crystals in the cloud

N = (10 3) 109
1 103
|
{z
}
| {z }
volume of cloud
number of
in m3
crystals per m3
N = 3 1013
From (A)
Total mass of crystals
N
6 1010
=
3 1013
= 2 103 grams

m = Mass of each ice crystal =

m = 2 mg

108

(A)

If h is rainfall (in cm) produced by the ice crystals

(Ah) (density of water) = mN grams

cm3
g cm3
Since
A
density of water
1011 h
h

=
=
=
=

10 1010 cm2
1 g cm3
mN = 6 1010
0.6 cm = 6 mm

6.27

From (6.36)
dM
C
(Gi Si )
=
dt
o
In SI units for a cylindrical disk of radius r
C = 8ro

dM
= 8r (Gi Si )
dt

Also,
M = r2 hI

d 2

r hI = 8rGi Si
dt
109

Since h and I are constant

hI 2r
or

dr
= 8rGi Si
dt

dr
4Gi Si
=
dt
hI

At 5 C we see from Fig. 6.32, that

Gi Si ' 2 109 kg s1 m1
Since
h = 10 m = 105 m
I = 0.917 103 kg m3
t = 30 60 = 1800 sec
Z t

Z r
4 2 109
dr =
dt

(105 ) (0.917) o
o
8 109
r =
t
5
10 (0.917) (103 )
8 104
1800
=
(0.917)
= 4997 107 m
= 0.0005 m
r = 0.5 mm
Mass of the ice crystal = r2 hI

= 0.5 103
10 106 0.917 103
= 0.72 109 kg
= 7.2 g

6.28

dM
dt

= r2 Ewv

0.24
= r2 Ew2.4 M 106
110

where M is in kg.
Z 0.05 mg
dM

0.24
M
0.01 mg
0.76 5108 kg
M
0.76 108 kg
0.76 5108 kg
M
108 kg

0.76
0.76
108
5 108
2.826 106 8.31 107
28.26 107 8.31 107
19.95 107
11.84 109
t

t
o

r2 Ew2.4 101.44 dt

= r2 Ew2.4 101.44 t

= 0.76r2 Ew2.4 101.44 t

= 0.76 0.5 103 0.1 0.5 103 2.4 101.44 t

|
{z
} |
{z
}
r in
w in
meters
kg m3
= 0.43 109 101.44 t
= 11.84 109 t
t = 2.8 mins
= t
= 1.68 102 secs

6.29

dM
dt
M

= r12 (V1 V2 ) E (IW C)

=

4 3
r
3 1 ice
dM
4
dr1
= r12 ice
dt
3
dt

111

(A)

(B)

From (A) and (B)

dr1
dt
dr1

dt

4r12 ice

= r12 (V1 V2 ) E (IW C)

0.5 cm = 0.5102 m

dr1

0.5 mm = 0.5103 m

0.5 102 0.5 103

(V1 V2 ) E (IW C)
4ice

t =
=
t=

(V1 V2 ) E (IW C)
4ice
3
1 (1) 10
t
4 (100)
4 (100)

4.5 103
103
1800 secs
30 mins

dt

6.30 Sucient heat must be provided to evaporate fog droplets and to make the
temperature of the air suciently to accommodate the additional water
vapor.

Heat to evaporate fog droplets = 0.3 103 2.477 106

= 743 J
Original saturated vapor pressure = 12.27 hPa. Corresponding density of
water vapor is given by
12.27 100 = 461 282
= 9.4 103 kg m3
Assitional amount of water vapor in air after evaporation of fog droplets

= 0.3 103 kg m3
Total amount of water vapor after evaporation

= (0.3 + 9.4) 103 kg m3

= 9.7 103 kg m3
This density of vapor must correspond to the new saturated vapor pressure
p at the required temperature T , therefore

p = 461 9.7 103 T

or

or, if p is in hPa

p/T = 461 9.7 103

p100
T

= 461 9.7 103

= 0.045
112

or

p (hPa)
= 4.5 104
T ( K)

Inspect heat to find p/T with this value. Find,

T = 283.66 K = 10.66 C
Hence,
Heat required to raise 1 m3 of air by 0.66 C
is
(mass of air) (specific heat of air) T

273
= (1 1.275
) 1004 J K1 kg1 0.66
{z 283}
|
T2
air
T1
= 815 J
Total heat needed = (743 + 815) J/m3
= 1558 J
6.31
40 103 (mm )
Initial volume of each drop
40 103
=
4
(0.25 103 )3
3
= 6.1 108

Number of drops =

4
6.1 108
2.5 103
3
= 39.9 m3

Final volume of water in drops =

39.9
m
10 106
= 4 103 mm

Rainfall =

6.32 Increase in mass of drops in Exercise 6.31

3

(2.5)

(0.25)
113

= 103

Increase in mass of drops in this exercise

=

(2.5)

(20 103 )3

= 1.95 106 = 2 106

6.33
RS

= RN

s
3

NN
NS

= 0.5 mm

=53

10
mm
104

6.34
Heat released by freezing = w 103 Lf
Heat released due to condensation
of excess water onto ice

= (ws wi ) 103 Ld

cT = w` 10 3 Lf + (ws wi ) 10 3 Ld
6.35
cT
(1004) T
T

= w 103 Lf

= 2 103 3.34 105

=

2 102 3.34
1004
0.7 C

6.36

Increase in temperate due to

freezing of cloud water
Incremental rise in cloudy air =
Dierence in lapse rates
( ' 1 C/km)
114

(1)

Heat released by glaciation

per m3 of air

0.001 kg m3 3.34 105 J kg1

= 3.34 102 J m3

If 500 hPa is density of air (in kg m3 ) at 500 hPa and 20 C, 1 m3 of

air at 500 hPa has mass 500 hPa kg.
Heat released per kg of cloudy air =

3.34 102
J kg1
500 hPa

(2)

Since p/T
500 hPa and 253 K
1000 hPa and 273 K
500 hPa and 253 K

500/253
1 273
=
1000/273
2 253
= 0.54 1000 hPa and 273
= 0.54 (1.275) kg m3
= 0.688 kg m3
=

(3)

From (2) and (3),

3.34 102
0.688
= 485 J

Heat released per kg of cloudy air =

If temperature rise of cloudy air due to glaciation is T C

(1 kg) (T ) cp J kg1 C1 = 485 J

485
C = 0.48 C
T =
1004
From (1) and (4)
0.48 C
1 C km1
= 0.48 km
= 480 m

Incremental rise in cloudy air =

115

(4)

6.37

From the law of refraction

sin i
V1
=
sin r
V2

(1)

sin
= constant (along any path of a sound wave)
V

(2)

Or, in general,

But,

dx
dx
tan = =
dz
dz
sin
sin

=
1/2
cos
1 sin2

From (2) at point P in the diagram below:

116

(3)

From (2) at point P in above diagram

sin 90
= constant
Vo
or,
1
= constant
(4)
Vo
where, Vo is velocity of sound just above ground level. Hence, in general,
from (2)
1
sin
=
V
Vo

But V T , therefore,
r
V
T
=
(5)
sin =
Vo
To
From (3) and (5)
p
r
( T / To )
T
dx
=
= s

dz
To T
T
1
To
But,
T
To T
117

= To z
= z

and,

T
dz
dx =
z

6.38 From Exercise 3.37:

1/2
To z
dz
dx =
z

1/2
To
dz
=
1
z
1/2
1/2
z
To
dz
1
=
z
To

1/2
1 z
To
higher powered
1
+
dz
=
terms in z
z
2 To

1/2
1 z
To
1
dz
dz '
z
2 To
Integrating
Z

D
o

1
1 z

dz
z 2 To
H

1/2 Z o
1
To
1 z

dz

2 To
z
H
o
1/2
2 3/2
To
1/2

2z

2To 3
H
1/2
o
To
3/2

z
2z 1/2

3To
H

1/2
To

1
2H 1/2 +

H 3/2

3 To
| {z }
small
term

To H 1/2
2

dx =
=
=
=

D=

To

with = 7.5 km1 and To = 300 K, H = 4 km

D=2

300 4000
7.5 103

D = 25.3 km

118

1/2

= 2 1.26 104

6.39
Distance
Time
Distance = (velocity) (time)

= 0.34 km s1 (10)
= 3.4 km
Velocity =

Minimum length of flash = (8 secs) 0.34 km sec1

= 2.72 km
This represents true length of flash only if lightning stroke is aligned along
site of observer.
6.40 Solution:
(a) The oxidation number of hydrogen in most of its compounds is +1
and the oxidation number of oxygen in most of its compounds is 2.
Hence, if x represents the oxidation number of sulfur in HSO
3 (aq),
and since the net charge on HSO
(aq)
is
1,
3
+1 + x + 3(2) = 1
therefore,
x=4
That is, the oxidation number of sulfur in HSO
3 (aq) is 4. For this
reason, sulfur in HSO
(aq)
is
often
referred
to
as sulfur four or
3
S(IV).
Similarly, if y is the oxidation number of sulfur in H2 SO4 (aq),
since there is no net charge on H2 SO4 (aq),
2(+1) + y + 4(2) = 0
therefore,
y=6
Hence, the sulfur in H2 SO4 (aq) has an oxidation number of 6 (sulfur
six or S(VI)). Therefore, when H2 SO
3 (aq) is converted to H2 SO4 (aq),
the oxidation number of sulfur increases from 4 to 6.
(b) By following similar steps the reader can show that the oxidation
number of sulfur in both SO2 H2 O(aq) and in SO2
3 (aq) is 4. Therefore, when these species are converted to H2 SO4 their oxidation numbers also increase by 2.

119