Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
OCTOBER 1993
Abstract
Hamilton's principle is used to devise a variational principle which has as its
natural conditions the equations of irrotational motion of an incompressible, homogeneous, inviscid
uid with a free surface. By applying the shallow water
approximation to the
ow variables this variational principle is reduced to another one whose natural conditions are the shallow water equations of motion.
Boundary terms are added to the functional of this variational principle so that
the natural conditions now include boundary and initial conditions as well as the
equations of motion. A quartet of variational principles for shallow water
ows
is derived by using Legendre transforms. These principles are modied to give
other principles for steady shallow water
ows by assuming that the
ow variables
do not depend on time. Variational principles are also derived for quasi onedimensional shallow water
ows | both time-dependent and time-independent
| and for steady state discontinuous
ows.
Approximations to continuous and discontinuous
ows in channels of varying
breadth and domain bed proles are calculated using nite element approximations for a selection of the variational principles developed. Approximations to
steady continuous
ows are calculated on xed grids using both the quasi onedimensional and the two-dimensional formulations. Methods of generating adaptive grids in one dimension using the variational principles are also studied and an
algorithm is given for generating approximations on an adaptive grid to steady
discontinuous quasi one-dimensional
ows. Approximations are also found for
time-dependent quasi one-dimensional
ows.
i
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Dr. M. J. Baines and Dr. D. Porter for their help and
encouragement during the last three years, and for their good humour which has
made the time so enjoyable.
I thank my parents and grandparents for their love and for being there when
I need them. My brother and sister I thank for moral support.
I also thank my colleagues in the Mathematics department and other friends
in Reading.
I acknowledge receipt of an SERC Research Studentship.
ii
Contents
Abstract
Acknowledgements
ii
Contents
iii
1 Introduction
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
11
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
15
: : : :
16
: : : : : : : : : :
19
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
20
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
22
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
24
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
33
10
: : : : : : : : :
: : : : : : : : : : :
33
: : : : : : : : : :
3 Variational Principles
43
: : : : : : : : : : : :
43
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
44
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
46
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
51
: : :
52
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
54
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
57
39
: :
57
59
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
62
62
64
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
69
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
69
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
: : : : : : : : : : :
78
: : : : : : : : : : : : : :
83
: : : : : : : :
84
: : : : : : : : : : :
89
: : : : : : : : : : : :
92
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
93
72
: : : : : : : : : : :
97
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
101
: : : : : : : : : : :
103
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
105
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
106
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
110
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
114
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
116
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
125
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
128
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
133
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
133
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
137
: : : : : : : : : :
: : : : : : :
144
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
146
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
156
138
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
163
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
170
6 Further Applications
176
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
177
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
177
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
180
: : : : : : : : : : :
187
7 Concluding Remarks
193
References
203
vi
Chapter 1
Introduction
The problem of
uid
ow over an uneven topography and through constricting
channels has been of interest to hydraulic engineers and meteorologists for many
years. Variational methods have been widely used in other areas for even longer
but have only recently begun to play a signicant part in the problems of
uid
mechanics. The nite element method is a relatively recent technique, which has
advanced the construction of approximate solutions, particularly in relation to
elliptic problems. This thesis brings together these three subjects.
More specically the aim of this thesis is to generate numerical approximations to the solutions of the equations governing the irrotational motion of an
homogeneous, incompressible, inviscid
uid over a xed bed prole. The method
implemented here depends on the derivation of variational principles which are
satised for the solutions of these equations of motion. Approximate solutions
to the equations are derived as those functions in a nite dimensional space for
which the functionals of the variational principles are stationary with respect to
variations in that space.
1
Luke (1967) showed that a variational principle in which the integrand (the
Lagrangian density) is taken to be the
uid pressure, as given by Bernoulli's
energy integral, has as its natural conditions the equations governing a free surface
ow. The natural conditions of a variational principle are those which make the
corresponding functional stationary. The natural conditions of Luke's principle
are Laplace's equation, holding in the
uid domain, the no
ow condition across
the bed and the dynamic and kinematic free surface conditions. Luke assumes
that all of the variations vanish on the other space boundaries and at the ends of
the time interval.
Hamilton's variational principle in particle mechanics (see, for example, Goldstein (1980)) has, as the Lagrangian, the dierence between the kinetic and potential energies of a system. The natural conditions of the variational principle are
Lagrange's equations of motion. Salmon (1988) considers applications of classical
Hamiltonian theory to
uid mechanics. Many of these applications, such as, for
example, in Serrin (1959) and in Seliger and Whitham (1968), have been within
the area of gas dynamics. However, Miles and Salmon (1985) derived equations
describing the motion of weakly dispersive non-linear gravity waves using Hamilton's principle. In this thesis Hamilton's principle is adapted to give a principle
whose natural conditions are the equations governing a free surface
ow, and this
principle can be rearranged to give Luke's principle, in the case where the variations vanish on all time and space boundaries except the free surface and the
domain bed.
There is a point of contact between free surface
ows and compressible gas
ows if the shallow water approximation to free surface
ows is invoked (Stoker
2
Strang and Fix (1973)) can be used to obtain approximate solutions of a variational principle by expanding the variables in terms of trial functions and using
the variational principle to evaluate the parameters of the expansions. The nite
element approach is implemented by choosing the trial functions to be piecewise
polynomials, which are zero over most of the domain, these trial functions being
known as nite element basis functions. The channel
ows are approximated here
by using piecewise linear basis functions, where the basis function corresponding
to a particular node of a grid is linear and continuous and non-zero only in the
elements surrounding the node, and piecewise constant basis functions, where
the basis function corresponding to a particular element is non-zero only in that
element. The basic method is then to seek the functions in a nite dimensional
space, spanned by a set of nite element basis functions, for which the functional
corresponding to a particular variational principle is stationary with respect to
variations in that space.
The parameters of the expansions are found by solving one or more sets of
equations, at least one set of which is non-linear. The non-linear equations are
solved using Newton's method.
In Chapter 4, the algorithms for approximating time-independent quasi onedimensional
ows in shallow water are presented. Several versions of two particular variational principles are considered and used to generate approximations to
continuous and discontinuous
ows on xed and adaptive grids. In the discontinuous case the positioning of the approximation to the discontinuity requires care.
This is because, although all of the equations governing the motion are either
implicit in the variational principle or derived as natural conditions, the jump
5
conditions are only generated as natural conditions by imposing specic conditions on the variations. It is not clear how these conditions could be implemented
in practice and the algorithm used here is based on generating separate approximations to the continuous parts of the solution and coupling the approximations
at the discontinuity by using the jump conditions, in the process of which an
approximation to the position of the discontinuity is also found.
Chapter 5 deals with nding approximations to steady two-dimensional continuous shallow water
ows, by extending the algorithms of Chapter 4.
In Chapter 6 two further applications of the variational principles are investigated. In an attempt to study the accuracy of the shallow water approximation to free surface
ows a version of Luke's principle for steady state
ows is
used to generate approximations in this case. Finally an algorithm to generate
approximations to time-dependent quasi one-dimensional shallow water
ows is
considered.
Chapter 2
Background Fluid Dynamics
In this chapter the equations governing the three-dimensional motion of an incompressible, homogeneous
uid under a free surface are given and adapted to
the various problems which will be considered later. An approximation to such a
three-dimensional motion can be devised by assuming that the
uid depth is small
compared with a typical horizontal length scale of the motion. This so-called shallow water approximation generates a simplied set of equations by removing the
vertical motion, at lowest order. Shallow water theory is often applied in channels
and this case only will be considered.
2.1
In this section the equations governing the motion of a
uid under a free surface
are given. The
uid is assumed to be incompressible and homogeneous and the
motion is assumed to be irrotational.
Let
(x,y,t)
y
D
h(x,y)
domain
, extending over a xed region
surfaces
depth and
h(x; y )
and
in the
xy
is the unknown height of the free surface above the reference level
u = (u; v; w).
Let
u(x; y; z; t)
r:u
~
= 0;
(2:1)
r
~
Let
@ @ @
; ;
:
@x @y @z
(2:2)
be the acceler-
Du
Dt
rp r gz ;
~ ~
~(
(2:3)
where
D
Dt
DF
Dt
+
@F
@t
~ F:
u:r
(2:4)
for some
(2:5)
Therefore the
r~ 2 = 0:
(2:6)
r r
1
p~
~ : ~ + gz = 0;
+ t +
2
where the arbitrary function of
t
(2:7)
term. Equation (2.7) is called the Bernoulli equation of the ow; it represents
.
Equations (2.1), (2.3) and (2.5) govern the motion in the domain
. Further
equation are needed at the boundaries of
.
Bernoulli's equation gives rise to the dynamic free surface condition. At the
free surface,
z = ,
r r
t + ~ : ~ + g = 0
2
on
z = :
(2:8)
At boundaries of
across which there is no
ow the conservation of mass
equation is replaced by a boundary condition, that is, if
9
F (x; y; z; t)
= 0 is the
DF
Dt
(2:9)
=0
D
(z
Dt
) = 0;
t + ux + vy
w=0
on
z = :
z + h = 0.
(2:10)
D
(z + h) = 0;
Dt
or
uhx + vhy + w = 0
on
z = h:
(2:11)
Equation (2.9) also applies at any lateral boundary across which there is no
ow.
Equations (2.1), (2.3), (2.5), (2.8), (2.10) and (2.11) constitute the set of
equations governing three-dimensional
ow in an arbitrary domain
.
2.2
Shallow water theory oers an approximation to free surface
ows in circumstances where the water depth is much less than some characteristic length scale
of the motion, such as the radius of curvature of the free surface. It is essentially
10
2.2.1
To lowest order, shallow water theory can be generated by assuming that the
uid pressure is hydrostatic (Stoker (1957)). That is,
p~(x; y; z; t) = g (
z) ;
(2:12)
where the constant surface pressure has been set to zero for convenience.
Equation (2.12) can be used to determine a vertically averaged replacement
for the pressure,
Z
p~ dz;
p = gd2 ;
(2:13)
where
z.
Substituting
(2.12) into (2:3)3 gives the result that, in lowest order shallow water theory, the
vertical acceleration of the
uid particles is zero, that is, negligible compared with
g.
u and v .
11
as
uz
=0
vz
w = 0:
= 0 and
(2:14)
The equations of shallow water motion are derived by substituting (2.14) into
the equations governing the three-dimensional motion | (2.1), (2.3), (2.5), (2.8),
(2.10) and (2.11).
The eect of (2:14)3 on the irrotationality condition (2.5) is that the velocity
potential
v = r;
where
(2:15)
is given by
r
@ @
;
:
@x @y
(2:16)
The hypothesis (2.12) implies that the rst two components of the conservation of momentum equation (2.3) can be written as
vt + (v:r) v = gr:
For irrotational
ow, where
(2:17)
1
2
r v :v :
(
vt +
1
2
r v :v
(
)=
g ;
or, alternatively, as
vt + rE = grh;
12
(2:18)
where
by
gd + v:v:
(2:19)
t + E
where an arbitrary function of
gh;
(2:20)
t .
Equation (2.20) is
vt + rE = 0:
Integrating (2.21) with respect to
x and y
t + E
t
= 0;
(2:22)
gh
(2:21)
Equation (2.22)
z = 0 to z = h.
The conservation of mass equation for free surface
ow (2.1) may be written
as
ux + vy + wz
13
= 0:
Z
(u +
h
Equations (2:14)1 2 imply that
ux
vy + wz ) dz = 0:
and
vy
(2:23)
are independent of
so (2.23) may be
rewritten as
(u +
wj
and
vy ) d + [w] h = 0:
wj h
zero ow through the free surface and the bed, (2.10) and (2.11), (2.23) becomes
d :v + v: h + v: + t = 0:
Using
as
dt +
r:Q
= 0;
(2:24)
where
Q = dv
may be called the mass
ow vector since
(2:25)
d, v , Q, E
and
,
x and y .
xy
D.
Q:n = C
where
on ;
(2:26)
0 on the xed sides of the channel and at the inlet and outlet parts
of the boundary
Stoker (1957) uses the hydrostatic approximation (2.12) to derive the shallow
water equations and also derives the same equations by a perturbation expansion method. In this latter case the
ow variables in the exact equations, (2.1),
(2.3), (2.5), (2.8), (2.10) and (2.11), are expanded in terms of a parameter which
is small when the depth of
uid is much less than a typical horizontal length.
The shallow water equations are obtained by equating the lowest order terms.
The perturbation expansion method can also be used to generate higher order
approximations to free surface
ows.
2.2.2
The fact that the equations of motion for shallow water can be written in the
same form as the equations of motion for a compressible gas
ow is known as the
gas dynamics analogy (Stoker (1957)).
The irrotationality condition (2.15), the conservation of momentum equation
(2.18) and the conservation of mass equation (2.24) for shallow water can be
rearranged to give
vt + (v:r) v
15
r;
rp grh;
d
1
(2.27)
(2.28)
dt +
r: dv
(
p,
0;
(2.29)
g h
force or as a heat source. For the special case where the equilibrium depth,
constant, the forcing term
h, is a
conservation equation for gas
ow. Also, in gas dynamics terminology, equation
(2.13), which denes
d,
is an `adiabatic' relation
2.3
For certain
ow domains the motion can be approximated by making the assumption that it is dependent on one space dimension and time only.
Consider a channel which extends over the interval [x
B (x)
in [x
e ; xo].
Let
Assume
16
-5
0
10
Figure 2.2:
for
2
xe = 0; xo = 10 and B (x) = 6 + 4 x5
the
D=
(x; y ) :
x 2 [xe ; xo] ; y 2
"
#)
B (x) B (x)
;
2
(2:30)
x,
the ow is
2
d(x; t),
(x; t), E
and
=
only.
E (x; t), Q
Q(x; t)
and
v (x; t),
where
is
Although the
same symbols are used for depth, velocity potential and energy in one and two
dimensions, the context will always make clear whether the
ow being studied is
quasi one-dimensional or two-dimensional. The operator
is replaced by
@
@x .
The term
r:Q
in (2.24) is replaced by
1 @
B @x (QB ).
Thus, the quasi one-dimensional shallow water equations of motion are given
17
by
x
irrotationality condition;
(2.31)
vt + Ex
ghx
conservation of momentum;
(2.32)
dt + (BQ)x
B
conservation of mass;
(2.33)
Q, is given by
Q = dv;
(2:34)
(2:35)
E , is given by
E
gd + v 2:
2
t + E
where
gh;
(2:36)
is related to v by (2.31).
h, be constant.
vt + Ex = 0:
Integrating (2.37) with respect to
x gives
t + E
(2:37)
= 0;
(2:38)
t .
Equation (2.38) is
consistent with (2.36) when the reference level for potential energy in the vertical
is moved from
ght:
(2:39)
The boundary conditions for quasi one-dimensional ow are given, for example, by
Ce
at
x = xe ;
(2.40)
Co
at
x = xo;
(2.41)
from the two-dimensional shallow water boundary condition (2.26) using the fact
that there is zero
ow through the channel sides and that
and
redundant.
2.4
The equations of motion for steady state shallow water can be derived from the
time-dependent equations of Sections 2:2 and 2:3. In this section the steady state
equations are derived by assuming that all of the
ow variables are independent
of time. The velocity potential
,
19
2.4.1
Two-dimensional Flows
First assume that the
ow variables do not vary with time, that is,
and
v(x; y).
Then
E (x; y )
and
Q = Q(x; y)
d(x; y )
and (2.25).
The steady state versions of the conservation of momentum equation (2.18)
and the conservation of mass equation (2.24) can be immediately written as
rE
r:Q
and
g h
(2.42)
0;
(2.43)
and
vt
rt
(2.44)
tt + Et
0;
(2.45)
0 and Et 0.
Thus, from
satises
rt
Therefore
vt
and
tt = 0:
(2:46)
(2:47)
rf
0.
in (2.15) gives
~
v = r;
20
(2:48)
f +E
gh;
(2:49)
is obtained by substituting (2.47) into (2.20). Equation (2.49) implies that the
function
must satisfy
E + gh, where
Thus,
(2:50)
h be constant.
rE
This implies that the energy
0:
is in fact a constant,
(2:51)
t + E^
= 0:
(2:52)
must
be of the form
(x; y ):
^ +
(x; y; t) = Et
(2:53)
v = r
(2:54)
21
n:Q = C
where is the boundary of the domain
on ;
and
C (x; y )
C
Z
is dened on .
For
must satisfy
C d = 0:
Equations (2.42), (2.43) and (2.48) are the equations of motion for timeindependent shallow water ows.
dimensional ows can be derived from the corresponding time-dependent equations in a similar manner.
2.4.2
Following the derivation of the steady state equations in two dimensions, assume
that the
ow variables are independent of time, that is,
Then
E (x)
and
Q(x)
d = d(x)
and
v = v (x).
As in
must be deduced
dt
0 represents
gh0
(2.55)
0;
(2.56)
(BQ)
and
respectively, where
E0
the
x derivative.
22
and
xt
(2.57)
tt + Et
(2.58)
Therefore
vt
and
tt = 0:
(2:59)
f 0 = 0.
v = ~0:
The value of the constant function
(2:60)
f
where
E + gh;
Thus
is given by
h, be constant.
E0 = 0
23
^ , where E
^ is an arbitrary constant. The integrated
=E
t + E^
= 0:
and
v = 0;
(x) is now the velocity potential for these circumstances.
where
The boundary conditions for steady
ow are given by
where
Ce
and
Co
Ce
at
x = xe ;
Co
at
x = xo;
Ce
and
Co
must satisfy
Ce Be = Co Bo ;
where
Equations (2.55), (2.56) and (2.60) are the equations of steady quasi onedimensional motion for shallow water.
2.5
In this section graphs are used to relate the
ow variables | depth and velocity |
to the variations in energy and mass
ow. The graphs are also used to illustrate
the notion of critical
ow.
24
1
g
2E
3
3
2
v
0
Figure 2.3:
2E
3
2E
Q as a function of v
E.
for constant
Q, E , d and v
Q.
v
Q=
The graph of the variation of
v
E
g
with
1 2
2
(2:61)
for a constant
Only the portion of the curve described by (2.61) which lies in the sector
and
Q0
positive
x direction.
Q,
v
2E . If
exceeded
2E
25
vL =
2E
E.
The value
2E 32
Q =
g
of
2E 32
3
(2:62)
is known as the critical mass ow. The value of the velocity at which the
c =
2E
3
(2:63)
v is less than
Q, E and d.
with
gd)) 2 d:
for a xed
(2:64)
Q is undened.
E,
Q = (2 (E
The graph of the variation of
v = Qd
d Eg .
The value
E
dL =
g
26
If
Q g1
exceeds
E
g
2E 32
3
then, from
Q
1
g
2E
3
3
2
2E
3g
Figure 2.4:
E
g
is known as the limit depth and is the maximum attainable depth for a
ow with
energy
E.
Q,
(2:65)
gd =
2E
3
c2:
(2:66)
v = gd:
(2:67)
Substituting (2.67) into (2.35) yields the denitions of critical velocity and critical
depth, as given by (2.63) and (2.65).
From (2.35) a depth in the range
d
d dL corresponds to a subcritical
Q,
value there is only one possible depth and one velocity | those which correspond
27
to critical
ow. If
and
E0
gh0 ;
0;
(BQ)
which are equations (2.55) and (2.56), that is, conservation of momentum and
conservation of mass. These equations may be integrated to give
E
and
^ and
where E
Thus, if
mass
ow
gh
E^
BQ
CBe ;
Be
B (xe ).
B (x) and h(x) are given for x in [xe ; xo], the values of energy E
and
That is,
E^ + gh
(2.68)
CBe
:
B
(2.69)
Solution values for the velocity lie on the surface of which Figure 2.3 is a crosssection for constant
and for the depth lie on the surface of which Figure 2.4 is
E.
Thus as
and
vary with
28
x,
the variations of
E.
and
given by (2.68)
B (x) = Bmin
for some
x 2 (xe; xo).
is given in Figure 2.2. Moving along the channel, from the inlet at
decreases
x = xe,
decreases as
Bmin
as
v will
and a supercritical
decrease of mass
ow
When
Q.
given by (2.61) and (2.64). Consider the curve in Figure 2.3 to be a cross-section
for constant
E,
in equation (2.61).
Q to be function of v
Q
v
and
and
to be traced as
E,
and
vary
takes during
and
as
varies in response to a
29
h.
B (x)
^ +
= E
gh,
Q,
given by
(2.62). This bound on the maximum possible value of the mass
ow imposes a
lower bound on the minimum breadth of the channel. From (2.69) the minimum
^ (x) at each point
breadth, B
1 32
0 ^
2
+
(
)
E
gh
x
CBe
A :
= CBe g @
B^ (x) =
Q
If
B (x) < B^ (x) for any x in [xe ; xo] then the ow becomes blocked.
for all
If
xc
x, that is B 0 (xc ) = 0.
v0
in terms of
d0
and
v.
This is given by
v0 =
Using (2.35) to substitute for
B0
v
B
d0
v:
d
(2:70)
gives
gd0 + vv 0 = gh0 :
Then substituting for
v2
gd
!
=
30
B0
gh0 + v 2:
B
(2:71)
Equation (2.71) implies that when a
ow is critical, that is, equation (2.67) is
satised, the breadth and equilibrium depth must be such that
B0
gh0 + v 2 = 0:
B
Thus for a domain with
Conversely, if
is critical or
h0
d0
= 0 and
B0
v2
gd
and the ow
h0
P.
The reason for this utility is that the value of ow stress varies con-
tinuously even when the
ow variables are discontinuous (in the sense of hydraulic
jumps) | as is described in Section 2:6. The
ow stress is dened by
p + dv 2
(2:72)
gives
1
2g
1 2
2
1 2
2v
and
and rearranging
E + v2 :
(2:73)
Using the
as a function of
Q*
Figure 2.5:
as a function of
Q for constant E .
v as a parameter
in equations (2.61) and (2.73). In practice it is plotted by taking, for each xed
E , 2n
1 values of
vi
vi
Then the 2n
i 1 2E
n 10 3
i n @p
2E
n 1
i = n + 1; . . . ; 2n
1:
1 points (Q
i ; Pi ), given by
Qi
Pi
for
i = 1; . . . ; n;
s 1 s
2E
A + 2E
i = 1; . . . ; 2n
vi
E
g
1
vi ;
1 2
2
vi
2g
1 2
3 2
E + vi ;
2
as a function of
for
xed. The
cusp of the graph in Figure 2.5 is at the critical point, for each value of
E,
and
marks the division between the subcritical (upper) branch and the supercritical
(lower) branch of each curve.
The connection with discontinuous
ow is discussed in Section 2:6.
32
2.6
Discontinuous Flows
This chapter has, so far, dealt with the equations of motion for continuous
ows.
In this section equations of motion for discontinuous
ows in shallow water are
considered.
It is possible to control the depth and velocity, and therefore also the mass
ow and energy, of a
ow at the inlet and outlet positions of a channel using, for
example, weirs or sluice gates. Thus a situation might occur where the imposed
inlet and outlet conditions cannot be achieved by a continuous
ow in the channel.
In such circumstances a discontinuity may occur.
The dierential equations of Sections 2:2, 2:3 and 2:4, which model the
ow in
shallow water, are only valid for continuous solutions. At points of discontinuity
the dierential equations no longer apply and other equations are needed to govern
the motion. These equations, known as jump conditions, relate the values of the
ow variables on one side of the discontinuity to their values on the other side.
In this thesis only time-independent discontinuous
ows are considered, the
stationary discontinuity being known as a hydraulic jump. The jump conditions
for quasi one-dimensional and two-dimensional
ows are given in Sections 2:6:1
and 2:6:2.
2.6.1
x) where the depth and velocity of the shallow water
ow are discontinuous.
Consider the channel which extends over the interval [x
e ; xo]
B (x).
Let
33
xs
of the
x-axis
hydraulic jump. Then the equations of motion for continuous
ow hold in the
two intervals (x
e ; xs )
and (x
s ; xo).
e ; xs ) [ (xs ; xo)
Thus in (x
the ow variables
satisfy
E0
gh0
conservation of momentum;
(2.74)
conservation of mass;
(2.75)
(BQ)
where
Q and E
[P ]
(2.76)
[BQ]
0;
(2.77)
xs
xs
and
]x
example, [P ]
xs
side of
xs .
P jxs+
P j xs
xo
side of
xs.
xs
and
the
xe
[E ]
xs
6= 0;
xs
Discounting the
[E ]
xs < 0;
(2:78)
which is justied by the fact that, in reality, mechanical energy may be converted
into heat energy through turbulence at the jump.
34
Equations (2.74)|(2.78) govern the motion of a quasi one-dimensional shallow water ow with a discontinuity at the point
xs .
and
Q,
jump conditions (2.77) and (2.78) to the solutions of (2.74) and (2.75) gives the
variations of
Q and E
Q(x) =
CBe
B (x)
Q in the channel as
x 2 [xe ; xo] :
(2:79)
E (x)
Assuming that [h]
xs
gh(x) =
constant
[E
gh]xs < 0:
Thus let
and
where
Ee
and
Eo
gh
Ee
x 2 [xe ; xs )
gh
Eo
x 2 (xs ; xo] ;
Ee > Eo .
with
P
E=E1
E=E2
Ps
Qs
Figure 2.6:
where
Ps
and
as a function of
Qs ,
Eo + gh(xo ) at outlet.
E1
E2 .
The jump
condition (2.78) ensures that this is always true, that is, the
ow on the inlet side
of a discontinuity is always supercritical and the
ow immediately on the other
side of the discontinuity is always subcritical.
Let the undisturbed
uid depth,
determined by
h, be constant.
Ee + gh at inlet and E
Ee
E1
and
Eo ,
Ee + gh
and
E2
Eo + gh
in Figure 2.6. In
Qs,
can be
e ; xo] may
B (xs ) =
and, since the breadth function
CBe
Qs
xs, satises
(2:80)
1.
xs
in (x
2. There is no value of
Case 1 yields the position of the hydraulic jump. In Case 2 there is no solution
containing a hydraulic jump to the problem with
Eo + gh
Ee
gh
at inlet and
ambiguity conditions are sought under which Case 3 does not occur.
A unique solution could be achieved by dening
invertible on (x
e ; xo).
x2
x1
and
x2
x1
satisfy (2.80). The shape of the channel ensures that one of these points
lies on the inlet side of the channel throat and the other on the outlet side. The
condition that the
ow is critical at the channel throat forces the discontinuity
to lie in the diverging section of the channel. Otherwise, because of condition
(2.78), the
ow would become blocked.
The
ow path for this type of discontinuous critical
ow is shown by arrows
in Figure 2.7. At inlet the mass
ow is given by
ow the solution moves along the
E1
Qe.
37
P
E=E1
E=E2
Qe Qo
Q.
discontinuity to occur so the solution tracks along the supercritical branch until
it reaches the position of the discontinuity. The solution point then switches to
the subcritical branch of the
Qo
E2
E2
The value
E2
be the energy
E1
E1
E1
E1 and E2
38
depth
E2
E = E2
E1
at the point
Q = Qo .
by a discontinuous
ow. From (2.64), using the fact that the depth at outlet is
subcritical, the minimum and maximum values of
achievable outlet depths. Figure 2.8 shows an example of minimum and maximum
outlet depths for the channel shown in Figure 2.2.
Some similar properties can be deduced for specic domains with non-constant
equilibrium depths. Results are particular to each case since the solutions no
longer lie on the lines of constant energy
E.
2.6.2
xy
discontinuity in the depth and velocity of the
ow. Although hydraulic jumps
which terminate in mid-channel do exist, for example in supercritical
ow at a
39
concave bend, only hydraulic jumps which extend across the whole width of the
channel are studied here.
Consider a steady discontinuous shallow water
ow in a channel
D.
Let be
the line where the velocity and depth of ow are discontinuous, that is, the hydraulic jump. Then, in
rE
r:Q
=
=
=
r
g rh
0
irrotationality;
(2.81)
conservation of momentum;
(2.82)
conservation of mass;
(2.83)
where the energy and mass ow are dened by (2.19) and (2.25), as before.
be the unit
0;
(2.84)
Q:n]s
0;
(2.85)
v: ]s
0;
(2.86)
[E ]
<
0;
(2.87)
is the two-dimensional ow
stress given by
P
p
p + d (v:n)2 ;
(2:88)
]
the value of the quantity on crossing the line , that is, for example [P ]
P js+
P j s
D
y
x
De
Do
s
y
x
velocity tangential to
is satised by
Ee + gh;
41
De
where
Ee
is a constant.
Do
is
satised by
E
where
Eo
Eo + gh;
Eo < Ee .
42
Chapter 3
Variational Principles
The purpose of this chapter is to present a collection of functionals which are
stationary for solutions of the equations of motion for free surface
ows, particularly those
ows approximated using shallow water theory. The chapter starts by
establishing variational principles for three-dimensional free surface
ows which
are then used to derive principles for shallow water
ows. Time-dependent and
time-independent motions are considered as is quasi one-dimensional shallow water
ow. In the nal section variational principles corresponding to discontinuous
shallow water
ows are derived for the time-independent case.
3.1
is a
xed region of the xy plane, h is the undisturbed
uid depth and is the height
of the free surface above the equilibrium position, as shown in Figure 2:1.
3.1.1
Luke's Principle
The Bernoulli equation (2.7) for free surface
ows gives an expression for the
uid
pressure p~ as a function of the velocity potential , that is,
p~ = t
1
~
~
+ gz + 2 r:r ;
(3:1)
~ is dened by (2.2).
where r
Luke (1967) uses the expression (3.1), for p~, as the Lagrangian density (the
integrand of the Lagrangian) in a variational principle. Luke's principle was
stated for a constant equilibrium depth but can be generalised to allow for a
non-constant depth and, for the given three-dimensional domain
, the modied
variational principle is
J~1 (; ) =
Z t2 Z Z Z
t1
t
1
~
~
+ gz + 2 r:r dz dx dy dt = 0: (3:2)
for all
2[
h; ])
for each
J~1 =
Z t2 Z Z (
t1
( ( +
Z
1
~
~
+ gz + r:r
2
=
+ ))j = ( (
t
x x
hx + y hy + z ))jz=
~ 2 dz dx dy dt = 0;
r
r~ 2 = 0 in
;
(3.3)
1r
~ ~
2 :r = 0 on z = ;
+ = 0 on z = ;
t + gz +
t + xx
xhx + y hy + z
= 0 on z =
h;
(3.4)
(3.5)
(3.6)
for t 2 (t1; t2 ). Equation (3.3) is the equation of conservation of mass for irrotational
ow, that is, (2.6). Equations (3.4)|(3.6) are equivalent to (2.8), (2.10)
and (2.11), where the irrotationality condition (2.5) has been assumed, and are
therefore the dynamic free surface condition, the kinematic free surface condition
and the condition of zero
ow through the bed, respectively. Thus the variational
principle (3.2) generates the governing equations of a free surface
ow. No attempt is made at this stage to include boundary or initial conditions as natural
conditions.
Notice that using (3.1) to dene the pressure in terms of the velocity potential
assumes conservation of momentum and that the
ow is irrotational. In other
words, irrotationality and conservation of momentum, in the form of the energy
integral (3.1), are implicit constraints of the free variational principle (3.2), by
which is meant that they do not have to be applied as explicit constraints on
(3.2) nor do they belong to the set of natural conditions of (3.2).
Luke's principle can be extended to deliver irrotationality as a natural condi45
Z t2 Z Z Z
t1
t
1
+ gz + 2 u:u + Q~ : u
r~
dz dx dy dt
= 0; (3:7)
9
r~ :Q~ = 0 >>>>>>>>
=
~Q = u >
>
>
>
>
>
>
~
;
u = r >
1
2
t + gz + u:u
in
;
r~
+ Q~ : u
t + Q~ 1 x + Q~ 2 y
Q~ 3
Q~ 1hx + Q~ 2hy + Q~ 3
(3:8)
= 0 on z = ;
(3.9)
= 0 on z = ;
(3.10)
= 0 on z =
(3.11)
h;
for t 2 (t1; t2), obtained using the same method by which (3.3)|(3.6) were derived
from (3.2). Equations (3.8) together are equivalent to (3.3); the multiplier Q~ is
identied by (3:8)2 as the three-dimensional mass
ow vector. Using (3:8)2 and
(3:8)3, (3.9)|(3.11) can be recognised as the dynamic free surface condition, the
kinematic free surface condition and the condition of no
ow through the bed,
respectively.
3.1.2
Hamilton's Principle
Z t2
t1
V, T
L dt
= 0;
(3:12)
T
V
= 12
n
X
i=1
mi x_ i :x_ i;
2 u:u
gz dz dx dy:
(3:13)
The functional (3.13) is evidently the Lagrangian L in this case. Luke (1967)
refers to this form of the Lagrangian and mentions that the dierence between
his variational principle and Hamilton's principle is related to conservation of
mass.
The variational principle for free surface
ow, based on Hamilton's principle,
uses (3.13) as the Lagrangian, subject to the constraint that conservation of mass
is satised. The constraint may be incorporated into the functional by using
Lagrange multipliers.
~ :u = 0 (equation
In the xed domain
conservation of mass is given by r
(2.1)). The kinematic free surface condition in the form
( + u + v
t
w)jz=
= 0;
(3:14)
guarantees that there is no
ow across the free surface and the condition of no
ow through the bed is
(uh + vh + w)j = = 0:
x
(3:15)
These conditions must also be enforced in the variational principle being constructed.
The conservation of mass requirements are met by adding (2.1), (3.14) and
(3.15) into the functional as constraints using the Lagrange multipliers
(x; y; z; t),
~ :u;
48
integrated over
and (t1; t2 ), and
w)jz= + (uhx + vhy + w)jz=
integrated over
principle is therefore
J2(; u; ; ; ) =
Z t2 Z Z Z 1
t1
+ ( + u + v
t
w)jz=
~ :u dz
u:u gz + r
2
+ (uh + vh + w)j =
x
(3.16)
o
dx dy dt
= 0:
As in the case of Luke's principle (3.2) the variations are assumed to vanish on
the lateral space boundaries and on the time boundaries. The natural conditions
of (3.16) are given by
>
>
~ = 0 >
=
u r
in
;
r~ :u = 0 >>>;
t
~ : (u)
+r
1
(3:17)
~
2 u:u gz r:u = 0 on z = ;
+ u + v w = 0 on z = ;
t
(
(
)
r~ (z
(3.19)
= 0 on z = ;
(3.20)
uhx + vhy + w
= 0 on z =
h;
(3.21)
r~ (z + h)
= 0 on z =
h;
(3.22)
)
)
(3.18)
(3.8)|(3.11) and hence to (3.3)| (3.6). For consistency of notation the Lagrange
multiplier is relabelled as = , so that (3:17)1 gives the usual irrotationality
condition (2.5). Then, using (3.20) and (3.22), the Lagrange multipliers and
may be identied as = j = and = j = .
z
49
Z t2 Z Z Z
t1
( ( + u
t
1
~
~
r: (u) dz
gz + u:u + u: r u
2
o
+ v w))j = ( (uh + vh + w))j = dx dy dt = 0:
y
where
Z t2 Z Z Z
t1
t1
surfaces z = and z =
Z t2 Z Z
t1
Z t2 Z Z
~ : (u) dz dx dy dt =
h, which contribute to I
w))jz=
( (u + v
x
u:n d dt;
the terms
h
dx dy dt:
Z t2 Z Z Z
1
~
~
+ gz + u:u + Q: u r dz dx dy
2
1
)
2
ZZ
Z Z Z
+ u:n d dt +
dz dx dy = 0;
t1
which is just (3.7) with added boundary terms. The variations are assumed to
vanish on and at times
t1
and
t2
Moreover, if (3.16) is constrained to satisfy the irrotationality condition by sub~ into the integrand, the resulting principle can be shown to
stituting u = r
be the same as Luke's principle (3.2), to within boundary terms which may be
neglected, as before.
50
= and using (3.20) and (3.22) to identify the Lagrange multipliers and ,
has as its natural conditions the irrotationality condition and the conservation of
mass equation in the domain
and boundary conditions on the free surface and
the bed.
The adaptation of Hamilton's principle to
uid
ow is given by Seliger and
Whitham (1968) for compressible
ows. In that case the conservation of mass and
two other constraints on the principle are necessary, the other constraints being
related to energy balance, in the form of entropy conservation for a particle, and
conservation of particle identities. In the current problem of irrotational free
surface
ows, the entropy does not appear and conservation of particle labels is
apparently not required.
3.2
Variational principles for shallow water
ows can be considered from two points
of view. The principles in Section 3.1 for free surface
ows can be modied, by
applying the shallow water approximation to the variables, or Hamilton's principle
can be applied directly to the variables of shallow water theory, using the gas
dynamics analogy of Section 2.2.2. This section deals with the rst method.
51
3.2.1
Consider the two variational principles for free surface
ows { the `pressure' principle (3.7) and the `Hamilton' principle (3.16). The eect of applying the shallow
water approximation to these principles is to replace the variables by their twodimensional counterparts. The velocity potential = (x; y; z; t) reduces to a
function
~ is replaced by v =
= (x; y; t), u = r
Z t2 Z Z
t1
1
2 gd
d t
+ 12 v:v + gd
gh
+ Q: (v
r)
dx dy dt;
(3:23)
r
Q dv
dt +
where D^ =
D (t1 ; t2 ).
r:Q
9
>
>
>
= 0>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
=
= 0>
>
>
>
= 0>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
;
= 0>
^
in D;
(3:24)
Now consider (3.16) { the `Hamilton' principle. Under the conditions of the
shallow water approximation the integral over z can be carried out and the terms
evaluated at z =
h and z =
the same values at these levels. The result is the functional J2 = J2(d; v; ) given
by
J2 =
Z t2 Z Z
t1
1
1
2
2 dv:v 2 gd + gdh + (d + r: (dv)) dx dy dt:
t
(3:25)
Assuming that the variations vanish on the space and time boundaries, the natural
conditions of J2 = 0 are
9
>
>
>
v:v = 0 >
t + g + v:r
>
>
>
>
=
v r = 0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
;
dt + r: (dv) = 0 >
1
2
^
in D;
(3:26)
Z t2 Z Z
t1
Q
t1
t
t
that is, for Q = dv the two functionals (3.23) and (3.25) are the same, to within
boundary terms.
53
3.2.2
Further Functionals
Before considering variational principles with boundary conditions as natural conditions the `pressure' and `Hamilton' functionals for unsteady shallow water motion are rewritten in dierent variables. The variational principles with boundary
terms, generated using the modied functionals, can then be related to two further variational principles.
First consider (3.23), which was derived from the free surface principle based
on an expression for the pressure. As the
uid is assumed homogeneous, the
density can be set equal to unity without losing generality. As a further simplication of notation, the term
1
2
t + v:v + gd
gh
may be written as
t + E
gh:
This suggests the use of E as a new variable. From the denition of E , (2.19),
we have
1
1
d=
E
2 v :v ;
g
which allows for the denition of a new function p(v; E ) obtained by substituting
for d in the `pressure' 12 gd2 . Thus
2
1
1
p(v; E ) =
2g E 2 v:v :
(3:27)
d (t + E
gh) + Q: (v
54
r) ;
(3:28)
which is the integrand of (3.23) after making the substitutions outlined above. A
functional with integrand (3.28) will be referred to as a `p' functional for unsteady
shallow water
ow.
The `Hamilton' functional (3.25) is rewritten similarly. The density is taken
to be unity as before, the change of variable made is from v to Q using a rearrangement of (2.25), that is v = Q , and the function r(Q; d) is dened to
d
be
r(Q; d) =
1 Q:Q
2 d
1 gd2 :
2
(3:29)
r:Q) :
(3:30)
conservation of
momentum
+ multiplier
irrotationality
condition
These forms for the integrands of the `p' and `r' functionals suggest obvious
ways of constraining the variational principles based on these functionals. For
55
t ,
p ( ; gh
t) ;
56
3.3
Continuous Variables
Let the domain of integration of the problem be f(x; t) : x 2 [x0; x1]; t 2 [t0; t1]g :
In shallow water theory the x coordinate will represent a single space dimension
and t will represent the time.
Let u1(x; t); . . . ; u (x; t) be a set of functions which will subsequently be idenm
tied with the variables of shallow water theory. The u are assumed to be difi
ferentiable functions of x and t, since this is all the smoothness required for the
shallow water principles.
Consider a general functional of the form
I1 (u1 ; . . . ; um) =
+
where u
ix
Z t1
@ui
@x
t0
Z t1 Z x 1
t0
x0
[g(x; t; u1; . . . ; u )]
m
and u
it
@ui
@t
x1
x0
dt +
Z x1
x0
t
t
Using Taylor series and integrating by parts, the rst variation of (3.31) may
be written as
I1 =
Z t1 Z x 1 ( X
m
t0
x0
i=1
Z t1 " X
m
t0
i=1
fu
(f )
ui t t
(g + f ) u
ui
ui x
# x1
(f )
ui x x
dt +
x0
ui dx dt
Z x1 " X
m
x0
i=1
(h + f ) u
ui
ui t
# t1
dx:
t0
uijt
(f )
(f ) = 0
ui t t
ui x x
x 2 (x0 ; x1 ) ; t 2 (t0 ; t1 );
(3.32)
(g + f )j = 0
= 0; 1 ; t 2 (t0 ; t1);
(3.33)
(h + f )j = 0
= 0; 1 ; x 2 (x0 ; x1 );
(3.34)
ui
ui x
ui
ui t
xj
tj
with respect to variations in the u also satisfy equations (3.32) in the domain
i
f(x; t) : x 2 (x0; x1); t 2 (t0; t1)g and the boundary conditions (3.33) and (3.34).
In Section 3.7 variational principles are derived which have as their natural conditions, deduced using (3.32){(3.34), the equations of time-dependent quasi onedimensional motion in shallow water.
The general form of a functional for steady state quasi one-dimensional shallow
water
ow is
I2 (u1 ; . . . ; um) =
Z x1
x0
(3:35)
where the general functions u now depend on x alone and u0
i
58
dui
dx
Z x1 ( X
m
x0
fu
i=1
d
f
dx u
ui dx +
"m
X
i=1
gu
+f
ui0
ui
# x1
x0
using Taylor series and integration by parts. The natural conditions of I2 = 0
are therefore
ui :
uijx
fu
gu
d
dx
fu
x 2 (x0 ; x1 );
=0
+ f = 0
ui0
xj
(3.36)
= 0; 1;
(3.37)
for i = 1; . . . ; m.
3.3.2
lies in the interval [t0; t1]. Let u1 (x; y; t); . . . ; u (x; y; t) be m scalar variables
m
i = 1; . . . ; n.
of x, y and t.
Consider a functional of the form
I3(ui ; vk ) =
Z t1 Z
t0
Z t1 Z Z
t0
G(x; y; t; ui; vk ) d dt +
ZZ
t
t
Using Taylor series, the divergence theorem and integration by parts the rst
variation of the functional (3.38) may be written as
I3 =
Z t1 Z Z ( X
m
t0
Fu
i=1
r:Fr
ui
n
X
rFr v
Fv
Z t1 Z (X
m
uit t
ui
Fv
: k
(F )
kt
: vk dx dy dt
)
n
X
+
Gu + Fru :n ui +
Gv + Fr:v n : vk d dt
i=1
t0
k =1
# t1
Z Z "X
m
n
X
+
(Hu + Fu ) ui +
Hv + Fv : vk dx dy;
k =1
i=1
it
k =1
kt
t0
where the unit vector n is the outward normal to the boundary and the following
notation is used.
Fu
Fv
@F
@ui
@F
@vk 1
Fu
it
; @v@F2 ; Fv
kt
@F
@uit
@F
@vk 1 t
; @v@F2
k t
Fu
r:Fr
rFr v
@F
@uiy
@F
: k
: k
uit t
Fv
: k
ui
@F
@uix
ui
vk : Fv
r ;
Fr v r v :
( )
F
;
kt
+ Fr :n = 0
+ Fr v n = 0
uij :
Gu
vk j :
Gv
uijt
(H + F )j = 0
= 0; 1 ; (x; y) 2 D;
(3.43)
Hv
= 0; 1 ; (x; y) 2 D;
(3.44)
vk jt
ui
: k
ui
for i = 1; . . . ; m and
uit
tj
+ Fv = 0
kt
tj
ler equations of the variational principle and equations (3.41){(3.44) are natural
boundary conditions.
The functions u for i = 1; . . . ; m and v for k = 1; . . . ; n which cause I3 to
i
(3.39){(3.44). In Sections 3.5.1 and 3.5.2 variational principles are derived whose
natural conditions, given by (3.39){(3.44), are the equations of motion for timedependent shallow water
ows.
The general form of a functional for steady state shallow water
ow is
I4(ui ; vk ) =
ZZ
D
F (x; y; ui ; ui ; vk ; :vk ) dx dy +
Z
ui
(3:45)
= 1; . . . ; n are
Z Z (X
m
D
Z (X
m
r:Fr
ui
ui +
n
X
Fv
rFr v
: k
: vk dx dy
)
n
X
Gu + Fru :n ui +
Gv + Fr:v n : vk d;
i=1
i=1
Fu
k =1
k =1
r:Fr
rFr v
ui
= 0 (x; y) 2 D;
(3.46)
: k
= 0 (x; y) 2 D;
(3.47)
+ Fr :n = 0 (x; y) 2 ;
(3.48)
+ Fr v n = 0 (x; y) 2 ;
(3.49)
vk : Fv
uij : Gu
vk j : Gv
ui
: k
for i = 1; . . . ; m and k = 1; . . . ; n.
Using the results of this section the natural conditions of any variational principle for continuous shallow water motion can be written down immediately.
61
3.4
Discontinuous Variables
In this section general versions of the shallow water variational principles allowing
for discontinuous variables are studied. Only time-independent discontinuous
ows will be considered so the extra coordinate of Section 3.3, which is identied
with the time, is no longer used.
3.4.1
Let the interval [x0; x1] of the x-axis be the domain over which the integrand of
the general functional is integrated and let x be a point in the interior of this
s
Assume that all of the u are continuous in [x0; x ) [ (x ; x1]. This allows for one
i
; xs) =
Z x
x0
Z x1
xs
+ [g(x; u1; . . . ; u )] 10 :
m
x
x
(3.50)
Z x
x0
+
where the superscript
xs .
Z x1 ( X
m
xs
"m
X
i=1
i=1
x1
gu ui
+ x f j
s
x0
xs
xs f jx + ;
s
(3.51)
The rst three terms are due to the variations of the u and the last two are
i
62
I^2 =
Z x
x0
"m
X
Z x1 ( X
m
xs
ui0
i=1
+f
gu
fu
i=1
ui
# x1
d
f
dx u
"m
X
i=1
x0
!
0
ui dx
fu ui
#x
+ x [f ]
xs +
(3.52)
xs
xs+
^ i
u
x
= u j
+ u0 (x )x ;
i x
s
s
s
xs +xs
The only variations considered are those for which the total variations on either
side of the discontinuity are equal for each variable, that is,
^ i
u
x
^
=
u
+
^
= u
i
xs
xs
say, and, in the case of shallow water, the coecients of these terms in the
variational principle give rise to the required jump conditions. Substituting for
uijx
s
in (3.52) yields
I^2 =
Z x
x0
"m
X
i=1
Z x1 (X
m
xs
gu
fu
i=1
+f
ui0
ui
#x1
d
f
dx u
ui dx
m h
i
X
fu
i=1
x0
xs
"
^ i + xs f
u
x
m
X
i=1
fu u0i
; (3.53)
xs
where the brackets [] denote the change in the argument on crossing x from
xs
xs
f jx + ,
s
where
fu
d
dx
fu
=0
63
(3.54)
uijx
^ i
u
x
:
:
xs :
gu
+ f = 0
h i
"
fu
m
X
i=1
ui0
xs
xj
= 0; 1;
(3.55)
= 0;
fui u0i
(3.56)
= 0;
(3.57)
xs
for i = 1; . . . ; m. Equations (3.54) are the Euler equations and (3.55) are boundary conditions at
x0
xs .
interval (x0; x1). If so, then there are equations of the form (3.56) and (3.57)
corresponding to each of these points. In this case the Euler equations (3.54) are
derived for the interval (x0; x1) excluding all points of discontinuity.
3.4.2
non self-intersecting curve which divides D into two distinct regions, D and D+ ,
as in Figure 3.1.
64
D
y
x
y
x
be the scalar and vector variables. The u and v are assumed to be continuous
i
I^4(ui ; vk ; s ) =
Z
+
+
ZZ
D+
Z
+
F (x; y; ui ; ui ; vk ; :vk ) dx dy
(3.58)
Z Z
D
Z Z (X
m
D+
+
+
Z
ZZ
D
n
X
Z (X
m
+
F dx dy
i=1
Fv : vk
k
k =1
Gu ui +
ZZ
i=1
D
n
X
k =1
:
u
: k
Gv : vk d
k
F + dx dy +
65
r r (u )
)
+ Fr v r: (v ) dx dy
Fu ui + F
G d
Z
G+ d;
(3.59)
D+ D
Figure 3.2 | and is the change in the length of caused by the variation of
. The superscripts
or D+ sides of , respectively.
s
Applying the divergence theorem to the r(u ) and r:(v ) terms in (3.59)
i
yields
I^4 =
+
+
+
Z Z
D
Z
ZZ
D+
ui
n
X
ui
r:Fr
ui
rFr v
Fv
: k
: vk dx dy
)
n
X
Gu + Fru :n ui +
Gv + Fr:v n : vk d
i=1
k =1
ZZ
Z
Z
k =1
+
F dx dy
i=1
Fu
i=1
Z (X
m
D
Z (X
m
s
Z Z (X
m
D
:n ui +
F + dx dy +
n
X
k =1
m
X
i=1
r v n:v
: k
ui
G d
G+ d
:n ui
n
X
k =1
r v n:v
: k
d:
under the variation, in the direction of n, the unit normal on the surface with
s
direction out of the subdomain D . Then the integral over the domain D can
66
be written in terms of an integral along and the variation n, that is,
s
ZZ
D
F dx dy =
Z
s
F n d:
of , the unit tangent vector at the point. Then the total variations of the
ow
variables on the curve are given by
s
= u +
i
s
^vk
@
@n
@ui
@n
where
n + @u
i = 1; . . . ; m;
@
= vk + @@nv n + @@v k = 1; . . . ; n;
^
u
@
@
dierentiation in
s
s
+
^
^
v = v = ^v
k
s
s
;
:
+
+
+
Z Z
Z
Z
Z Z (X
m
s
i=1
Z (X
m
+
ui
n
X
ui
rFr v
Fv
F
F+
: k
: vk dx dy
)
n
X
Gu + Fru :n ui +
Gv + Fr:v n : vk d
i
i=1
r:Fr
k =1
k =1
G+ d
Z (
D+
Fu
n
X
@ui
@
vk :n n
F u :n
F :v
@n
@n
i=1
k =1
!
+
m
n
X +
X + @ +
@ui
v :n n
F u :n
F :v
@n
@n k
i=1
k =1
m
X
67
m
X
n
X
@u
F u :n i + F :v
@
i=1
k =1
+
m
n
X
X
@u
F + u :n i + F + :v
@
i=1
k =1
X
m
i=1
^i+
Fru :n Fru :n u
+
!
vk :n
+ !
vk :n
n
X
@
@
@
@
k =1
rv
rv
: k
: k
n:^vk d:
r:Fr
rFr v
ui
=0
(x; y) 2 D [ D+ ;
(3.60)
: k
=0
(x; y) 2 D [ D+ ;
(3.61)
ui : Gu
+ Fr :n = 0
(x; y) 2 [ + ;
(3.62)
vk : Gv
+ Fr v n = 0
(x; y) 2 [ + ;
(3.63)
ui : Fu
vk : Fv
n :
"
^vk
m
X
: k
n
X
@u
F u :n i
@n
i=1
"m
X
^ :
u
ui
@u
F u :n i
@
i=1
@
(v :n)
F :v
@n k
k =1
n
X
@
+ F :v @
(vk :n)
k =1
i
Fru :n = 0;
h
i
i
rv
: k
s
s
s
= 0;
= 0;
= 0;
(3.64)
(3.65)
(3.66)
(3.67)
(3.60){(3.63) are the same as the natural conditions for continuous variables, as
derived in Section 3.3.2 although, instead of being valid on the whole of D or
, (3.60) and (3.61) are valid on D and D+ separately and (3.62) and (3.63)
are valid on and + separately. Equations (3.64) and (3.65) arise from the
variation in the position of the line of discontinuity and equations (3.66) and
s
(3.67) are the result of matching the coecients of the total variations in the
variables at this line.
68
3.5
The previous two sections have dealt with generating general expressions for the
natural conditions of certain types of variational principles. These are used in
this section and the remaining sections of this chapter to deduce the natural
conditions of variational principles for shallow water
ows.
The derivation of variational principles for time-dependent motion in shallow
water is continued here using the functionals created in Section 3.2.2.
3.5.1
Boundary Conditions
The variational principles for shallow water
ows considered so far have all been
such that the variations vanish at the boundaries of the domains of integration.
In this section boundary terms are added to the functionals of Section 3.2.2 and
variations which are not necessarily zero on the space and time boundaries are
allowed. In this way boundary conditions for shallow water
ows are derived.
First consider the functional with the integrand (3.28) | the `p' functional.
If we examine the associated variational principle and allow variations which
do not vanish at the boundaries, the variables Q and
integrated around the space boundary of the domain and d and will appear in
terms evaluated at the initial and nal times t1 and t2 . This can be seen using
the natural conditions (3.41){(3.44) of the general two-dimensional variational
principle in Section 3.3, where the function
the `p' functional and
and
With this motivation the boundary of domain D is divided into two parts, say
= + , where boundary conditions for are sought on and for Q on
69
for t 2 (t1; t2). Similarly the domain is divided into two parts, say D = D + D ,
d
and conditions at the time boundaries t1 and t2 are sought for d in D and for
d
in D .
Z t2 Z Z
t1
+
+
+
Z t2 Z
(p(v; E )
Q
t1
ZZ
D
ZZ
Dd
d (t + E
C d dt +
Z t2 Z
t1
h2))jt2
(d (
jt2 g2
(
(d (
r)) dx dy dt
gh) + Q: (v
f ) Q:n d dt
h1))jt1 dx dy
jt1 g1 dx dy;
(3.68)
and D respectively.
= 0
pE
= 0
dt +
r:Q
= 0
t + E
gh
= 0
r
= 0
= 0; deduced using
^
in D;
Q:n = 0
on for t 2 (t1 ; t2 );
= 0
on for t 2 (t1 ; t2 );
gi
= 0
in D for i = 1; 2;
hi
= 0
in D for i = 1; 2;
C
f
djt
jt
9
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
=
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
;
I1
70
v
1
= g E 2 v:v and
pv
Thus the rst two conditions in D^ are
@p
@v
v
g
pE
@p
@E
1
1
= g E 2 v :v :
d = 0;
1
2
so that the last three natural conditions in D^ are the conservation laws and the
Q = dv and E = gd + v:v;
irrotationality condition. The last four natural conditions are space and time
boundary conditions. The rst of these is a condition on the normal component
of mass
ow on and the second is a condition on the velocity potential on
Q
, both for t 2 (t1; t2 ). The remaining conditions are for depth and velocity
potential, in D and D respectively, at the initial and nal times. These last
d
conditions are not desirable in a practical sense since they require knowledge of
the solution at the nal time.
Consider now the `r' functional | that with integrand (3.30). The domain
and domain boundary are again divided into two, as for the `p' principle, to
provide a choice of boundary conditions. Using the same functions, f = f (x; y; t),
C
Z t2 Z Z
t1
Z t2 Z
Q
t1
ZZ
Dd
ZZ
D
(C
( (d
dj t 2 h 2
Q:n) d dt
g2 ))jt2
Z t2 Z
( (d
djt1 h1 dx dy:
71
t1
f Q:n d dt
g1 ))jt1 dx dy
(3.69)
I2
9
>
>
>
rd + gh t = 0 >
>
>
>
>
=
rQ r = 0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
;
dt + r:Q = 0 >
^
in D;
Q:n = 0
on for t 2 (t1 ; t2 );
= 0
on for t 2 (t1 ; t2 );
djt
gi
= 0
in D for i = 1; 2;
jt
hi
= 0
in D for i = 1; 2:
C
f
gd + gh
t = 0 ;
Q
d
r = 0
so that, using (2.25), the equations of motion and the irrotationality condition
have again been derived. The boundary conditions are identical to those of the
`p' principle.
Thus there exist two functionals, (3.68) and (3.69), whose natural conditions
of the rst variation are the equations of motion in the domain of the problem
together with prescribed conditions on mass
ow and velocity potential on the
boundary of the domain, and conditions on the depth and velocity potential over
regions of the domain at the initial and nal times.
3.5.2
A Quartet of Functionals
A sequence of Legendre transforms can be used to generate a quartet of functionals which have as natural conditions of their rst variations the equations of
72
Z t2 Z Z
t1
Z t2 Z
(p(v; E )
Q
t1
ZZ
Dd
ZZ
D
(C
Z t2 Z
Q:n) d dt
g2 ))jt2
( (d
djt2 h2
t1
( (d
r:Q)) dx dy dt
f Q:n d dt
g1 ))jt1 dx dy
djt1 h1 dx dy:
(3.70)
Comparing this with I2, as given by (3.69), suggests that there is a relationship
between the two functions p(v; E ) and r(Q; d) such that
r(Q; d) = p(v; E )
Ed + Q:v
in value, which can be conrmed directly using (2.19) and (2.25). The relation is
in fact a Legendre transformation as is now shown.
The Legendre transform R(v; d) of p(v; E ), with E and d as dual active variables and v passive, is dened by
R(v; d) = Ed
p(v; E )
(3:71)
pv ; Rd = E:
1
2
73
(3:72)
r(Q; d)
(3:73)
= Q:
R(v; d) = p(v; E )
Ed + Q:v
in value.
The intermediate function R can be bypassed and p and r may be connected
directly by a Legendre transform. Since pv = Q and p = d, then if v and E
E
Ed + p(v; E )
(3:74)
and
rQ = v ; rd = E:
= gd + 12 v:v;
(3:75)
P (Q; E )
74
Q:v
(3.76)
r(Q; d)
The functions
and
P (Q; E )
(3.77)
Ed:
and Q,
(2.19) and (2.25). Although (3.71) could be used to substitute for p in (3.68) and
(3.77) could be used to substitute for r in (3.69) it would not change the nature
of the functionals being generated. For instance integration by parts and the
divergence theorem can be used on the `P' functional generated by substituting
(3.77) into (3.69) to give the functional formed by substituting (3.76) into (3.68).
The `P' Principle
Z t2 Z Z
+
+
+
t1
Z t2 Z
(P (Q; E ) Q:r
Q
t1
ZZ
D
ZZ
Dd
C d dt +
Z t2 Z
h2))jt2
(d (
jt2 g2
t1
d (t + E
(
(d (
f ) Q:n d dt
h1))jt1 dx dy
jt1 g1 dx dy:
(3.78)
r
PQ
PE
t + E
gh
dt +
r:Q
9
>
>
>
= 0>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
=
= 0>
>
>
>
= 0>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
;
= 0>
75
gh)) dx dy dt
^
in D;
Q:n = 0
on for t 2 (t1; t2 );
= 0
on for t 2 (t1; t2 );
djt
gi
= 0
in D for i = 1; 2;
jt
hi
= 0
in D for i = 1; 2:
C
f
r = 0:
Thus if equations (2.19) and (2.25) are assumed, the `P' principle yields the
conservation laws and the irrotationality condition as natural conditions in D^ ,
and gives the same boundary conditions on and Q at space boundaries and on
d and at time boundaries as are obtained from the `p' and `r' principles.
Now consider a principle based on the function R. Let the functional I4(Q; d; v; )
be given by
I4 =
Z t2 Z Z
t1
Z t2 Z
Q
t1
ZZ
Dd
ZZ
D
(C
( (d
djt2 h2
Q:n) d dt
g2 ))jt2
Z t2 Z
( (d
t1
f Q:n d dt
g1 ))jt1 dx dy
djt1 h1 dx dy:
(3.79)
t
r
d + r:Q
v
9
>
>
>
= 0>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
=
= 0>
>
>
>
= 0>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
;
= 0>
76
r:Q)) dx dy dt
^
in D;
Q:n = 0
on for t 2 (t1 ; t2 );
= 0
on for t 2 (t1 ; t2 );
djt
gi
= 0
in D for i = 1; 2;
jt
hi
= 0
in D for i = 1; 2:
C
f
and
gd
1 v:v + gh
2
t = 0:
Thus the natural conditions of the `R' principle include the equations of motion
in shallow water and the same boundary conditions as obtained previously from
the `p', `r' and `P' principles.
So there exists a quartet of functionals (3.68), (3.69), (3.78) and (3.79), based
on the four functions p, r, P and R, from which the shallow water equations can
be derived as the natural conditions of the rst variations. Figure 3.3 shows the
relations between the p, r, P and R functions.
-P(Q,E)
-Q
v
-E
- Q -E
v
p(v,E)
d
Q
d
r(Q,d)
d v
E
d
R(v,d)
Q
v
3.5.3
The functional (3.68), used in the `p' principle, has an integrand which contains
the integrated conservation of momentum equation and the irrotationality condition explicitly. It seems natural to constrain the `p' principle to satisfy these two
conditions. This can be done by specifying
9
>
>
=
t + gh >
;
>
>
>
;
(3:80)
r
v =
which results in the functional I1 reducing to a functional I1 (Q; d; ). The conc
+
+
(Z t Z Z
2
t1
Z t2 Z
t1
ZZ
Dd
(
p^() dx dy dt +
Z t2 Z
f ) Q:n d dt +
jt2 g2
ZZ
jt1 g1 dx dy
where
p^() = p( ; t
Q
t1
D
C d dt
(d (
h2))jt2
(d (
= 0;
(3.81)
1
+ gh) = 2g
78
h1))jt1 dx dy
2
1
gh + r:r :
2
1
1
+ r:
gh + r:r
2
1
1
1
1
gh + r:r r
2
= 0
^
in D;
1 r:r r:n + C = 0
2
1
gh + r:r r:n + Q:n = 0
2
on for t 2 (t1 ; t2 );
= 0
on for t 2 (t1 ; t2 );
= 0
in D for i = 1; 2;
= 0
in D for i = 1; 2;
gh +
!
1
gh + r:r + d
1
1
jt
ti
hi
1
gh + r:r + gi = 0
on for t 2 (t1 ; t2 );
in D for i = 1; 2;
d
ti
Z t2 Z Z
t1
p^() dx dy dt +
Z t2 Z
t1
C d dt +
ZZ
D
jt2 g2
jt1 g1 dx dy
=0
(3:82)
in which the functional depends on the variable alone.
A constrained `r' principle can be constructed to satisfy conservation of mass
by specifying
9
>
>
=
d = r: >
;
>
>
>
;
Q =
t
(3:83)
79
(Z t Z Z
2
t1
(^(
r ) + g r: h) dx dy dt +
Z t2 Z
t1
ZZ
D
ZZ
t :n d dt
r: j
t2
Dd
r: j
h2
t1
) = r(
t1
( (r:
h1 dx dy
where
r^(
Z t2 Z
; :
) = 12
Q
(C +
:n) d dt
( (r:
g2 ))jt2
= 0;
:
:
r
t
g1 ))jt1 dx dy
(3.84)
1 g (r: )2 :
2
ft
1 :
2
1 :
2
gh + :
^
in D;
=0
:n
= 0
on for t 2 (t1 ; t2 );
r + gh
g r: + gh
r: j g
rj + j
rh + j
= 0
on for t 2 (t1 ; t2 );
= 0
on for t 2 (t1 ; t2 );
= 0
in D for i = 1; 2;
ti
ti
= 0
in D for i = 1; 2;
ti
= 0
in D for i = 1; 2;
jt
hi
= 0
on \ ^ for i = 1; 2;
jt
= 0
on \ for i = 1; 2;
hi
= 0
on \ ^ for i = 1; 2;
jt
= 0
on \ for i = 1; 2;
C+
t
1
2
r g r:
t
g :
ti
jt
f jt
f jt
= :
functional of
alone, namely,
Z t2 Z Z
t1
(^(
r ) + g r: h) dx dy dt +
ZZ
D
r: j
t2
h2
r: j
t1
Z t2 Z
t1
h1 dx dy
:n d dt
= 0:
(3.85)
Now consider the other two variational principles | based on P and R. The
integrands of the `P' and `R' functionals are not expressible in either of the forms
function of (Q; d) + multiplier conservation of mass
function of (v; E )+multiplier
conservation of
+multiplier
or
irrotationality
momentum
condition
which are the structures that allow the `p' and `r' variational principles to be
constrained to depend on only one variable. There is no corresponding way of
81
constraining the `P' and `R' principles and the functionals cannot be reduced to
depend on one variable. However, the following structure can be deduced.
Consider the `P' functional (3.78). Let = and D = D, and constrain
Q
the variables to satisfy conservation of momentum using the rst of (3.80). Then
the variational principle becomes
Z t2 Z Z
t1
(P (Q;
ZZ
D
Q:r) dx dy dt +
t + gh)
jt2 g2
jt1 g1 dx dy
Z t2 Z
t1
C d dt
= 0;
(3.86)
where the variables are Q and . The natural conditions are given by
9
>
>
=
PQ r = 0 >
>
>
;
(P +gh )t + r:Q = 0 >
^
in D;
C
gi
on for t 2 (t1; t2 );
Q:n = 0
j = 0
in D for i = 1; 2:
t +gh t
i
9
>
>
=
v r = 0 >
>
>
;
dt + r:Q = 0 >
^
in D;
which are the irrotationality condition and the conservation of mass equation.
In the `R' functional (3.79) let = and
D
Z t2 Z Z
t1
R(v; :
ZZ
D
:v + g : h) dx dy dt +
r: j
t2
82
h2
r: j
t1
Z t2 Z
t1
h1 dx dy
:n d dt
= 0; (3.87)
r Rr
+ gh
rh
f jt
9
>
>
=
= 0>
Rv
t
>
>
;
gh + vt = 0 >
ft
= 0
on for t 2 (t1 ; t2 );
vjt = 0
in D for i = 1; 2;
= 0
on for i = 1; 2:
^
in D;
hi
9
>
>
=
(r: ) v t = 0 >
>
>
;
vt + r gr:
gh + 12 v:v = 0 >
^
in D;
the second of which is conservation of momentum. This, together with the natural
condition in D for t1, implies the irrotationality condition in D for t 2 [t1; t2].
The constrained `P' and `R' principles (3.86) and (3.87) are reciprocal since
the constraint of conservation of momentum in (3.86) is a natural condition of
(3.87) and the conservation of mass constraint in (3.87) is a natural condition of
(3.86). The irrotationality condition is a natural condition of both principles.
3.6
83
3.6.1
In Chapter 2 the equations of motion for time-independent shallow water
ows are
deduced from the equations for time-dependent motion by making the assumption
that all of the
ow variables | mass
ow, energy, depth and velocity | are
independent of time. The potential is not a
ow variable and is not assumed
to be independent of time although its general form is deduced as
~ + ~(x; y)
(x; y; t) = Et
(3:88)
gh.
a function C^ (x; y). The function f will be used to provide a boundary condition
for
on . The variation of
the depth does not vary with time we must have g1 = g2 = g^(x; y). The functions
84
h1
that
jt2
where T = t2
t1.
jt1
= E~ (t2
~
t1) = ET;
~
h1 = ET
for consistency.
First consider the `p' principle. The functional I1, given by (3.68), under
steady state conditions becomes
Z t2
Z
~
^
I1 =
T p(v; E ) + Q: v r dx dy +
C
dt d
D
t1
Z Z t2
ZZ
~
+
^ ~ dx dy;
f dt Q:n d
T gE
s
ZZ
t1
Dd
1 E~ (t + t )
2 1 2
so that
Z t2
t1
2
~f (x; y; t) dt = f~1(x; y)t 1 Et
~ 2 = T f~1(x; y) 1 E~ (t1 + t2) = T f^(x; y):
2
2
1
t
t
Also, let
^(x; y ) = ~(x; y )
1 E~ (t + t )
2 1 2
so that
Z t2
t1
2
1 Et
~ 2 = T ~(x; y) 1 E~ (t1 + t2) = T ^(x; y)
2
2
1
(x; y; t) dt = ~(x; y )t
t
t
ZZ
Dd
85
Notice that the nal term in (3.89) is a constant and so it may be discarded.
Also, throughout the functional there is a constant non-zero multiplier T which
may be set equal to unity. Finally, for neatness, the ^ notation is suppressed and
the `p' functional for use in the steady state variational principle is written as
L1 =
ZZ
D
(p(v; E ) + Q: (v
r)) dx dy +
Z
Q
C d +
Z
(
f ) Q:n d;
(3:90)
where L1 = L1(Q; v; ) and E is the known function E = E~ + gh, for consistency
with conservation of momentum (2.42).
By the same process steady state forms of (3.69), (3.78) and (3.79) can be
generated, and using the method by which (3.90) was deduced from (3.89) the
steady state `r', `P' and `R' functionals may be written
L2
L3
L4
=
=
=
ZZ
D
(r(Q; d) + Ed + r:Q) dx dy
+
ZZ
D
Q
(C
Q:n) d
(P (Q; E ) + r:Q) dx dy
+
ZZ
Q
(C
Q:n) d
f Q:n d;
(3.91)
f Q:n d;
(3.92)
f Q:n d;
(3.93)
Z
Q
(C
Q:n) d
L1
= 0,
L2 = 0, L3 = 0 and L4 = 0 are expected to include the shallow water equations
of motion (2.43) and (2.48) and possibly (2.25) or (2.19). Equation (2.42) is
satised exactly since the energy E is regarded as a known function E = E~ + gh,
where E~ is a given constant.
86
in D;
Q:n = 0
on
= 0
on
1 v :v + Q = 0
2
in D:
Q:n = 0
on
= 0
on
gd + E
9
r = 0 >>>=
>
>
>
;
Q
1QQ
2
in D;
in D:
= 0
in D;
Q:n = 0
on
= 0
on
87
r = 0
in D;
r
r:Q
C
f
gd
9
>
>
>
= 0>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
=
= 0>
>
>
>
= 0>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
;
= 0>
in D;
Q:n = 0
on
= 0
on
9
>
>
=
dv + Q = 0 >
>
>
>
1
;
v
v
+
=
0
:
E
2
in D:
Thus the natural conditions of the variational principles for steady state motion, derived from the principles for unsteady motion, include the steady state
equations in shallow water | (2.43) and (2.48). In order that the equations are
expressed in the forms of (2.43) and (2.48) it is necessary to assume in the `p'
principle that d = 1 (E
g
1
2
The variational principles for steady motion can be constrained in the same way
as the ones for unsteady motion were in Section 3.5. The variational principles
for time-dependent motion have three natural conditions which can be used as
constraints | singly or in pairs | conservation of mass, conservation of momentum and the irrotationality condition. For the variational principles for steady
ow there are just two | conservation of mass and the irrotationality condition
| since conservation of momentum is satised implicitly.
Reciprocal `p' and `P' Principles
Z Z
p( ; E ) dx dy +
89
Z
C d
= 0;
(3:94)
r: g1 E 21 r:r r = 0
1 E 1 r:r r:n C = 0
2
g
in D;
on ;
Z Z
D
P (Q; E ) dx dy
= 0;
(3:95)
condition gives
Z Z
D
R( ; d) + Ed) dx dy +
Z
C d
=0
(3:96)
which depends on and d. The variational principle (3.96) has natural conditions
9
>
>
=
Rd + E = 0 >
>
>
>
;
r: Rr
Rr :n
= 0
C=0
91
in D;
on ;
r: (dr) = 0:
Let = and Q:n = C on . Then constraining the `r' principle to satisfy
Q
Z Z
(r(Q; d) + Ed) dx dy = 0;
(3:97)
=0
3.7
In the same way that variational principles for time-dependent shallow water
ows were derived from principles for free surface
ows in Section 3.2, by making
the shallow water approximation, the quasi one-dimensional approximation can
be applied to (3.68), (3.69), (3.78), (3.79) and (3.90){(3.93) to give functionals
whose corresponding variational principles have as their natural conditions the
equations of unsteady and steady quasi one-dimensional motion.
92
(x; y) : x 2 [x ; x ]; y 2
e
"
B (x) B (x)
;
#)
as in Section 2.3.
3.7.1
Time-dependent Flows
Consider the functionals (3.68), (3.69), (3.78) and (3.79) for time-dependent shallow water
ows. Corresponding functionals for quasi one-dimensional
ows may
be derived from these by assuming that all of the
ow variables are independent
of y, that is, by substituting E = E (x; t), Q = Q(x; t), d = d(x; t), v = v(x; t)
and = (x; t) for their two-dimensional counterparts. Then, after replacing the
operators by their one-dimensional versions, that is, replacing r:Q by 1 (BQ)
in (3.69) and (3.79) and r by in (3.68) and (3.78), the integrals with respect
x
to y can be evaluated.
The boundary functions must also be independent of the y coordinate. In the
two-dimensional functionals C = C (x; y; t) and f = f (x; y; t) are dened on
of which lies on the channel sides across which there is no
ow. Therefore the
Q
boundary conditions are much simplied by letting include all parts of the
Q
function
Ce (t)
at inlet, C (x ; t) =
o
Co (t)
at
= g (x; y) and
gi
= h (x; y)
hi
the one-dimensional case only the boundary function for d, given by g = g (x)
i
in D for i = 1; 2, exists.
Making the above substitutions into (3.68), (3.69), (3.78) and (3.79) and integrating with respect to y yields the one-dimensional functionals K1(E; Q; d; v; ),
K2 (Q; d; ), K3 (E; Q; d; ) and K4 (Q; d; v; ) given by
K1 =
+
K2 =
Z t2 Z x
t1
Z t2
xe
Co (B)jx
t1
Z t2 Z x
o
t1
xe
Z t2
t1
Zx
xe
+
K4 =
t1
Z t2
xe
xe
Z t2
t1
xe
g2 ))jt2
(B (C
( (d
(3.98)
Ce (B)jx dt +
jt1 g1 B dx;
Q))jx dt
d (t + E
Qx
jt2 g2
g1 ))jt1 B dx;
( (d
Q))jx
( (d
xe
Z x
o
xe
(3.99)
gh)) B dx dt
jt2 g2
R(v; d) + gdh + Qv + dt
(B (C
Zx
Z x
x)) B dx dt
1
+ B (BQ) B dx dt
(B (C
g2 ))jt2
(P (Q; E )
Z t2 Z x
t1
Q))jx
Co (B)jx
t1
r(Q; d) + gdh + dt
( (d
o
gh) + Q (v
Ce (B)jx dt +
Z t2 Z x
d (t + E
(B (C
K3 =
(p(v; E )
jt1 g1 B dx;
1
+ B (BQ) B dx dt
(3.100)
Q))jx dt
g1 ))jt1 B dx:
(3.101)
The functions p(v; E ), r(Q; d), P (Q; E ) and R(v; d) are the one-dimensional
counterparts of p(v; E ), r(Q; d), P (Q; E ) and R(v; d) (dened by (3.27), (3.29),
(3.75) and (3.72)), namely,
p(v; E )
2
= 21g E 12 v2 ;
94
(3.102)
2
= 12 Qd 12 gd2 ;
1
1
R(v; d) = gd2 + v 2d
2
2
r(Q; d)
(3.103)
(3.104)
= 12 gd2 + dv2 ;
1
2
Q = dv ; E = gd + v 2:
(3:105)
PE
dt + B1 (BQ)x = 0
t + E
gh = 0
x = 0
Co
Qjx
Ce
Qjx
gi
djt
9
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
=
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
;
in (x ; x ) for t 2 (t1 ; t2 );
e
9
>
>
>
rd t + gh = 0 >
>
>
>
>
=
rQ x = 0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
1
;
dt + B (BQ)x = 0 >
Co
Qjx
Ce
Qjx
gi
djt
in (x ; x ) for t 2 (t1 ; t2 );
e
95
9
>
>
>
PQ x = 0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
=
PE d = 0 >
>
>
>
t + E gh = 0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
1
;
dt + B (BQ)x = 0 >
Co
Qjx
Ce
Qjx
gi
djt
in (x ; x ) for t 2 (t1 ; t2 );
e
9
>
>
>
Rv + Q = 0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
=
Rd t + gh = 0 >
>
>
>
v x = 0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
1
;
dt + B (BQ)x = 0 >
Co
Qjx
Ce
Qjx
gi
djt
in (x ; x ) for t 2 (t1 ; t2 );
e
Thus each set of natural conditions includes the equations of motion for timedependent quasi one-dimensional shallow water
ow. The conservation of mass
equation (2.33) is explicit in each set. The conservation of momentum equation,
in its integrated form, is explicit in the natural conditions of the `p' and `P'
principles but for the `r' principle the relations Q = dv and E = gd + 12 v2 are
needed and for the `R' principle the relation
96
gd + 12 v 2
is required. The
boundary conditions in each case are the same, that is, on the mass
ow at inlet
and outlet, for t 2 (t1; t2), and on the depth in (x ; x ) at t = t1 ; t2 .
e
3.7.2
The variational principles for unsteady quasi one-dimensional
ows can be constrained in the same ways as the corresponding variational principles for twodimensional
ows. In particular, constrained `p' and `r' principles which are reciprocal to one another and constrained `P' and `R' principles which are reciprocal
to one another can be derived.
Reciprocal `p' and `r' Principles
9
>
>
=
t + gh >
:
>
>
>
;
(3:106)
x
Z t2 Z x
t1
xe
p^()B dx dt +
Zx
o
xe
jt2 g2
Z t2
Co (B)jx
t1
jt1 g1 B dx
1
p^() =
2g
97
2
1
2
gh + :
2
x
= 0;
Ce (B)jx dt
e
(3.107)
1
1 +1
gh + 2
2
B
1
1
gh + 2
2
= 0
in (x ; x ) for t 2 (t1 ; t2 );
e
Co
Ce
1
+ g
1
2
gh + = 0 for t 2 (t1 ; t2 );
2
!
1
1
+ g gh + 2 2 = 0 for t 2 (t1 ; t2);
1
1
2
g +
gh + = 0 in (x ; x ) for i = 1; 2;
2
g
t
xo
xe
ti
B
t
9
>
>
>
=
;
>
>
>
;
(3:108)
for some function (x; t). The constrained `r' principle depends on and and
is given by
K2
=
(Z t Z x
2
Z t2
t1
Zx
xe
where
t1
r^(
)+gB h
!!
B Co +
B x
!!
x
g2
xe
B dx dt
!! !
dt
B Ce +
B x
!! !
)
x
g1 B dx = 0; (3.109)
t2
1
r^( ) =
2
t
x
t1
B2
gh
= 0 in (x ; x ) for t 2 (t1 ; t2 );
e
98
Co +
B x
t
Ce +
B x
!
x
g + gh
B
!x
g x + gh
B
x
x
gi
1 2
2
1 2
2
t
t
= 0 in (x ; x ) for i = 1; 2;
e
ti
( + )j = 0 in (x ; x ) for i = 1; 2;
x
where =
t
x
ti
Z t2
t1
Z t2 Z x
t1
xe
Co (B)jx
(P (Q;
t + gh)
Ce (B)jx dt +
e
Qx) B dx dt
Z x
o
xe
jt2 g2 jt1 g1 B dx
=0; (3.110)
9
>
>
=
x = 0 >
>
>
>
;
PQ
(P
) + (BQ) = 0
t +gh t
Co
in (x ; x ) for t 2 (t1 ; t2 );
e
Qjx
Qjx
Ce
gi
j = 0 in (x ; x ) for i = 1; 2;
t +gh t
i
=
(Z t
t1
Z t2
R(v;
!!
B Co +
B x
!!
x
g2
B
xe
v+g
Rv
x
B
gh
9
>
>
=
=0 >
>
>
>
;
+v =0
t
Co +
B x
t
Ce +
B x
R + gh
x
R + gh
x
x
gi
B t
h B dx dt
!! !
dt
B Ce +
B x
!! !
)
x
g1 B dx = 0; (3.111)
t
t2
t1
Zx
t1
in (x ; x ) for t 2 (t1; t2 );
e
t
t
x
B
x
B
(
v )jt
= 0 in (x ; x ) for i = 1; 2;
e
3.7.3
Time-independent Flows
Functionals for time-independent quasi one-dimensional
ows can be derived either from the functionals for time-dependent one-dimensional
ows (3.98){(3.101)
or from the functionals for steady two-dimensional
ows (3.90){(3.93). In both
cases the procedure is to assume that the physical
ow variables are functions of x
alone and in the time-dependent one-dimensional case to deduce the dependence
of on x and t, as was done for the two-dimensional case. The integrals with
respect to t in (3.98){(3.101) and with respect to y in (3.90){(3.93) can then be
evaluated.
The functionals for time-independent quasi one-dimensional shallow water
ows, derived in either of these ways, may be written as
where
M1
M2
M3
M4
M1
Zx
(p(v; E ) + Q (v
(r(Q; d) + Ed
(P (Q; E )
xe
Zx
xe
Zx
xe
Zx
xe
(xe )) ;
(3.112)
(xe )) ;
(3.113)
(xe )) ;
(3.114)
M1 (v; Q; ), M2
M2 (d; Q; ), M3
M3 (Q; )
and
M4
M4 (d; v; Q; ).
and
C (x; y; t)
at x = x ;
C (x; y; t)
CBe
Bo
at x = x ;
C (x; y; t)
= 0
otherwise;
9
>
>
>
pv + Q = 0 >
>
>
>
>
=
0
v =0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
0
;
(BQ) = 0 >
C
CBe
in (x ; x );
e
Q(xe )
= 0;
Q(xo)Bo
= 0:
9
>
>
>
rQ 0 = 0 >
>
>
>
>
=
rd + E = 0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
0
;
(BQ) = 0 >
C
CBe
in (x ; x );
e
Q(xe )
= 0;
Q(xo)Bo
= 0:
9
>
>
=
PQ 0 = 0 >
>
>
;
(BQ)0 = 0 >
C
CBe
in (x ; x );
e
Q(xe )
= 0;
Q(xo)Bo
= 0:
102
9
>
>
>
Rv + Q = 0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
=
Rd + E = 0 >
>
>
>
v 0 = 0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
0
>
;
(BQ) = 0 >
C
CBe
in (x ; x );
e
Q(xe )
= 0;
Q(xo)Bo
= 0:
Thus each set of natural conditions contains the conservation of mass equation,
the formula v = 0, expressed in dierent variables in the cases of the `p' and `r'
principles, and also the boundary conditions Q(x ) = C and Q(x ) =
e
CBe
Bo
, that
The variational principles for steady quasi one-dimensional
ows can be constrained in the same way as the two-dimensional versions.
Constrained `p' and `P' Principles
The `p' principle based on the functional (3.112) can be constrained to depend
on only one variable by substituting v = 0 into the integrand. The constrained
`p' principle is given by
M1
=
Z x
xe
103
(xe ))
= 0;
(3:116)
!0
1 E 1 02 0B
2
g
!
1 E 1 02 0
2
g
!
1 E 1 02 0B
2
g
= 0 in (x ; x );
e
= 0;
xe
CBe
= 0;
xo
M3
where Q =
CBe
B
=
Z x
xe
P (Q; E )B dx
= 0;
functions.
Constrained `r' and `R' Principles
Following the derivation of the two-dimensional reciprocal principles, the `r' principle can be constrained to satisfy conservation of mass by specifying Q =
CBe
B
and the `R' principle can be constrained by substituting v = 0 into the integrand
of the functional. The constrained principles are given by
M2
where Q =
CBe
B
=
Z x
xe
(r(Q; d) + Ed) B dx = 0;
(3:117)
= 0 in (x ; x );
e
Z x
xe
104
(xe ))
= 0;
>
>
=
(BR )0 = 0 >
0
in (x ; x );
>
>
;
Rd + E = 0 >
CBe
(BR )j
xe
= 0;
CBe
(BR )j
xo
= 0;
0
0
3.8
Discontinuous Flows
The variational principles considered so far are only valid for continuous shallow
water
ows since, in deriving the natural conditions using integration by parts
and the divergence theorem, the variables have been assumed to be dierentiable.
In this section variational principles for time-independent discontinuous
ows in
one and two dimensions are derived.
In the variational principles of Sections 3.6 and 3.7 for steady state shallow
water
ows the conservation of momentum equation is satised implicitly by
specifying E = E~ + gh in D, where E~ is a constant and E is the energy dened
by either (2.35) or (2.19), depending on whether the
ow being considered is onedimensional or two-dimensional. For discontinuous
ows there is a jump in the
105
(x; y) : x 2 [x ; x ]; y 2
e
"
B (x) B (x)
;
#)
that is, a channel, where there is
ow into the channel at x = x and out of the
e
channel at x = x .
o
Eo
> Eo .
values for the energy into the functionals (3.112){(3.115) and (3.90){(3.93) and
allowing the variables to be discontinuous yields functionals whose corresponding
variational principles have as natural conditions the equations of discontinuous
motion in one and two dimensions.
3.8.1
Two-dimensional Flows
divides D into the two regions D and D , where D borders the inlet boundary
e
106
N1 =
+
+
N2 =
+
+
N3 =
+
+
N4 =
+
+
ZZ
ZZ
Do
e
ZZ
ZZ
Do
e
o
C d;
(3.119)
(P (Q; E ) Q:r) dx dy
o
C d +
De
(3.118)
Do
ZZ
C d;
(P (Q; E ) Q:r) dx dy
ZZ
e
o
(r(Q; d) + E d Q:r) dx dy
C d +
De
Do
ZZ
(r(Q; d) + E d Q:r) dx dy
ZZ
e
(p(v; E ) + Q: (v
C d +
De
r)) dx dy
r)) dx dy
(p(v; E ) + Q: (v
De
o
C d;
R(v; d) + Q: (v
R(v; d) + Q: (v
C d +
o
(3.120)
r) + E d) dx dy
r) + E d) dx dy
e
C d;
(3.121)
N4 (d; v; Q; ; s).
107
in D [ D ;
e
"
Q:n = 0 on e [ o ;
#
C
p + Q:v
@
Q:
= 0;
@
"
#
@
Q:n
= 0;
s
@
s
[Q:n] = 0;
s
where the brackets [] = j + j , + denotes the downstream side of and
s
the upstream side. The rst four of these conditions are the same as for the
continuous case but are valid separately in D and D and on and . Using
e
the v = r natural condition the last three natural conditions can be rewritten
as
[p + (Q:n) (v:n)] = 0;
s
[v: ] = 0;
s
[Q:n] = 0;
s
which are the required jump conditions (2.84){(2.86) for discontinuous shallow
water
ows.
The natural conditions of the `r' principle N2 = 0 are
9
>
>
>
rQ r = 0 >
>
>
>
>
=
rd + E = 0 >
>
>
>
>
r:Q = 0 >>>;
"
C
r + Ed
in D [ D ;
e
Q:n = 0 on e [ o ;
#
Q:r + Q:n
= 0;
@n
"
#
@
Q:n
= 0;
@
@
s
[Q:n] = 0:
s
108
"
Q:n = 0 on e [ o ;
#
C
P
in D [ D ;
Q:r + Q:n
= 0;
@n
"
#
@
Q:n
= 0;
@
@
s
[Q:n] = 0:
s
"
C
R + Q: (v
in D [ D ;
e
Q:n = 0 on e [ o ;
#
r) + Ed + Q:n @
@n
"
@
Q:n
@
s
s
= 0;
= 0;
[Q:n] = 0:
s
Using the relationships between p and r, P and R, (3.74), (3.76) and (3.71),
the last three natural conditions of
= 0 and
N4
= 0 can be
N1
= 0. Thus
N2
= 0,
N3
3.8.2
One-dimensional Flows
Zx
0)) B dx
(p(v; E ) + Q (v
0)) B dx
xe
Zx
(p(v; E ) + Q (v
xs
+CB ((x )
S2 =
Zx
Zx
Q0) B dx
(r(Q; d) + E d
Q0) B dx
xs
+CB ((x )
S3 =
Zx
Zx
(xe )) ;
Q0) B dx
(P (Q; E )
Q0) B dx
xs
+CB ((x )
S4 =
Zx
xe
Zx
(3.124)
R(v; d) + Q (v
0) + Ee d) B dx
R(v; d) + Q (v
0) + Eo d) B dx
xs
S1
(xe )) ;
+CB ((x )
where
(3.123)
(P (Q; E )
e
xe
(3.122)
(r(Q; d) + E d
e
xe
(xe )) ;
S1 (v; Q; ; xs), S2
(xe )) ;
(3.125)
S2 (d; Q; ; xs), S3
S3 (Q; ; xs)
and
S4
S4 (d; v; Q; ; xs).
9
>
>
>
pv + Q = 0 >
>
>
>
>
=
0
v =0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
0
;
(BQ) = 0 >
in (x ; x ) [ (x ; x );
e
110
Q(xe )
= 0;
Q(xo)Bo
= 0;
[BQ]
= 0;
[(p + Qv) B ]
= 0;
C
CBe
xs
xs
where [] = j
xs
xs+
9
>
>
>
>
rQ
>
>
>
>
=
rd + E = 0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
0
;
(BQ) = 0 >
0 = 0
in (x ; x ) [ (x ; x );
e
Q(xe )
= 0;
Q(xo)Bo
= 0;
[BQ]
= 0;
[(r + Ed) B ]
= 0:
C
CBe
xs
xs
>
>
=
0 = 0 >
>
>
;
(BQ)0 = 0 >
C
CBe
in (x ; x ) [ (x ; x );
e
Q(xe )
= 0;
Q(xo)Bo
= 0;
[BQ]
xs
= 0;
[BP ]
xs
= 0:
111
9
>
>
>
Rv + Q = 0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
=
Rd + E = 0 >
>
>
>
v 0 = 0 >
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
0
>
;
(BQ) = 0 >
in (x ; x ) [ (x ; x );
e
C
CBe
Q(xe )
= 0;
Q(xo)Bo
= 0;
[BQ]
= 0;
xs
[(
R + Qv + Ed) B ]x
= 0:
Thus the natural conditions include the equations of shallow water motion in
(x ; x ) and (x ; x ) and boundary conditions on the mass
ow at x and x . The
e
rst jump condition in each case is the condition of no jump in the mass
ow
(2.77). Using one-dimensional versions of the equations (3.74), (3.76) and (3.71),
which relate p to r,
112
Chapter 4
Approximations to Quasi
One-dimensional Shallow Water
Flows
The variational principles of Section 3.7 have as natural conditions the equations
of steady state quasi one-dimensional motion in shallow water. This chapter is
concerned with using some of these variational principles to generate approximations to the variables of shallow water
ows in channels.
The equations of motion for quasi one-dimensional
ow are satised by functions for which the functionals of the variational principles of Section 3.7 are
stationary. Solutions of the shallow water equations can be approximated by
nding the functions for which the functionals are stationary with respect to
variations in a nite dimensional space. In this chapter the variables of shallow
water are expanded in terms of nite element basis functions, dened on a grid
of points extending over the domain of the problem.
113
The particular variational principles used here are the `p' and `r' principles
based on the functionals (3.112) and (3.113). The constrained versions of these
principles, (3.116) and (3.117), both depend on only one variable and are used to
develop algorithms for generating approximations, dened on xed grids, to the
velocity and depth of
ow in a channel. The constrained `p' principle is also used
to generate approximations on adaptive grids.
The nal section of this chapter is concerned with deriving approximations to
discontinuous
ows in channels. The constrained `r' principle is used to generate
approximations to the depth on a grid with one moving node which is placed at
the position of the discontinuity. This algorithm is extended to give a method for
approximating discontinuous depth proles on adaptive grids.
The domains of the problems to be considered are channels with breadth B (x)
for x 2 [xe; xo] and undisturbed
uid depth h(x) for x 2 [xe; xo], where B and h
are functions to be dened later.
4.1
The `r' principle based on the functional (3.113), with variations constrained to
satisfy the conservation of mass equation, can be used to generate approximations
to the depth of
uid for shallow water
ow in a channel.
The functional of the constrained principle (3.117) is given by
M2c (d) =
xo
xe
(4:1)
(4:2)
E (x) = E~ + gh(x)
(4:3)
x = xe the value of the third can be deduced from (2.34). Then, using (2.35),
C = Q(xe)
E~ = gd(xe) + 12 v(xe)2 gh(xe):
and
13
2 E~ + gh(x)
1
@
CBe g
3
B (x)
(4:4)
d2M2c = Z xo r B dx:
dd
dd2
xe
rdd = Qd3
which is positive if
Q2
d2
g;
(4:5)
supercritical and negative if Qd22 < gd, that is, if the
ow is subcritical. Thus, if
the
ow is supercritical in the whole of [xe; xo], the function d satisfying M2c = 0
minimises M2c and, if the
ow is subcritical in the whole of [xe; xo], the stationary
115
The Algorithm
x1; . . . ; xn given by
xi = ((ni 1)
1) (xo xe ) + xe
i = 1; . . . ; n:
(4:6)
Let 1(x); . . . ; n(x) be nite element basis functions, dened on the grid given
by (4.6), and let
dh (x) =
n
X
i=1
dii(x)
(4:7)
L(d) =
xn
x1
i = 1; . . . ; n:
(4:8)
There is more than one solution of the set of equations (4.8). One possible
solution involves negative values of di and is not considered since it has no physical
meaning. In the case of approximations to non-critical
ows there are two other
solutions | one which approximates subcritical
ow and one which approximates
supercritical
ow. In the case of
ows which become critical at a point in the
domain there is a further possibility, that is, an approximation to transitional
ow.
In the present work (4.8) is solved using Newton's method. The Jacobian J
is given by
(
@ 2L = Z xn r h h B dx ;
i
=
J (d) = fJij g = @F
i j
d d
@dj
@dj @di
x1
(4:9)
(4:10)
(4:11)
where
This yields a sequence of approximations to d. The process is repeated until
k
di < tolerance:
max
i
(4:12)
Then di = dik for i = 1; . . . ; n are the values of the parameters in the approximation (4.7) which make L(d) stationary. The Jacobian J and the vector F are
117
norm. Assume that the rst derivatives of J are continuous in S and that J
is non-singular in S . Then, there exists > 0 such that Newton's method is
l1(x) =
li(x) =
ln(x) =
and
8
>
>
>
>
<
>
>
>
>
:
8
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
<
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
:
8
>
>
>
>
<
>
>
>
>
:
x2 x x 2 [x ; x ]
1 2
x 2 x1
;
0
x 62 [x1; x2]
x xi 1 x 2 [x ; x ]
i 1
i
xi xi 1
xi+1 x x 2 [x ; x ]
i
i+1
x
x
i+1
i = 2; . . . ; n 1; (4.13)
x 62 [xi 1; xi+1]
x xn 1 x 2 [x ; x ]
n 1
n
xn xn 1
0
x 62 [xn 1; xn]
8
>
>
>
<
ic (x) = >
1 x 2 (xi; xi+1)
>
>
:
0 x 62 (xi; xi+1)
and are shown in Figure 4.1.
i = 1; . . . ; n 1;
(4:14)
For the basis functions dened by (4.13), J is tridiagonal and (4.11) is solved
quickly for dk using Gaussian elimination and back substitution. For the basis
functions dened by (4.14), J is diagonal and (4.11) is easily solved.
The method is used to nd approximations to
ows in a number of dierent
119
a)
(x)
(x)
i=2,...,n-1
(x)
x1
x2
xi-1
xi
b)
1
xi+1
xn-1
xn
(x) i=1,...,n-1
xi
xi+1
equivalent to redening the equilibrium depth to be h(x) := h(x) h(xe), so that
h1(x) = 0
in [xe; xo];
(4.17)
h2(x) = H xx xxe
o
e
h3(x) = 4H (x xe) (xo 2 x)
(xo + xe )
in [xe; xo];
(4.18)
in [xe; xo]:
(4.19)
120
The energy E~ is given the value 50. In order to guarantee that a continuous
solution exists the value of mass
ow at inlet C must satisfy
13
0
2
~
2
+
(
)
E
gh
x
1
B (x)
@
A
in [xe; xo];
Cg
3
Be
from (4.4). For the case h = h1 this is just
~
C g1 23E
! 32
Bmin ;
Be
where
Bmin = x2min
B (x):
[xe;xo ]
Thus, for the given breadth functions (4.15) and (4.16), C must have a value such
that C C, where
C = p20 :
(4:20)
3
A value of C = C yields
ows which are critical at the point of minimum breadth.
A value of C = 10 is used to give examples of non-critical
ows.
The initial approximation d0 to the solution d determines whether the nite
element solution is an approximation to subcritical or to supercritical
ow. In
practice subcritical approximations are obtained by specifying d0i > d for i =
1; . . . ; n, where d is the critical depth, given by (2.65). In this case, for h = h1 ,
0
d = 100
30 3:33. Supercritical approximations are obtained by specifying di < d
b)
a)
10
breadth
depth
5.0
2.5
0.0
0
0
5
x
10
5
x
10
B1;6(x).
for non-critical
ow. Subcritical approximations are obtained, using d0i = 4 for
b)
5.0
10
breadth
depth
a)
2.5
0.0
0
0
5
x
10
5
x
10
Figure 4.3: a) Piecewise linear depth approximations on a xed grid and b) B2;2(x)
with = 7:5.
b)
a)
10
breadth
depth
5.0
2.5
0.0
0
0
5
x
10
5
x
10
B1;6(x).
a)
b)
10
breadth
depth
5.0
2.5
0.0
0
0
5
x
10
5
x
10
4.1.2
Error Bounds
(4.14) and generated from (4.8), converge linearly to the shallow water depth for
wholly subcritical or wholly supercritical
ows.
Proof The parameters of the approximation dh are dened as those which sat-
xn
(rdh + E ) ic B dx = 0
x1
i = 1; . . . ; n 1:
(4:21)
rd + E = 0;
from the denitions of r (3.103), mass
ow (2.34) and energy (2.35). Thus
Z
xn
x1
(rd + E ) ic B dx = 0
i = 1; . . . ; n 1:
(4:22)
xn
x1
and so
(rdh rd ) ic B dx = 0
xi+1
xi
(rdh rd ) B dx = 0
i = 1; . . . ; n 1;
i = 1; . . . ; n 1;
(4:23)
using (4.14).
Both d and dh are dierentiable on each interval [xi; xi+1] and thus, using the
Mean Value Theorem,
rdh rd = dh d r (Q; )j
125
=
(4:24)
for (x) between dh(x) and d(x), where r = Q32 g, from (3.103). Thus if dh and
xi+1
dh d r (Q; )j
xi
=
B dx = 0;
implies that dh d = 0 at at least one point (say x = x^) in (xi; xi+1) for completely
subcritical or supercritical
ows, since B > 0.
Now dh is constant on [xi; xi+1] so, for x 2 [xi ; xi+1],
Z
x
x
^
d0() d =
x
^
Thus
Z
xi+1
xi
d(x) dh (x) 2 dx =
xi+1
xi
xi+1
xi
Z
x
x
^
2
d0() d dx
2
d d
=
=
xo
xe
n
X1 Z xi+1
i=1 xi
n
X1
i=1
d dh 2 dx
(4.25)
d dh 2 dx
n
X1
i=1
(xi+1 xi)
= max
(xi+1 xi)2 x2max
jd0 j2 (xo xe );
i
[x ;x ]
e
that is,
0 j (x x ) 21 ;
d dh x x2max
d
j
o
e
[xe;xo ]
critical ows
non-critical ows
x
10
2
6:028 10
8:608 10
2:687 10
5:097 10
10
22
1:870 10
3:521 10
1:188 10
2:654 10
10
23
7:249 10
1:550 10
4:882 10
1:218 10
17
10
24
3:198 10
7:249 10
2:192 10
5:772 10
33
10
25
1:504 10
3:504 10
1:038 10
2:805 10
65
10
26
7:293 10
1:722 10
5:050 10
1:382 10
129
10
27
3:592 10
8:539 10
2:491 10
6:860 10
257
10
28
1:782 10
4:252 10
1:237 10
3:417 10
513
10
29
8:878 10
2:121 10
6:164 10
1:705 10
1025
10
210
4:431 10
1:060 10
3:077 10
8:520 10
subcritical
supercritical
subcritical
supercritical
critical ows
n x subcritical
non-critical ows
supercritical
subcritical
supercritical
10
2
1:178 10
9:217 10
1:087 10
3:975 10
10
22
2:087 10
2:084 10
6:606 10
9:668 10
10
23
4:395 10
5:122 10
1:155 10
1:769 10
17
10
24
9:825 10
1:235 10
2:842 10
4:714 10
33
10
25
2:304 10
3:135 10
6:858 10
1:249 10
65
10
26
5:595 10
7:657 10
1:651 10
3:976 10
129
10
27
1:280 10
2:234 10
4:401 10
1:453 10
4.2
Finite element expansions for the mass
ow and the velocity potential, as well as
for the
uid depth, can be obtained using the unconstrained `r' principle, based
on the functional (3.113). The method used here is a simple extension of the
algorithm in Section 4.1.
Consider the grid dened by the points (4.6), with xe = 0, xo = 10 and n = 21.
Let
Qh(x) =
n
X
i=1
Qii(x) ; dh(x) =
n
X
i=1
dii(x) ; h(x) =
n
X
i=1
ii(x)
(4:26)
128
L(Q; d; ) =
xn
x1
(4:27)
(4:28)
Let the i be the piecewise linear basis functions dened by (4.13). Then
equations (4:28)3 yield
Z
xn
x1
Qj
Qj
Qj
x2
x1
xi+1
xi 1
xn
xn 1
01j B dx =
CBe;
0ij B dx = 0
i = 2; . . . ; n 1;
0nj B dx = CBe ;
or as,
AQQ = CQ;
(4:29)
xn
x1
(rdh + E ) i B dx = 0 i = 1; . . . ; n;
129
which, once Qh is known, can be solved for dh by the method of Section 4.1.
Equations (4:28)1 give
Z
xn
x1
rQh h 0 iB dx = 0 i = 1; . . . ; n;
j
j
j
x2
x1
xi+1
xi 1
xn
xn 1
0 B dx
j
i0j B dx =
n 0j B dx =
x2
x1
Z
Z
rQh 1B dx;
xi+1
xi 1
xn
xn 1
rQh iB dx i = 2; . . . ; n 1;
rQh n B dx;
or as
A = C;
(4:30)
h = h1, dened by (4.17), are shown in Figure 4.6. The energy E~ is taken to be
50. The piecewise linear approximation to the mass
ow is shown in Figure 4.6a.
The piecewise linear approximations to the velocity potential and depth for a
supercritical
ow are given in Figures 4.6b and 4.6c, respectively. Figure 4.6d
shows the piecewise constant approximation to the supercritical velocity derived
by taking the gradient of the piecewise linear velocity potential approximation
in each interval [xi; xi+1] for i = 1; . . . ; n 1. The Newton iteration to nd dh
130
a)
b)
10
Phi/10000
mass flow
20
10
0
0
10
10
d)
c)
10
velocity
5.0
depth
5
x
2.5
0.0
0
0
10
10
Figure 4.6: a) Mass
ow, b) velocity potential, c) depth and d) velocity approximations for B = B1;4 | supercritical case.
converges after 13 iterations, using d0i = 1 for i = 1; . . . ; n, with a tolerance of
10 3 .
Corresponding results for the subcritical
ow are given in Figure 4.7. The
Newton iteration converges from d0i = 4 for i = 1; . . . ; n in 8 iterations.
Notice that the velocity approximation is not quite symmetric about the line
x = 5, even though the breadth and equilibrium
uid depth functions are. This is
probably a consequence of using approximations to mass
ow and depth in (4.30).
By increasing the number of grid points the approximations can be improved |
Figure 4.8 shows the supercritical solutions for n = 61.
Thus, although approximations to all of the variables can be generated using
the unconstrained `r' principle, in the case of the velocity potential (and therefore
131
b)
a)
10
Phi/10000
mass flow
20
10
0
0
10
10
c)
d)
10
velocity
5.0
depth
2.5
0.0
0
0
10
10
Figure 4.7: a) Mass
ow, b) velocity potential, c) depth and d) velocity approximations for B = B1;4 | subcritical case.
b)
a)
10
Phi/10000
mass flow
20
10
0
0
10
10
c)
d)
10
velocity
5.0
depth
2.5
0.0
0
0
10
5
x
10
the velocity) it is not ideal. However a variational principle exists which depends
on the velocity potential alone, that is, the `p' principle, based on the functional
(3.112), constrained by v = 0. In using this constrained principle to seek an
approximation to (and therefore v) no other approximations are made and
more accurate results might be expected.
4.3
M1c () =
xo
xe
(4:31)
M1c = 0. The nature of the stationary value of M1c can be deduced by considering
d2M1c = Z xo p 0 0 B dx:
d02 xe
From the denition of p, (3.102),
1
3
2
0
p0 0 = g 2 E :
(4:32)
Thus, from (4.32), if the
ow is supercritical in the whole of [xe; xo] then the
solution of M1c = 0 minimises M1c and if the
ow is subcritical in the whole of
[xe; xo] the solution maximises M1c.
4.3.1
The Algorithm
Let the xi (i = 1; . . . ; n), given by (4.6), dene the grid. Let the nite element
approximation to the velocity potential be given by
h (x) =
n
X
i=1
ii(x);
where the i are the piecewise linear basis functions (4.13) and the i are parameters of the solution. Thus the nite dimensional version of the functional of the
constrained `p' principle is given by
L() =
xn
x1
where E (x) = E~ +gh(x) and = (1 ; . . . ; n)T . The approximation to the velocity
potential is determined by the which causes L to be stationary, that is, the
which satises
@L = Z xn p 0 0 B dx + CB ( (x ) (x )) = 0 i = 1; . . . ; n:
Fi() = @
e
i
n
i
1
h i
x
i
(4:33)
The solution of the non-linear set of equations (4.33) is found using Newton's
method. The Jacobian is given by
(
Z xn
2
@F
@
L
i
0
0
J () = fJij g = @ = @ @ = x ph 0h0 ij B dx ;
1
j
j
i
which is the Hessian of L and has the form of a weighted mass matrix, with
weight ph 0 h 0 B . From (4.32) J is negative denite for wholly subcritical
ows
and positive denite for wholly supercritical
ows.
Given an initial approximation 0 to the solution Newton's method produces a sequence of approximations k from
k+1 = k + k ;
134
(4:34)
where
(4:35)
k
i < tolerance:
max
i
(4:36)
The Jacobian and the vector F are integrated exactly. The Jacobian is tridiagonal
and (4.35) is solved by Gaussian elimination and back substitution. The initial
approximation 0 is given by
0i = (i 1) v0
i = 1; . . . ; n;
where v0 is assigned a value which determines whether the approximation being calculated is an approximation to subcritical or to supercritical ow. Let
cmin
c, where c is dened by (2.63). Then, if v0 <
= x2min
[x1 ;xn ]
c , the
xn x1 min
n 1
c ,
x1 max
b)
a)
10
velocity
phi/12
10
0
0
10
10
Figure 4.9: a) Velocity potential and b) velocity approximations for B = B1;6 and
h = h1 .
for non-critical
ows. For critical
ows the method converges to the subcritical
approximation in 7 iterations, using v0 = 1, and to the supercritical approximation in 8 iterations, using v0 = 5. Results for the critical
ows are shown
in Figure 4.9. Figure 4.9a shows the piecewise linear velocity potential approximations, the top line corresponding to supercritical
ow and the bottom line to
subcritical
ow. Figure 4.9b shows the piecewise constant velocity approximations derived from the gradients of the velocity potential approximations in each
element. Notice that the velocity approximations are approximately symmetric
about the line x = 5 as is expected for
ows in a channel whose breadth and
equilibrium depth functions are symmetric about this line.
For B = B1;2 and h = h2 with H = 0:2 Figure 4.10a shows the piecewise
linear approximations to the velocity potential for subcritical and supercritical
136
a)
b)
10
velocity
phi/11
10
0
0
10
10
Errors
v
Z
xo
xe
v
0 2
1
dx 2 :
Table 4.3 shows the L2 errors for piecewise constant velocity approximations
in the channel with B = B1;2 and h = h1 . The energy E~ is given the value
50, C = C, dened by (4.20), is used to derive the critical approximations and
critical ows
x
non-critical ows
subcritical
supercritical
subcritical
supercritical
10
2
3:266 100
2:744 100
1:933 100
1:444 100
10
22
1:582 100
1:352 100
8:914 10
6:549 10
10
23
7:782 10
6:653 10
4:449 10
3:261 10
17
10
24
3:861 10
3:296 10
2:227 10
1:632 10
33
10
25
1:923 10
1:640 10
1:114 10
8:164 10
65
10
26
9:597 10
8:179 10
5:569 10
4:082 10
129
10
27
4:794 10
4:084 10
2:784 10
2:041 10
257
10
28
2:396 10
2:041 10
1:392 10
1:021 10
513
10
29
1:198 10
1:020 10
6:961 10
5:103 10
1025
10
210
5:987 10
5:100 10
3:481 10
2:552 10
4.4
The approximations derived so far in this chapter have all been dened on the
xed regular grid given by the points (4.6). In this section a method of generating
irregular grids using the constrained `p' principle (3.116) is investigated.
The method of generating irregular grids and the corresponding approximations to the velocity potential using (3.116) is similar to the method of Section 4.3
in that a nite element expansion for the velocity potential is substituted into
the functional (4.31) and the values of the parameters of the expansion are found
138
such that the functional is stationary with respect to variations. The dierence
here is that the positions of the internal grid points are also allowed to vary.
Let the domain of integration [xe; xo] be divided initially into n 1 regular
intervals [xi; xi+1] (i = 1; . . . ; n 1) by the points xi (i = 1; . . . ; n) dened by
(4.6). Then let
n
X1
i=2
be the nite element expansion of the velocity potential , dened on this grid.
The i are the piecewise linear basis functions given by
n(x; xn 1; xn) =
8
>
>
>
>
<
>
>
>
>
:
8
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
<
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
:
8
>
>
>
>
<
>
>
>
>
:
x2 x x 2 [x ; x ]
1 2
x2 x1
;
0
x 62 [x1; x2]
x xi 1 x 2 [x ; x ]
i 1
i
xi xi 1
xi+1 x x 2 [x ; x ]
i
i+1
x
x
i+1
i = 2; . . . ; n 1;
x 62 [xi 1; xi+1]
x xn 1 x 2 [x ; x ]
n 1
n
xn xn 1
;
0
x 62 [xn 1; xn]
the i are the values of the approximation at the grid points and x = (x1; . . . ; xn)T
is the vector of grid points.
The discrete version of the functional of the constrained principle, in this case,
is
L(; x) =
x2
x1
++
xn
xn 1
@h
@x
@L =
Fi(; x) = @
i
x2
x1
++
xn
xn 1
for with the xi xed and given by (4.6). This is done using Newton's method,
as in Section 4.3.
New positions for the internal grid points are then found by solving
@L
Gi (; x) = @x
i
= [pB ]xi +
x2
x1
++
xn
xn 1
"
h0
h xn
@
@
0
ph @x B dx + CBe @x = 0
i
i x1
i = 2; . . . ; n 1; (4.38)
"
h0
ph 0 @
@xi B xj
!
Z x2
Z xn !
h0
h0
2 h0
@
@
@
+
++
ph 0h0 @x @x + ph 0 @x @x B dx
x1
xn 1
j
i
j
i
" 2 h # xn )
+CBe @x@ @x
;
j
i x1
140
k
xi < tolerance:
max
i
(4:39)
The procedure is to return to (4.37) and nd on the new grid, using the
solution for on the previous grid as the initial approximation 0. Equations
(4.38) are then solved again to modify the grid further, the initial approximation
x0 being given the values of the solution x at the previous iteration.
(4:40)
changes by less than some percentage between successive iterations on the positions of the grid nodes.
The energy E~ is assigned the value 50. The two values of mass
ow at inlet C =
C, given by (4.20), which generates critical
ows, and C = 10, which generates
examples of non-critical
ows, are considered. The criterion for convergence using
(4.40) is that (4.40) changes by less than 5% between two successive iterations.
Results are given for the channel with xe = 0, xo = 10 and breadth B = B3,
where
x
B3(x) = 8 + 2 cos 5 ;
which is shown in Figure 4.11. The uid depth below the reference level z = 0 is
h = h1 (equation (4.17)).
The tolerance on the Newton iteration for is taken to be 10 7 and on (4.39)
to be
xo xe
n 1
breadth
10
0
0
5
x
10
b)
a)
10
velocity
velocity
10
0
0
10
d)
10
velocity
10
velocity
10
c)
0
0
10
10
e)
f)
10
velocity
10
velocity
0
0
10
10
143
xed grids
n x subcritical
adaptive grids
supercritical
subcritical
supercritical
10
2
3:322 100
2:730 100
3:322 100
2:730 100
10
4
1:826 100
1:574 100
1:608 100
1:572 100
10
6
1:212 100
1:054 100
1:208 100
1:053 100
10
8
9:045 10
7:876 10
9:030 10
7:875 10
11
10
10
7:211 10
6:280 10
7:204 10
6:280 10
21
10
20
3:576 10
3:111 10
3:575 10
3:111 10
31
10
30
2:377 10
2:066 10
2:376 10
2:066 10
4.5
In this section the `r' principle, based on the functional (3.113), constrained to
satisfy the conservation of mass equation is used to generate approximations to
the depths in discontinuous shallow water
ows. In order to achieve an accurate
nite element approximation to the depth one of the grid nodes must be positioned
at the point of discontinuity; this requires the use of irregular grids.
The functional of the `r' principle for discontinuous
ow (3.123), constrained
144
xs
xe
CBe
B (x )
(r(Q; d) + Eed) B dx +
xo
xs
(4:41)
the energy E , dened by (2.35), has the constant value Ee in [xe; xs) and the
constant value Eo in (xs; xo]. The values of Ee and Eo are deduced from boundary
conditions and, from (2.78), are such that Ee > Eo . The natural conditions of
the rst variation of S2c are
rd + Ee = 0 in (xe; xs);
rd + Eo = 0 in (xs; xo);
(4.42)
[r + Ed]xs = 0;
where the coecients of the total variation of d on either side of xs have been
equated, that is, the equation
(4:43)
Let the domain of the problem [xe; xo] be divided into n 1 adjacent regular
intervals [xi; xi+1] by the points xi (i = 1; . . . ; n) dened by (4.6). One of these
nodes must be chosen as being the initial approximation to the position of the
discontinuity and the number of the node nearest to the actual position of the
hydraulic jump needs to be deduced. Let xN be the initial guess for the jump
position.
The method requires that approximations to the
ow in front of and behind
the jump are generated separately and coupled, by means of a discontinuity, at
the position of the hydraulic jump.
Let the approximation to the depth in the pre-jump region [x1; xN ] be
de(x) =
where
1e (x) =
ie (x) =
8
>
>
>
>
<
>
>
>
>
:
8
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
<
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
:
N
X
i=1
dieie (x);
x2 x x 2 [x ; x ]
1 2
x2 x1
;
0
x 62 [x1; x2]
x xi 1 x 2 [x ; x ]
i 1
i
xi xi 1
xi+1 x x 2 [x ; x ]
i
i+1
x
x
i+1
x 62 [xi 1; xi+1]
146
i = 2; . . . ; N 1;
8
>
>
>
>
<
Ne (x) =
x xN 1 x 2 [x ; x ]
N 1
N
xN xN 1
:
0
x 62 [xN 1; xN ]
>
>
>
>
:
Let the approximation to the depth in the post-jump region [xN ; xn] be
do(x) =
where
No (x) =
io(x) =
no (x) =
8
>
>
>
>
<
>
>
>
>
:
8
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
<
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
:
8
>
>
>
>
<
>
>
>
>
:
n
X
i=N
dioio (x);
xN +1 x x 2 [x ; x ]
N
N +1
xN +1 xN
;
0
x 62 [xN ; xN +1]
x xi 1 x 2 [x ; x ]
i 1
i
xi xi 1
xi+1 x x 2 [x ; x ]
i = N + 1; . . . ; n 1;
i
i+1
x
x
i+1
x 62 [xi 1; xi+1]
x xn 1 x 2 [x ; x ]
n 1
n
xn xn 1
:
0
x 62 [xn 1; xn]
The algorithm is in two parts. Firstly the two nite element approximations
L(d ; d ) =
e
xN
x1
(r(Q; d ) + Ee d ) B dx +
e
xn
xN
(r(Q; do ) + Eo do ) B dx
@L = 0 i = 1; . . . ; N and @L = 0 i = N; . . . ; n;
@die
@dio
using Newton's method, as described in Section 4.1. The initial approximation to
de must be supercritical in order that the supercritical
ow in the region before
(r(Q; d) + Eod)jxs+ = 0:
(4:44)
for some specied tolerance, then the approximate solution has been found and
(4:45)
is solved for Qs, the value of the mass ow which would occur at the jump if
dNe and dNo were the actual depths of the
ow before and after the jump. The
conservation of mass constraint gives
x 2 [x1; xn]
and, since B (x) and C are to be specied, this can be used to nd the point xsN
in the channel where the mass
ow is Qs. From the discussion in Chapter 2 only
ows which are critical at the channel throat will be considered so that
e
B (xsN ) = CB
Q
s
(4:46)
The process which occurs on solving (4.45) is explained more fully in the
following pages and then the algorithm for positioning a node at the point of
discontinuity is completed.
Let x^s be an approximation to the exact position xs of the hydraulic jump.
From the conservation of mass equation the mass
ow at x^s can be calculated to
e
be Q^ s = BCB
. The
ow on the inlet side of the jump must be supercritical and
(^
xs )
on the outlet side must be subcritical. Assume this to be the case here. Then
the values of the depth at points immediately either side of x^s can be calculated
using the denitions of mass
ow (2.34) and energy (2.35).
Let d be the supercritical solution of
^ s !2
1
Q
Ee = gd + 2 d ;
that is, the root which lies between 0 and 23Ege . Let d+ be the subcritical solution
of
^ s !2
1
Q
Eo = gd + 2 d+ ;
+
that is, the root which lies between 23Ego and Ego . In the approximation method, if
E=Ee
P
E=Eo
Qs
Qs Q
2E o
3
3
2
, it can be shown
that the curve P lies above the supercritical branch of P (Q) for E = Ee , except
at the point Q = Q^ s where the two curves are tangent. It can also be shown that
P + lies below the subcritical branch of P (Q) for E = Eo , except at the point
Q = Q^ s where the two curves are tangent to one another.
In Figure 4.13 Q^ s is less than the actual value of mass
ow Q^ at the jump and
in these circumstances the value Q = Qs, at the point of intersection of P and
PE=Ee
E=Eo
Qs Q
Qs
P + and nding the point of intersection yields a sequence of values of Qs, each
lying between the previous value of Qs and Q^ . Thus this iteration will eventually
converge to give the exact value of the mass
ow at the jump, from which, using
the conservation of mass equation, can be deduced the position of the jump.
Figure 4.14 gives an example of the graph for Q^ s greater than Q^ . In these
circumstances if the P and P + curves intersect at a value of Q = Qs then
Qs < Q^ . It is not possible to prove that a value of Qs > 0 exists for which
P (Qs ) = P +(Qs ) and, even if such a value does exist, the mass
ow might never
achieve the value Qs in a particular
ow. If such a Qs does exist and is achieved
at a point in the domain then, letting Q^ s = Qs, gives the situation in Figure 4.13.
The situation is slightly dierent in the approximation case. Equation (2.64)
151
Q = d 2 (E gd):
Let
Q =d
e
e
N
2 (Ee gd ) and Q = d
o
e
N
o
N
2 (Eo gdNo );
of the P e and P o curves gives the value of Qs equivalent to solving (4.45). There
are four possible situations arising.
1. Qe < Q^ and Qo < Q^ so that Q^ > Qs > max(Qe ; Qo).
2. Qe < Q^ and Qo > Q^ so that Q^ > Qs > Qe.
3. Qe > Q^ and Qo > Q^ so that Qs < Q^ .
4. Qe > Q^ and Qo < Q^ so that Qs < Q^ .
These properties are deduced using the facts that P e is tangent to the Ee curve
at Q = Qe and always lies on or above the supercritical branch and that P o is
tangent to the Eo curve at Q = Qo and always lies on or below the subcritical
152
Pe
E=Ee
Po
E=Eo
e
Qo Q
Qs Q
1
2
Q(xN ) 2
d
Qs > 0 exists, and is achieved in a particular
ow, solving (4.45) to give a further
approximation to the mass
ow at the jump may improve the approximation,
although this cannot be shown. In practice the values of Qe and Qo are suciently
close together so that situations 2 and 3 occur only when the approximation to
the jump position is very close to the actual jump position.
The algorithm for positioning a node at the jump is in two parts. Firstly,
beginning with N = n 1, the corresponding value of xsn 1 is found using (4.45)
and (4.46). Then, stepping backwards along the channel to the n 2 th node,
153
xsn 1)(xn
xn 1 and xn 2 . Otherwise the process is repeated until the node j is found, where
(xj xsj )(xj
de and do are recalculated on the modied grid and, if (4.44) is still not satised,
(4.45) and (4.46) are used to reposition xN and the process is repeated until
(4.44) is satised. The approximate solution has then been found and xN is an
approximation to the jump position.
The algorithm is applied to a grid with xe = 0, xo = 10 and n = 21. The
energy at inlet Ee is given the value 50 and the mass
ow at inlet C = C, where
2
1
CB
e
Eo = gdo + 2 B (x )d :
o o
a)
b)
10
breadth
depth
5.0
2.5
0.0
0
0
10
10
Figure 4.16: a) Piecewise linear depth approximation for do = 4:69 and b) B1;6 (x).
and dio = 4:69 (i = N; . . . ; n). Once the number of the node to approximate the
jump position is found subsequent approximations to the nite element solutions
use the approximation on the previous grid as the rst guess in Newton's method
to nd the approximation on the new grid. Figure 4.16b shows the breadth B1;6 .
The piecewise linear approximation for do = 3:86 is shown in Figure 4.17.
This converges in 3 iterations on the position of node 20, which is selected by the
algorithm to be moved to approximate the jump position, requiring 15, 4 and 4
Newton iterations.
The algorithm in this section generates approximations to the depth for discontinuous
ows in channels, where the approximations are dened on grids in
which all of the grid points except one are xed. The one movable grid point is
positioned, using the jump condition (4:42)3, in such a way that (4:42)3 is approximately satised. In Section 4.5.2 this method is extended, by allowing all of
155
depth
5.0
2.5
0.0
0
10
5
x
Adaptive Grids
The domain of the problem [xe; xo] is divided into n 1 regular intervals by the
points xi (i = 1; . . . ; n) dened by (4.6). Finite element approximations to the
depth are generated separately on each interval [xi; xi+1] and the jump condition
(4:42)3 is used at each internal node to reposition the node. Instead of having
just two nite element approximations coupled at a point, as in Section 4.5.1,
there will be n 1 approximations coupled at the n 2 internal grid points.
Let
(4:47)
iL(x) =
8
>
>
>
>
<
>
>
>
>
:
xi+1 x x 2 [x ; x ]
i
i+1
xi+1 xi
0
x 62 [xi; xi+1]
156
i = 1; . . . ; n 1;
Ri(x) =
8
>
>
>
>
<
>
>
>
>
:
x xi x 2 [x ; x ]
i
i+1
xi+1 xi
0
x 62 [xi; xi+1]
i = 1; . . . ; n 1:
and
E = Ee
if i + 1 N
E = Eo
if i N ,
where Ee is the value of the energy E at inlet and Eo is the value at outlet.
The nite element solution on each element is given by the values of di =
(dLi ; dRi) such that
L(d1; . . . ; dn 1 ) =
N
X1 Z xi+1
i=1
n
X1
i=N
xi
Z
xi+1
xi
r(Q; d ) + E d B dx
h
i
h
e i
r(Q; d ) + E d B dx ;
h
i
h
o i
@L = 0 ; @L = 0 i = 1; . . . ; n 1;
@dLi
@dRi
each with two unknowns, are found using Newton's method.
Once the di have been calculated on the initial grid the jump condition is
applied at each internal node. If
where
xi
E1 = E2 = Ee
xi
if i < N;
E1 = Eo; E2 = Ee if i = N;
E1 = E2 = Eo
157
if i > N;
< tolerance;
(4:48)
(4:49)
is solved for Qi and the new position of the grid point xi is found from Qi using
the conservation of mass law and bisection.
The grid point closest to the jump position in the regular grid dened by
(4.6) is found in the same way as in Section 4.5.1. The approximation xN to the
jump position is initially taken to be xn 1; equation (4.49) then yields the new
approximation xsn 1. The process is repeated using xn 2 as the approximation to
the jump position and then stepping backwards along the channel to each grid
point in turn until (xj
jxj
xsj 1)(xj xsj ) < 0 for some j . Then, if jxj xsj j <
xsj 1j, N = j is the number of the node which will be used to approximate
b)
a)
5.0
depth
depth
5.0
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
0
5
x
10
5
x
10
159
Chapter 5
Approximations to Continuous
Two-dimensional Shallow Water
Flows
In this chapter the constrained variational principles derived in Section 3.6.2 are
used to generate approximations to two-dimensional shallow water
ows.
The
L1 ()
c
L2 (Q; d)
c
L3 (Q)
c
L4 (; d)
c
ZZ
=
ZZ
=
ZZ
=
ZZ
=
p(r; E ) dx dy +
Z
C d;
(5.1)
r Q; d) + Ed) dx dy;
( (
P (Q; E ) dx dy;
(
R(r; d) + Ed) dx dy +
160
Z
C d;
(5.2)
L2c
where, in
L3c ,
and
the mass ow
= 0 in
and
and
r: Q Q
(
) = 0 in
n: Q = 0 on .
variable
n:(
;
=
x)
on , that is,
r: Q
= 0 in
x ).
Then
Q = ( y ;
x)
where
= 0 on .
,
L1c
v are deduced
using
D=
where
x; y) : x 2 [xe; xo]; y 2
"
B (x) B (x)
;
2
#)
D~ =
"
x; y) : x 2 [xe; xo]; y 2 0;
DnD~
B (x)
#)
h.
D
y=0
x=xe
x=xo
n = 9 and m = 7.
C d +
Z
o
C d = 0;
xi+(j
1)n
yi+(j
for
= 1 ...
;n
and
approximation to ~ .
1)n
= 1 ...
; m.
i
n
1
1( o
1 j 1
2m 1
l = mn points
xe ) + xe ;
B (xi+(j
The region
1)n )
Dh
n
(5 3)
= 9 and
= 7 is given in
Figure 5.1.
The approximation method is similar to that in one dimension.
The ap-
proximate velocity potential and depth functions are expanded in terms of nite
element basis functions and substituted into the functionals
The nite
dimensional versions of the functionals, generated in this way, are to be made stationary with respect to variations in the parameters of the approximations. The
162
5.1
The functional
L1c ,
velocity potential
can be shown that
.
L1c
L1c
it
h (x; y) =
where the
l
X
i=1
i i (x; y);
(5 4)
the grid.
Substituting (5.4) into (5.1) gives the nite dimensional version of the functional, that is,
L() =
where
ZZ
p(r ; E ) dx dy +
h
Dh
C d +
h
e
Z
o
Ch d;
the region covered by the triangular grid. The nite element solution is given by
the
which satises
Fi() =
for
@L
@i
ZZ
=
p h :ri dx dy +
h r
Z
e
Ci d +
Z
o
Ci d = 0
J () = fJij g =
@Fi
@j
@ 2L
@j @i
1
+ 2
r :r
Z Z
=
Dh
r :pr r :r dx dy
i
h
h
where
prh rh
B
B
=B
@
x
xh yh
h2
yh xh
1
C
C
C;
A
and is negative denite for wholly subcritical
ow and indenite for wholly supercritical
ow.
Given an initial approximation
k+1 = k + k ;
(5 5)
where
J (k ) k =
164
F( ):
k
(5 6)
ik
i
< tolerance:
k
max i
i
max
(5 7)
Using the piecewise linear basis functions, dened on a triangular grid, the integrands of the Jacobian
F = (F1; . . . ; F )
each element so
The Jacobian is no longer tridiagonal, as it was in the one-dimensional examples, although it is symmetric and banded. Equation (5.6) may still be solved
eciently for
k
is pre-
P = diag(J11; . . . ; Jll).
The system
P
is solved for
k ) J (k ) P
k )
k ) F(k )
k
of
(5.6) is given by
k = P
k ) k :
prh rh
is a constant in
Dh
then pre-
i
where
=
is given by
xi x1 0
v
x2 x1
i = 1; . . . ; l;
(5 8)
taken to be 50.
The boundary function
C (xe; y)
C (xo ; y) =
KBe
Bo
K,
where
is a
o , this is consistent with conservation of mass. The use of this boundary function
implies that the
ow is uniform across the inlet and outlet boundaries. Therefore
it should ideally be applied to an innitely long channel which has straight parallel
sides and a horizontal bed for all but a nite section of its length. In order to
investigate the eects of applying this boundary function at the ends of a channel
of nite length, let the domain
[0,10] of the
xo
= 10 +
L,
L.
any
B4(x)
B5(x)
B6(x)
8
>
>
>
<
6+4 1
>
>
>
:
8
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
<
2
x 2 [0; 10]
10
x 2 [ L; 0] [ [10; 10 + L]
10
x 2 [ L; 0]
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
:
8
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
<
6+4 1
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
:
6+4
6+4
2
2
6+4 1
3
7
10
x 2 [0; 8]
2
x 2 [0; 3]
2
x 2 [3; 10]
(5.9)
(5.10)
x 2 [8; 10 + L]
3
5
(5.11)
x 2 [ L; 0] [ [10; 10 + L]
166
B4
and let
L = 0.
n = 5 and m = 3.
Consider the
= 9 and
. On a rened
The velocity approximations for the above two cases are shown in Figure 5.3, the
length of the arrow in each element being directly proportional to the magnitude
of
v . Both of the approximations exhibit the property of the exact solution that
h
the speed increases as the breadth decreases. They also approximately satisfy
the boundary conditions of zero
ow across the channel side,
x ; xo],
[ e
B (x)
for
x2
the breadth decreases then increases, is represented better on the more rened
grid, in particular the maximum speed has increased (from 4.00 to 4.42) and the
minimum speed has decreased (from 2.48 to 2.33).
Figure 5.4 shows corresponding results for breadth
approximation on the grid with
B5
with
= 0.
The
requiring 14, 14, 12 and 1 conjugate gradient iterations. The approximation for
167
a)
scale: v=5
10
0
b)
scale: v=5
0
10
a)
scale: v=5
0
10
b)
scale: v=5
0
10
a)
-5
15
b)
-10
20
c)
-15
25
scale: v=5
gradient iterations.
In order to investigate the eects of applying the given boundary function
C on
L are generated.
L = 5,
B4.
Approximations
from 5 to 15 has very little eect on the approximation in the region between the
lines
x=
x=
5 and
15 and
x=
x = 15.
5 and between
taking
v0 in the range
xo x e
n 1
0
cmax
<v <
xo xe
n 1
min
~
(x;y )2D
in (5.8), where
cmax
is
the maximum critical speed in a particular channel for a ow with given values of
K and E~ .
k
5.2
The functional of the constrained `R' principle, given by (5.2), is used to generate
approximations to the velocity potential and to the depth of
ow. By considering
the matrix of second derivatives of
is maximised by
subcritical solutions of the shallow water equations and has a saddle point for
supercritical solutions.
Let
h (x; y) =
l
X
i=1
i i (x; y)
dh (x; y) =
and
l
X
i=1
di i (x; y)
(5 12)
i are the
i
and
L(; d) =
where
ZZ
;
Dh
= ( 1 ...
R(rh ; dh ) + Edh dx dy +
; l)T ,
d = (d1; . . . ; d )
l
and
Z
e
Dh
Ch d +
o
Ch d;
D
is an approximation to ~ .
170
Fi(; d)
Fi+l (; d)
for
ZZ
@L
=
@i
@L
=
@di
ZZ
and d satisfy
Rrh :ri dx dy +
h
Dh
Ci d +
e
Z
o
Ci d = 0;
Rdh E ) i dx dy = 0;
i = 1; . . . ; l.
The solution is found using Newton's method. The Jacobian is given by
J (; d) = fJij g ;
where
for
ZZ
Jij
Ji j+l
Ji+l j
Ji+l j+l
ZZ
ZZ
ZZ
Dh
Dh
Dh
Dh
r :Rr
i
h dh
j dx dy;
iRdh dh j dx dy;
i = 1; . . . ; l and j = 1; . . . ; l.
Given initial approximations
a sequence of approximations,
0
B
B
B
@
where
1
k+1
d +1
k
C
C
C
A
0
=
0
B
B
J (k ; dk ) B
@
B
B
B
@
1
k
C
B
C
B
C+B
A
@
1
k
C
C
C;
A
1
k
C
C
C
A
F( ; d ):
k
(5 13)
k
i
i
< tolerance
k
max i
i
max
and
171
k
d
i
i
< tolerance;
k
max di
i
max
(5 14)
is not
indenite, using a pre-conditioned conjugate gradient method, with the preconditioning matrix
tion
v0, in (5.8), must be consistent with one another, that is, if d^ is assigned
of ^ and
v0 <
xo xe
n 1
min
cmin
, where c =
min
~
(x;y )2D
xo
o
cmax
<v n
xe
min
~
(x;y )2D
E , where cmax
=
max
~
(x;y )2D
c.
K is taken to be 10.
If ^
is dened in
e
C (xe; y) = K on e and C (xo ; y ) = KB
Bo
z = 0 is
by (5.9), (5.10) and (5.11). The depth of
uid below the reference level
taken to be identically zero.
Consider the channel with breadth
B4 and let L = 5.
Then, with
in (5.14), converges in 26
n = 9 and
10
. On a
with the same tolerances as before. In both cases the initial data is ^ = 4 5 and
v0 = 0.
The results for
a shows
Figure 5.6
a)
4.78
4.14
4.78
4.14
b)
-5
15
scale: v=5
n = 9 and m = 3 a) piecewise linear
r
in each element. The depths lie in the range 4.14 to 4.78 and the
n = 17 and m = 5.
The depths
lie between 4.03 and 4.85 and the speeds lie between 1.66 and 4.31.
Supercritical approximations may be generated by using an appropriate
B
B
@
C
C
C,
A
where
a)
4.85
4.85
4.03
4.03
b)
-5
15
scale: v=5
Figure 5.7: Subcritical approximations for
depth and
In this chapter two algorithms are given which can be used to generate approximations to two-dimensional shallow water
ows, where the
ows are subcritical.
Both methods yield approximations to the velocity of the
ow and these approximations can be compared as follows.
Consider the
Let
vip
of the velocity
Let
viR
174
i=1
e= X
I
i=1
where
I = 2(n
1)(
p
i
viR 4i
v 4i
+ iR )
e for grids with dierent values of n and m are given in Table 5.1.
The results
suggest that, as the number of elements increases, the dierences between the
approximations derived from the two principles decrease.
n m
e
: 10
: 10
: 10
49
13
36
17
32
175
Chapter 6
Further Applications
In Chapters 4 and 5 the variational principles for steady state shallow water
ows in one and two dimensions, derived in Chapter 3, are used to generate
approximations to the corresponding
ows. There are, however, other variational
principles in Chapter 3 which can be used to generate approximate solutions to
other problems. Two such problems are considered here.
The approximations generated so far have all been for solutions of the shallow
water equations, in which it is assumed that the component of velocity perpendicular to the
xy
statement (2.14). The variational principle (3.7), based on Luke's principle (Luke
(1967)) is satised for solutions of the equations of time-dependent free surface
ows of an inviscid, homogeneous
uid in three dimensions. If an approximation
to three-dimensional
ow can be generated then it can be used to investigate the
accuracy of the assumption that, under the conditions of shallow water theory,
the magnitude of the vertical component of the velocity is negligible.
In Section 6.1 the functional of (3.7) is reduced to a functional whose cor-
176
x.
6.1
t2
ZZ Z
t1
where
h
(x; y; t), h
t + gz + u:u
h(x; y ),
u: u
r
~
(x; y; z; t), u
dz dx dy dt;
(6:1)
u(x; y; z; t)
and ~ is
dened by (2.2). The functional (6.1) is used in Section 6.1.1 to derive a functional
which has as its natural conditions of the rst variation the equations of timeindependent motion in the
6.1.1
x and z
directions.
The Functional
The required functional is generated from (6.1) by rst making the assumption
that the
ow variables are independent of time and evaluating the time integral
and then assuming that the domain is a channel of slowly varying breadth so that
the variables are functions of the coordinates
177
x and z
respect to
that variations can be allowed which do not necessarily vanish on the inlet and
outlet boundaries of the channel.
Time-independent
ows
First make the assumption that the free surface
ow does not vary with time.
Then the
ow variable
level
z=0
The
ut 0 and so
r 0;
~
is of the form
(x; y; z; t) = ^(x; y; z ) + f (t);
f , where
r r
~
= ~ ^
and
t = f 0:
Let
E^
where
t2
t1.
t2
t1
t dt =
(f (t2 )
f (t1)) ;
ZZ Z
D
h
T E^
gz
1
2
u:u + u: u
178
r
~ ^
dz dx dy:
(6:2)
Two-dimensional
ows
Let
be the domain
D=
where
x 2 [xe; xo]; y 2
B (x) B (x)
;
2
#)
B (x), for x 2 [xe; xo], is the breadth of the channel and is a slowly varying
function of
on the
(x; y ) :
"
x.
Let
h,
= 0, depend
x coordinate alone.
Now make the assumption that, in this domain, all of the variables are independent of the
u(x; y; z ) becomes u = u(x; z ), where u = (u; w), the velocity potential ^(x; y; z )
becomes
^(x; z ) and
(x; y )
(x).
becomes
r
two-dimensional counterpart ^
@
@x
@
; @z
xo
xe
h
T
E^
gz
u:u + u: u
^
^
gives
B dz dx:
Boundary terms
As the nal stage in the construction of the required functional, boundary terms
must be added so that variations of the functional do not necessarily have to
vanish at the ends of the channel, that is, at
x = xe
and
x = xo .
J (; u; ) =
xo
xe
T
h
E^
(xo )
h (x o )
gz
1
2
u:u + u: u
Co jxo dz
(xe )
h (x e )
r
^
Ce jxe dz;
B dz dx
(6.3)
9
>
>
>
=
^ : (B ) = 0
>
>
>
;
r
^
= 0 are given by
for
on
uhx + w
on
Ce
B (xe ) ujxe
for
Co
B (xo ) ujxo
for
on
ux
E^
J
gz + u:u
2
^
u:r
which are, respectively, the irrotationality condition and the conservation of mass
equation for
2 (x ; x ) and z 2 (
e
h(x); (x)),
the free surface, the condition of no
ow through the channel bed, boundary
conditions on the horizontal component of velocity at the inlet and outlet boundaries and the dynamic free surface condition, as required. Notice that the rst
six natural conditions are due to variations in the variables
last natural condition is due to the variation in
6.1.2
and
u,
while the
.
The Algorithm
The basic nite element technique, as used in Chapters 4 and 5, can only be
applied to functionals in which the integration is over a xed region. Various
algorithms (for example, Aitchison (1979), Ikegawa and Washizu (1973)) have
been developed to approximate
ows in domains where the position of the free
surface is allowed to vary; the dierences are mainly in the treatment of the
variation of the free surface. The method used here to position the free surface
180
^ in (6.3), giving
u=r
J^(; ) =
xo
xe
h
gz
(xo )
Co jxo dz
h(xo )
r:r
E^
B dz dx
(xe )
h(xe )
Ce jxe dz:
(6.4)
J^ = 0 are
r: Br
for
(6.5)
z
on
(6.6)
xhx + z
on
(6.7)
Ce
B (xe ) xjxe
for
(6.8)
Co
B (xo ) xjxo
for
(6.9)
on
xx
E^
gz
1
2
r:r
^
(6.10)
Let
h (x) =
be an approximation to
i=1
i i (x)
(6:11)
i i (x; z )
(6:12)
be an approximation to
n
X
(x; z ), where
l
X
i=1
the
z=
z=-h
x=xe
x=xo
n = 11 and m = 5.
i
for
i = 1; . . . ; n
xi+(j
zi+(j
for
l = mn points.
1)n
1)n
i = 1; . . . ; n and j
i
n
j
m
1
1
(xo
xe ) + xe ;
h (xi+(j
1)n ) +
h(xi+(j
1)n )
h(xi+(j
1)n );
h^ (x) =
n
X
i=1
h .
^ be dened by
Let h
h(xi )i (x):
Substituting (6.11) and (6.12) into (6.4) gives the nite dimensional version
of the functional, that is,
L( ; ) =
xn
h
= (1 ; . . . ; n )
E^
^
h
x1
Z
+
where
and
gz
n
h(xn )
1
2
r :r
^
Co h x dz
n
B dz dx
1
h(x1 )
Ce h x dz;
1
and
are
Let
Gi ( ; )
@L
@i
Z
=
xn
h
^
h
x1
n
h(xn )
r :r B dz dx
^
Co ijxn dz
G = (G1; . . . ; Gl )T
1
h(x1 )
Ce ijx1 dz i = 1; . . . ; l; (6.13)
may be written as
A() =
(Z
xn
x1
h
^
h
r :r B dz dx
^
(6:15)
if G = 0, that
n
h(xn )
Co i jxn dz
bi () =
The functional
(6:14)
1
h(x1 )
is, if
A( ) = b( ):
Therefore, for a xed
Then the solution
,
(6:16)
h
in (6.4).
(6.5){(6.9), for the given domain, since these natural conditions are due solely to
the variations of
in J^ = 0.
h,
.
that is, to nd
such that
is stationary
L( ; ) =
1
2
T A( ) + bT ( ) + c( );
183
where
xn
h
^
h
x1
L^ ( ) = bT ( )A
and
^ dz dx:
EB
^
@L
@i
b
( ) ( ) + c( );
= 0 for
i = 1; . . . ; n.
In this thesis the technique used in Section 4.5 to approximate the position of
a hydraulic jump is adapted to the free surface case. In Section 4.5 the natural
condition which is generated by the variation in the jump position is used directly
to position the approximation to the jump. In the free surface case the natural
condition (6.10) is due to the variation in the position of the free surface and an
attempt is made to use (6.10) to nd the approximation to the free surface.
Let
to
k
be an approximation to
.
k
b(k );
(6:17)
zj
ik
for some
uj
I
X
^
^
i=1
r 4
I
X
i=1
where
^(x; z ) =
l
X
i=1
184
ik i(x; z )
j,
Consider
i in the range
and let
h
is an approximation to
and
jk
is updated by
k +1
j
where 0
<
1 2
uj
2
E^
j.
The position of
+ jk ;
k
j
max j
0
to
i0 = dh (xi )
where
dh
is given by
h(xi )
for
i = 1; . . . ; n;
f(x; z) : x 2 [
where
8
>
>
>
<
h(x) = >
>
>
:
20; 30];
Ce =
x2[
H
100
k +h(x )
1
1
z 2 [ h(x); (x)]g ;
2
20; 0]
[ [10; 30]
x 2 [0; 10]
B (x) = 10 for x 2 [
and
Co =
100
k +h(xn )
n
^
20; 30]. The constant E
k
max j
185
jk+1
jk+1 decreasing as k
does not decrease much
4.38
0
-20
30
scale: v=5
Figure 6.2: Piecewise constant velocity approximation for a subcritical free surface
ow.
below approximately 10
The method perhaps should not be expected to generate approximations for any
specied accuracy since u
j may not be a very good approximation to the speed
of
ow at the position (xj ; zj ).
Figure 6.2 shows the piecewise constant approximation to the velocity in the
given domain, with
10
jk+1
jwj
juj
in any element is 0.1, that is, in this approximation the vertical component of
186
6.2
In this section a constrained version of the `p' principle based on (3.98) is used
to develop an algorithm for generating approximations to time-dependent quasi
one-dimensional
ows in shallow water.
The functional of the constrained `p' principle (3.107) is given by
K1c () =
t2
t1
xo
xe
p^()B dx dt +
Z
+
t2
t1
xo
xe
Co (B)jxo
Ce (B)jxe dt
jt2 g2
jt1 g1 B dx;
(6.18)
where
p^() =
1
2g
gh + 2x
t
2
B (x) for x 2 [xe ; xo] is the breadth of the channel, Ce (t) and Co (t) are boundary
functions for the magnitude of the mass
ow at
and
g2 (x)
are time boundary functions for the depth of uid at times t1 and
t2
respectively.
An approximation to the velocity potential
be discretised into regular triangular elements using the grid of points dened by
for
i = 1; . . . ; n and j
xi+(j
1)n
Ti+(j
1)n
i
n
j
m
1
1
(xo
xe ) + xe ;
(t2
t1) + t1;
1
1
= 1; . . . ; m.
187
Let
l
X
h (x; t) =
,
be an approximation to
l = nm.
L() =
Tl
where the
i
in (6.18) to give
Z
T1
xn
x1
p^(h )B dx dt +
Z
xn
Tl
T1
Co Bh x
h T g2
1
dt
h T g1 B dx;
1
x1
Ce Bh x
= (1; . . . ; l)T .
where
Fi() =
Z
for
(6:19)
i i (x; t);
i=1
Tl
T1
@L
@i
Co Bo ijxn
Tl
T1
xn
x1
h2
x
gh +
h
t
Ce Be ijx1 dt +
xn
x1
@i
@t
ijTl g2
@i
+
B dx dt
@x
h
x
ijT1 g1 B dx = 0;
(6.20)
i = 1; . . . ; l.
One way of solving (6.20) is by using Newton's method. Given an approxi-
mation
k
to
where
J ( k ) k
F(k )
(6:21)
and
J ( ) =
(Z
Tl
T1
xn
x1
"
@j
@t
@j
+
@x
h
x
h
t
188
@i
@t
@i
+
@x
h
x
h2
x
gh +
2
@j @i
B dx dt :
@x @x
The Jacobian
is not
indenite, using the pre-conditioned conjugate gradient method, with the preconditioning matrix
= diag(J11 ; . . . ; Jl l ). Both
and
= (F1 ; . . . ; Fl )
are
max i
i
max ik
< tolerance;
(6:22)
xi
x2
0i =
for some constants
Let
xe
= 0,
a channel with
xo
v0
T1) E
i = 1; . . . ; l;
(6:23)
.
and E
= 10,
and
is given by
x1 0
v + (Ti
x1
t1
B (x) = 10
0
= 0 and
and
g2 (x)
t2
h(x) = 0
x 2 [0; 10].
Here
g1 (x)
g2 (x) are dened by g1 (x) = g2 (x) = d^, where d^ > 0 is either the subcritical
gd^3
~ ^2 + C 2 = 0;
Ed
2
g1
and
g2
Ce (t)
8
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
<
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
:
10
C^ t
t 2 [0; 2]
10
C^ (4
t) t 2 [2; 4]
t 2 [4; 10]
10
189
Co (t)
8
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
<
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
:
10
C^ t
t 2 [0; 2]
10
C^ (4
t) t 2 [2; 4]
t 2 [4; 10]
10
C^ 10.
The ow
n = 9 and m = 9.
0
The value of
xh
v0 = 2:5 and E
= 50.
the velocity taken over the time period covered by the element. The piecewise
constant velocity approximations for
C^
= 0,
Notice that in Figure 6.3a the
ow is uniform, as is expected for the given
channel shape and for the boundary conditions
Ce
and
Co
of time. In Figure 6.3b it can be seen that the eect of decreasing the mass
ow
at inlet and outlet for
The
eect is more pronounced in Figure 6.3c, where the reduction in the mass
ow at
inlet and outlet is larger.
The success of the algorithm is heavily dependent on choosing boundary conditions which are consistent with one another. In particular, for certain choices,
there may be no solution at all or the solution may be discontinuous, in which
case, the given algorithm will be unsuccessful since in using the functional (6.18)
an assumption is made that the variables are continuous.
Supercritical approximations may be generated by using an appropriate
method to solve (6.21) for
k , where J ()k
191
is indenite.
b)
10
c)
10
10
10
10
t
0
scale: v=5
a) C^
= 0,
b) C^
= 1 and
c) C^
= 3.
192
Chapter 7
Concluding Remarks
The central part of the work described in this thesis can be thought of as having two distinct components. The rst component deals with the derivation of
variational principles for free surface
ows while in the second part a selection
of these variational principles is used to generate numerical approximations to
free surface
ows. Variational principles for three-dimensional free surface
ows
are stated in Chapter 3 and used to derive principles for shallow water
ows.
Approximations to shallow water
ows are generated in Chapters 4, 5 and 6, and
Chapter 6 also contains an algorithm for approximating three-dimensional steady
ows in a channel of constant breadth.
Two variational principles for general three-dimensional
ows are used | one
based on Hamilton's principle, (3.12), and the other based on Luke's principle
(Luke (1967)). By approximating the variables by their shallow water counterparts, performing the integration with respect to the vertical coordinate z and
adding on appropriate boundary terms, these two principles are reduced to give
variational principles for shallow water. The process of changing variables in the
193
functionals of the two shallow water principles derived in this way then allows the
integrands to be expressed in terms of the p and r functions, dened by (3.27)
and (3.29) respectively, and multiples of the conservation laws, (2.20) and (2.24),
and the irrotationality condition, (2.15).
The function p has the values of vertically averaged pressure while r may be
thought of as a Lagrangian density since its value at a point is the dierence
between kinetic and potential energy of a particle at that point. By recognising
that p and r are related by means of a Legendre transform, two further functions
| denoted by P and R | are constructed, so that p, r, P and R constitute a
quartet of functions related to one another by a closed set of Legendre transforms,
as shown in Figure 3.3. The function P has the values of
ow stress and the value
of R at a point is the total energy of a particle at that point.
Benjamin and Bowman (1987) consider conservation laws and symmetry properties of Hamiltonian systems, including shallow water, for which they derive four
functions, two of which | identied by them as a Hamiltonian density and a
ow
force | have the values of the functions R and P respectively, apart from constant
multipliers. The approach described here is more direct.
A set of four functionals | based on the p, r, P and R functions | is comprised of the two functionals derived from the variational principles for threedimensional free surface
ows and the two functionals generated by substituting
P
and R for p and r, respectively, in these functionals using the Legendre trans-
the variations in the `P' principle for steady
ow to satisfy the conservation of
mass equation and a boundary condition on the mass
ow, giving (3.95), the
gas dynamics analogy may be invoked to identify (3.94) and (3.95) as examples
of Bateman's functions (Bateman (1929)). Sewell (1963) re-examined the relationships between these principles, in the context of Legendre transforms, for
three-dimensional steady
ows in perfect
uids. Use has been made of these variational principles, by, for example, Lush and Cherry (1956) and Wixcey (1990),
to generate approximate solutions to the equations of motion for compressible
gas
ows.
For the case of shallow water there exist the extra variational principles |
the `r' and `R' principles and all of their constrained versions | which may be
used to approximate solutions of the shallow water equations. These principles
are of particular value since they contain functionals of the depth of
ow and
can thus be used directly for generating approximations to the depth, unlike the
constrained `p' and `P' principles.
The implementation of variational principles for nding approximations to time
dependent
ows reveals several inherent problems, which are discussed below.
Therefore, with one exception, the numerical methods are applied to variational
principles for steady state
ows.
The constrained `r' principle (3.117) for steady quasi one-dimensional
ow
depends on only one variable | the depth of
ow | which makes it a natural candidate for developing an algorithm to generate approximations to the
depth function. The constrained `p' principle for steady
ow (3.94) and the version of the variational principle for steady quasi one-dimensional
ow
195
are useful too since they also depend on only one variable each | the velocity potential. Other variational principles are used as well, namely, the unconstrained `r' principle for steady quasi one-dimensional
ow, which depends on the
depth, mass
ow and velocity potential functions, the `R' principle for steady
ow
constrained to satisfy irrotationality, which depends on the depth and velocity potential functions, the constrained `p' principle for unsteady quasi one-dimensional
ow and a version of Luke's free surface principle (Luke (1967)), which depends
on the velocity potential and the height of the free surface.
The same basic algorithm is applied to all of the variational principles and is,
on the whole, successful. The variables in the variational principles are expressed
as expansions in terms of nite element basis functions | piecewise linear and
piecewise constant basis functions in one dimension and piecewise linear basis
functions in two dimensions. The parameters of the solutions are determined as
the values which cause the functionals of the variational principles to be stationary
with respect to variations in the nite dimensional space spanned by the nite
element basis functions. In each case this leads to one or more sets of equations,
at least one of which is non-linear.
The method chosen to solve these non-linear sets of equations is Newton's
method, which has quadratic convergence to the approximate solution, given
an initial guess suciently close to the solution. The Jacobian in each case is
symmetric and banded and, in fact, tridiagonal for the equations generated from
the functionals for steady quasi one-dimensional
ow. For tridiagonal Jacobians
the update to the approximation is found using Gaussian elimination and back
substitution, while for non-tridiagonal positive or negative denite Jacobians the
196
functional of the constrained `R' principle, both of which are used in Chapter 5
to generate approximations to the
ow variables in two dimensions. However the
two principles each give rise to approximations for the velocity and, by comparing
the velocity approximations over several dierent grids, it can be seen that, as
the grid is rened, the dierence between the two approximations decreases.
An algorithm is presented in Section 4.4 which uses the constrained `p' principle for steady quasi one-dimensional
ow to generate approximations to the
velocity potential on an adaptive grid. The approximation is the nite element
expansion such that the `p' functional is stationary with respect to variations in
the parameters of the expansion and with respect to variations in the positions
of the internal nodes of the grid on which the expansion is dened. The L2 error
of the velocity approximation, generated from the approximation to the velocity
potential, is shown to be reduced, but only slightly, when compared with the
corresponding error for an approximation dened on a xed regular grid with the
same number of nodes.
In Chapter 6 an algorithm is described for generating approximations to timedependent velocity potential functions using the constrained `p' principle for timedependent quasi one-dimensional
ow. While some success is achieved, that is,
for a particular set of prescribed boundary functions approximate solutions are
generated, the success is very dependent on dening the boundary functions in a
consistent way. In particular the boundary functions must be such that a solution
actually exists and, if an approximation is to be found using functional (6.18),
this solution must be continuous.
The boundary functions required are the values of mass
ow at the inlet and
199
outlet points of the channel, over the whole time interval being considered, and
values of the depth at every point in the channel at the initial and nal times.
In order to prescribe this last condition the solution at the nal time must be
known in advance of solving the problem. This diculty is overcome in Chapter 6
by assuming that the
ow is initially time-independent and that it returns to its
original steady state before the end of the time interval. The boundary functions
for the mass
ow must then be dened consistently with this, in particular, it
is necessary that, over the period of time considered, the same amount of mass
leaves the channel as has entered.
A practical problem which might be posed is to nd the subsequent
ow as
a function of time, given the depth of the
uid initially and the variations of the
mass
ow at inlet and outlet with time. Unless the depth function at the end
of the time interval can be deduced from this data the nite element method
using the functionals for time-dependent
ow derived in Chapter 3 is of little use.
One possibility is to consider a very long time interval and to set the boundary
function for depth at the nal time equal to the asymptotic solution, given as
t
tion for shallow water
ows in the domain of integration, assuming that variations
vanish at the initial and nal times so that the time boundary terms also vanish
(the solutions are assumed known on the time boundaries and so these terms are
constants).
In order to use the variational principles for time-dependent shallow water to
generate time-dependent approximations, boundary terms are added in Chapter 3
so that non-zero variations are allowed on the time boundaries and no assumption
need be made about knowing the solution at the nal time. However, it can be
seen that this only rephrases the basic problem since the solutions at the ends of
the time interval are precisely the functions which are required for the boundary
terms.
The numerical methods employed in this thesis have been successful in generating approximations to continuous steady
ows which are wholly subcritical,
for both quasi one-dimensional and two-dimensional
ows, or wholly supercritical, for quasi one-dimensional
ows. Success is also achieved in approximating
discontinuous steady quasi one-dimensional
ows. However, as described above,
the application of the methods to the time-dependent case presents diculties.
In order to investigate the accuracy of the shallow water approximation to
free surface
ows it would be useful to have nite element approximations to free
surface
ows. The algorithm given in Section 6.1, which attempts to generate
such an approximation, fails but by adapting other methods, for example those
of Aitchison (1979) and Ikegawa and Washizu (1973), it should be possible to
obtain some approximations for comparison.
Other possibilities for future work include generating supercritical approxi201
202
References
Aitchison J. M. (1979). A variable nite element method for the calculation of
ow over a weir. Rutherford Laboratory, Chilton, Oxon.
Bateman H. (1929). Notes on a dierential equation which occurs in the twodimensional motion of a compressible
uid and the associated variational
problems. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A 125 599{618.
Benjamin T. B. and Bowman S. (1987). Discontinuous solutions of onedimensional Hamilton systems. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 413 263{295.
Chadwick P. (1976). Continuum Mechanics. George Allen and Unwin Ltd.,
London.
Courant R. and Friedrichs K. O. (1948). Supersonic Flow and Shock Waves.
Interscience.
Courant R. and Hilbert D. (1953). Methods of Mathematical Physics Vol. 1.
Interscience.
Goldstein H. (1980). Classical Mechanics (2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley.
Golub G. H. and Van Loan C. F. (1989). Matrix Computations (2nd ed.). The
John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.A.
Hughes T. J. R. (1987). The Finite Element Method. Linear Static and Dynamic
Finite Element Analysis. Prentice Hall, Englewood Clis, N. J.
6 179{189.
27 395{397.
9 6{21.
157 519{531.
20
225{256.
Seliger R. L. and Whitham G. B. (1968). Variational principles in continuum
mechanics. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A 305 1{25.
Serrin J. (1959). Mathematical principles of classical
uid mechanics. Handbuch
der Physik VIII-1 125{263 Springer-Verlag.
Wathen A. J. (1987). Realistic eigenvalue bounds for the Galerkin mass matrix.
I.M.A. J. Numer. Anal. 7 449{457.
205