NTRODUCTION

Acurtainwallisdefinedasthin,usuallyaluminumframedwall,containinginfillsofglass,metalpanels,orthinstone.The
framingisattachedtothebuildingstructureanddoesnotcarrythefloororroofloadsofthebuilding.Thewindandgravity
loadsofthecurtainwallaretransferredtothebuildingstructure,typicallyatthefloorline.Aluminumframedwallsystems
datebacktothe1930's,anddevelopedrapidlyafterWorldWarIIwhenthesupplyofaluminumbecameavailablefornon
militaryuse.
Curtainwallsystemsrangefrommanufacturer'sstandardcatalogsystemstospecializedcustomwalls.Customwalls
becomecostcompetitivewithstandardsystemsasthewallareaincreases.Thissectionincorporatescommentsabout
standardandcustomsystems.Itisrecommendedthatconsultantsbehiredwithanexpertiseincustomcurtainwall
designforprojectsthatincorporatethesesystems.
BACKTOTOP

DESCRIPTION
Thefollowingarebriefdescriptionsofcommonlyusedcurtainwallframingmethodsandcomponents.
Curtainwallscanbeclassifiedbytheirmethodoffabricationandinstallationintothefollowinggeneralcategories:stick
systemsandunitized(alsoknownasmodular)systems.Inthesticksystem,thecurtainwallframe(mullions)andglass
oropaquepanelsareinstalledandconnectedtogetherpiecebypiece.Intheunitizedsystem,thecurtainwallis
composedoflargeunitsthatareassembledandglazedinthefactory,shippedtothesiteanderectedonthebuilding.
Verticalandhorizontalmullionsofthemodulesmatetogetherwiththeadjoiningmodules.Modulesaregenerally
constructedonestorytallandonemodulewidebutmayincorporatemultiplemodules.Typicalunitsarefivetosixfeet
wide.
Curtainwallscanalsobeclassifiedaswatermanagedorpressureequalizedsystems.SeeMoistureProtectionbelow.
Boththeunitizedandstickbuiltsystemsaredesignedtobeeitherinteriororexteriorglazedsystems.Interiorandexterior
glazedsystemsofferdifferentadvantagesanddisadvantages.Interiorglazedsystemsallowforglassoropaquepanel
installationintothecurtainwallopeningsfromtheinteriorofthebuilding.Detailsarenotprovidedforinteriorglazed
systemsbecauseairinfiltrationisaconcernwithinteriorglazedsystems.Interiorglazedsystemsaretypicallyspecifiedfor
applicationswithlimitedinteriorobstructionstoallowadequateaccesstotheinteriorofthecurtainwall.Forlowrise
constructionwitheasyaccesstothebuilding,outsideglazingistypicallyspecified.Forhighriseconstructioninterior
glazingissometimesusedduetoaccessandlogisticsofreplacingglassfromaswingstage.
Inexteriorglazedsystems,glassandopaquepanelsareinstalledfromtheexteriorofthecurtainwall.Exteriorglazed
systemsrequireswingstageorscaffoldingaccesstotheexteriorofthecurtainwallforrepairorreplacement.Some
curtainwallsystemscanbeglazedfromeithertheinteriororexterior.
Typicalopaquepanelsincludeopacifiedspandrelglass,metalpanels,thinstone,andothermaterials,suchasterracotta
orFRP(fiberreinforcedplastic).
Visionglassispredominantlyinsulatingglassandmayhaveoneorbothliteslaminated(seeGlazing),usuallyfixedbut
sometimesglazedintooperablewindowframesthatareincorporatedintothecurtainwallframing.
Spandrelglasscanbemonolithic,laminated,orinsulatingglass.Thespandrelglasscanbemadeopaquethroughthe
useofopacifiers(film/paintorceramicfrit)appliedonanunexposedsurfaceorthrough"shadowbox"construction,i.e.,
providinganenclosedspacebehindclearspandrelglass.Shadowboxconstructioncreatesaperceptionofdepthbehind
thespandrelglassthatissometimesdesired.
Metalpanelscantakevariousformsincludingaluminumplate,stainlesssteelorothernoncorrosivemetal,thin
compositepanelsconsistingoftwothinaluminumsheetssandwichingathinplasticinterlayer,orpanelsconsistingof
metalsheetsbondedtorigidinsulation,withorwithoutaninnermetalsheettocreateasandwichpanel.
Thinstonepanelsaremostcommonlygranite.Whitemarbleshouldnotbeusedduetoitssusceptibilitytodeformation
duetohysteresis(thinstoneisnotcoveredinthischapter).
Thecurtainwalloftencomprisesonepartofabuilding'swallsystem.Carefulintegrationwithadjacentelementssuchas
otherwallcladdings,roofs,andbaseofwalldetailsisrequiredforasuccessfulinstallation.
BACKTOTOP

FUNDAMENTALS

SystemTypes
Facesealed,watermanagedandpressureequalizedrainscreensystemsarethethreesystemsthatareavailable.
Normally,pressureequalizedrainscreensystemsprovidethehighestlevelsofresistancetoairandwaterinfiltration,with
watermanagedsystemsthenextmostreliable.
Pressureequalizedrainscreensystemsfunctionbyblockingalloftheforcesthatcandrivewateracrossabarrier.See
thearticleonMoistureProtectionforacompleteexplanationofhowpressureequalizationresistswaterpassage.As
relatedtocurtainwallsystems,PErainscreensystemsdesigntheinsidefaceofglassandtheinsidefaceoftheglazing
pocketandtheinterconnectinggasketorwetsealasanairtightbarrier.Theoutsidefaceofglass,exteriorglazing
materialsandtheouterexposedfaceofaluminumframingfunctionasarainscreen,sheddingwateraway.Betweenthe
exteriorrainscreenandtheinteriorairbarrierapressureequalizationchamberisformedintheglazingpocket,which
servestoreducewaterpenetrationbyeliminating(equalizing)thepressuredifferenceacrosstherainscreenthattendsto
forcewaterintothesystem.Minoramountsofwaterthatmaypenetratethesystemareweepedharmlesslytotheexterior.
Watermanagedsystemsappearsimilaratfirstglance,incorporatingdrainsandweepsfromtheglazingpocket,butno
effortismadetocreateanairbarrieror"zoneglaze"eachglassorspandrelunit,andthereforealargeramountofwater
isforcedintothesystemandmustbeweepedaway.Also,sincenoairbarrierexists,thepressuredifferentialbetweenthe
glazingpocketandtheinteriormaybestrongenoughtoforcewaterverticallyhigherthaninteriorgaskets,resultingin
leaks.Weepholesinawatermanagedsystemfunctionlargelytodrainwaterthatenterstheglazingpocketwhileweep
holesinapressureequalizedsystemfunctionprimarilyasventstoallowairmovementbetweentheexteriorandglazing
pocket.Weepingofwaterisonlyasecondaryfunction.Notethattheeasiestwaytorecognizeapressureequalizedrain
screensystemisyonotethatthethatglazingpocketaroundeachindividualunitofglassisisolatedairtightfromadjacent
units,mostobviouslywithplugsorsealsatthegapsbetweenscrewsplinesatmullionintersections.Detailingof
spandrels,shadowboxesandinterfacewithadjacentconstructionmustmaintainthecontinuityoftheairbarrierand
rainscreentofunctionproperlywithapressureequalizedrainscreencurtainwallframingsystem.
Somealuminumcurtainwallsystemsarestilldesignedasfacesealedbarrierwalls.Theydependoncontinuousand
perfectsealsbetweentheglassunitsandtheframeandbetweenallframememberstoperform.Thelongtermreliability
ofsuchsealsisextremelysuspectandsuchsystemsshouldbeavoided.

ThermalPerformance(Conduction,SolarRadiation,ThermalBreak,Comfort)
Overallcurtainwallthermalperformanceisafunctionoftheglazinginfillpanel,theframe,constructionbehindopaque
(spandrelandcolumncover)areas,andtheperimeterdetails.
Curtainwallframeconductanceisafunctionoftheframematerial,geometryandfabrication(e.g.thermalbreak).
Aluminumhasaveryhighthermalconductivity.Itiscommonpracticetoincorporatethermalbreaksoflowconductivity
materials,traditionallyPVC,Neoprenerubber,polyurethaneandmorerecentlypolyesterreinforcednylon,forimproved
thermalperformance.Some"pouredanddebridged"polyurethanethermalbreaksshrinkandstressformsinthethermal
breakwhentheexterioraluminummovesdifferentlyfromtheinterioraluminumduetotemperaturedifferences.Backup
mechanicalattachmentofthetwohalvesoftheframeisrecommended(e.g.skipdebridgingor"tinabox").Atruethermal
breakis"thickminimumandcanbeupto1"ormore,withthepolyesterreinforcednylonvariety.Somecurtainwall
systemsincorporateseparatorsthatarelessthan",makingthem"thermallyimproved".Thedeeperthermalbreakscan
improvethermalperformanceandcondensationresistanceofthesystem.
Somecurtainwallsystemsutilize"pressurebars"(alsoreferredtoas"pressureplates")thatarefastenedtotheoutsideof
themullionstoretaintheglass.Thesesystemsfrequentlyincludegasketsthatareplacedbetweenthepressurebarand
mullionsandfunctionasthermalbreaksandhelpwithacousticisolation.Thesesystemsrequirespecialcareindesign
andconstructiontoensurecontinuityofthegasketsathorizontalandverticaltransitions.Gasketsarealsousedto
cushiontheglassontheinteriorandexteriorfacesoftheglass.Theproblemwithgasketsisthattheytendtobestretched
duringinstallationandwillshrinkbacktotheiroriginallengthinashorttimetheywillalsoshrinkwithageandexposure
toultravioletradiation.Thereisusuallyagapinthegasketatthecornersaftershrinkageoccurs.Withaproperlydesigned
systemthewaterthatentersthesystematthegasketcornerswillweepoutthroughthesnapcoverweepholes.To
mitigateshrinkageofgasketsbackfromthecornerstheuseofvulcanizedcornersanddiagonallycutsplicesare
recommended.
Thermalperformanceofopaqueareasofthecurtainwallisafunctionofinsulationandair/vaporbarriers.Duetothelack
ofinteriorairadjacenttoopaquecurtainwallareas,theseareasaresubjecttowideswingsintemperatureandhumidity
andrequirecarefuldetailingofinsulationandair/vaporbarrierstominimizecondensation.Somecurtainwallsystems
includecondensationdrainageprovisions,suchascondensategutters,thatareintendedtocollectandweepcondensate
fromspandrelareastotheexteriorsuchcondensateguttersandweepsareaviolationoftheairbarrierofthecurtainwall
unlesstheyareoutboardofthebackpan.Seediscussionofbackpansbelow.

Atthecurtainwallperimeter,maintainingcontinuityoftheairbarrierreducesairflowsaroundthecurtainwall.Integration
ofperimeterflashingshelpsensurewatertightperformanceofthecurtainwallanditsconnectiontoadjacentwall
elements.Properplacementofinsulationatthecurtainwallperimeterreducesenergylossandpotentialcondensation
issues.Insulatingthemullionsinaspandrelareamayleadtoexcessivecondensationincoldclimatesunlessitcanalso
beassuredthathumidairfromtheinteriorwillnevercomeincontactwiththemullions.Thespandrelareaistypicallynot
heated,thustheinteriorenvironmentdoesnotwarmthemullionsandoffsetthemigrationofthecoldtemperaturesdeep
intothewall.Inthevisionareatheinteriorheathelpstomitigatethecoldandpreventscondensation.Forthisreason,do
notinsulatebetweentheinteriorportionofmullionsandadjacentwallconstructioneither.

MoistureProtection(WaterPenetration,CondensationResistance)
Waterpenetrationresistanceisafunctionofglazingdetails(seeGlazing),frameconstructionanddrainagedetails,
weatherstrippingandframegaskets,interiorsealants(foroperablewindows,seeWindows),andperimeterflashingsand
seals.Watercanentertheexteriorwallsystembymeansoffivedifferentforces:gravity,kineticenergy,airpressure
difference,surfacetension,andcapillaryaction.Tomitigatewaterinfiltration,alloftheseforcesmustbeaccountedforin
thesystemdesign.
Unlikediscontinuouswindows,whicharesmallerunitsandcanrelytoahighdegreeonsillflashingstocaptureframe
cornerleakage,curtainwallscoverlargeexpansesofwallwithoutsillflashingsateachglazedopening.Water
penetrationofcurtainwallframecornersislikelytoleaktotheinteriorand/orontoinsulatingglassbelow.Watertight
framecornerconstructionandgoodglazingpocketdrainagearecriticalforreliablewaterpenetrationresistance.

Visual(Daylighting,Aesthetics)
Keyvisualfeaturesofcurtainwallsareglazingappearance(seeGlazing)andsightlines.Sightlinesaredefinedasthe
visualprofileoftheverticalandhorizontalmullions.Thesightlinesareafunctionofboththewidthanddepthofthecurtain
wallframe.Lateralloadresistancerequirements(windloads,spans)generallydictateframedepth.Wherenarrow
sightlinesaredesired,steelstiffenersinsertedintothehollowframeofaluminumextrusionscanhelpreduceframedepth.

Sound(Acoustics)
Theacousticperformanceofcurtainwallsisprimarilyafunctionoftheglazingandinternalsealstostopairleakage
(coveredelsewhere).Thesoundattenuationcapabilityofcurtainwallscanbeimprovedbyinstallingsoundattenuating
infillandbymakingconstructionasairtightaspossible.Incorporatingdifferentthicknessesofglassinaninsulatedglass
unitwillalsohelptomitigateexteriornoise.Thiscanbeaccomplishedbyincreasingthethicknessofoneofthelitesof
glassorbyincorporatingalaminatedlayerofglasswithanoisereducinginterlayer,typicallyapolyvinylbutyralorPVB.

BackPans
Backpansaremetalsheets,usuallyaluminumorgalvanizedsteel,thatareattachedandsealedtothecurtainwall
framingaroundtheperimeterbehindopaqueareasofacurtainwall.Incoldclimatesinsulationshouldbeinstalled
betweenthebackpanandtheexteriorcladdinginordertomaintainthedewpointoutboardofthebackpansothatthe
backpanactsasanairandvaporbarrier.Backpansprovideasecondlineofdefenseagainstwaterinfiltrationforareas
ofthecurtainwallthatarenotvisiblefromtheinteriorandaredifficulttoaccess.Waterinfiltrationinopaqueareascan
continueforextendedperiodsoftimecausingsignificantdamagebeforebeingdetected.Backpansalsoaretobe
preferredoverfoilvaporretardersinhighperformanceandhumidifiedbuildingsasconvectioncurrentsshortcircuiting
theinsulationcancausecondensation,wettingandultimatelyfailureofthesespandrelareas.

ShadowBoxes
Shadowboxconstructioncreatestheappearanceofdepthbehindatransparentliteofglassbyincorporatingametal
sheetintothecurtainwallbehindthelite.Themetalsheetshouldbeatleasttwoinchesbehindtheglassandmaybe
paintedorformedtocreateatexture,butreflectivesurfacesaddthemostvisualdepthtothewall.Insulationshouldalso
beinstalledbehindtheshadowboxifinteriorfinishespreventroomairfromcontactingthisarea.Thesystemshouldbe
designedtocollectanycondensationthatmaycollectontheexteriorsideofthemetalsheetanddrainitbacktothe
exterior.Shadowboxespresentavarietyofchallengesrelatedtoventingthecavitybehindtheglass,thatcanallowdirt
onsurfacesdifficulttoclean,orsealingthecavityandriskingexcessiveheatbuildup.Eitherway,thecavitymaybeat
temperaturessignificantlyaboveorbelowinteriorconditionswithonlythermallyconductivealuminumbetweenthem.
Thiscanleadtocondensationorsurfacessohottheycanburn.Carefuldetailingcanprovideamethodtothermally
isolatethecavityfromtheinterior.Aninteriorbackpanbehindtheinsulationisdesirableaswell,toavoidcondensation
onthemetalshadowboxfromtheinterior.

SupportofCurtainWalls
Curtainwallsystemsmusttransferbacktofloorstructureorintermediateframingboththeirowndeadloadplusanylive
loads,whichconsistprimarilyofpositiveandnegativewindloadsbutmightalsoincludeasnowloadappliedtolarge
horizontalareas,seismicloads,maintenanceloadsandothers.Unfortunately,thecurtainwallwilllikelydemonstrate
movementcausedbythermalchangesandwindsignificantlydifferentthanmovementofthebuildingstructure.Therefore
theconnectionstoanchorthecurtainwallmustbedesignedtoallowdifferentialmovementwhileresistingtheloads
applied.
Instickframedaluminumcurtainwall,verticalmullionscommonlyrunpasttwofloors,withacombinedgravity/lateral
anchoratonefloorandalateralanchoronlyattheother.Thesplicebetweentheverticalmullionswillalsobedesigned
toallowverticalmovementwhileprovidinglateralresistance.Inlargeareasofstickframedcurtainwall,asplitvertical
mullionwillbeintroducedperiodicallytoallowthermalmovement.Notethatthismovementslightlydistortstheanchorsat
theverticalmullions.Individualunitsofglassmustaccommodatethemovementofthesurroundingaluminumframeby
slidingalongglazinggaskets,distortingthegasketsoracombinationofboth.Themovementoftheglasswithintheframe
andthemovementforcedintheanchorstendtoinduceadditionalstressesintoastickframedsystem.
Unitizedcurtainwallsystemsaccommodatethedifferentialmovementbetweenthestructureandthethermalmovement
oftheframeatthejointsbetweeneachcurtainwallunit.Becausetheseunitsarefrequentlycustomdesigned,theamount
ofmovementtobeaccommodatedcanbecarefullyengineeredintothesystem.Anchoringofunitizedcurtainwall
typicallyconsistsofaproprietaryassemblywiththreewaydimensionaladjustability.Theanchorsoccurateachpairof
verticalmullionsalongtheedgeofslaborspandrelbeam.Frequently,unitizedsystemsspanfromahorizontalstackjoint
locatedatapproximatelydeskheightuptotheanchoratthefloorlineaboveandthencantileveringpastthefloortothe
nexthorizontalstackjoint.Thestackjointisdesignedtoresistlateralloadswhilethetwoflooranchorsresistgravityand
lateralloads.Oneofthetwoflooranchorswillallowmovementinplanewiththeunitizedsystem.

Safety
FireSafety
Firesafingandsmokesealatgapsbetweenthefloorslabedgeandthebackofthecurtainwallareessentialto
compartmentalizebetweenfloorsandslowdownthepassageoffireandcombustiongasesbetweenfloors.Asubstantial
"thickminimumpouredsmokesealisrequiredtoseparateairreturnandsupplyplenumsfromeachother,andfor
infectioncontrolinhospitals.Laboratorytestedfireratedassembliesmayberequiredinunsprinkleredbuildingsbysome
codesasPerimeterFireContainmentSystemswhenthefloorassembliesarerequiredtobefireresistancerated.The
ratingsofthePerimeterFireContainmentSystemmustbeequaltoorgreaterthanthefloorrating.Thesesystemsprovide
confidencethatthematerialsusedforperimetercontainmentremaininplaceforthespecifieddurationoftherequired
ratinginafireevent.
Firemanknockoutglazingpanelsareoftenrequiredforventingandemergencyaccessfromtheexterior.Knockout
panelsaregenerallyfullytemperedglasstoallowfullfracturingofthepanelintosmallpiecesandrelativelysaferemoval
fromtheopening.Knockoutpanelsareidentifiedbyanonremovablereflectivedot(typicallytwoinchesindiameter)
locatedinthelowercorneroftheglassandvisiblefromthegroundbythefiredepartment.
FallingIceandSnow
Buildingsincoldclimateshavestruggledthroughouttheageswithiceandsnowformationsthatslide,fall,orget
windblownfromtheirroofs,ledges,andwindowsills,causingharmtopeopleanddamagetopropertybelow.Refertothe
ResourcePageonConsiderationsforBuildingDesigninColdClimates.
MaintenanceAccess
Thecurtainwallshouldbedesignedforaccessibilityformaintenance.Lowrisebuildingscangenerallybeaccessedfrom
thegroundusingequipmentwitharticulatedarms.Forhighriseconstructionthebuildingshouldbedesignedforswing
stageaccessforwindowcleaning,generalmaintenance,andrepairwork,likeglassreplacement.Davitsandfallarrest
safetytiebackanchorsshouldbeprovidedontheroofandstabilizationtieoffsprovidedonthefaceofthewalltocomply
withOSHAstandardsCFR1910.66,CFR1910.28andANSI/IWCAI14.1"WindowCleaningSafetyStandard".

HealthandIndoorAirQuality
Curtainwallleakage,bothairandwater,cancontributetoIAQproblemsbysupplyingliquidwaterandcondensation
moistureformoldgrowth.Thisleakagecanoftenremainconcealedwithinthewallsystemandnotbecomeevidentuntil
concealedwallcomponentsexperiencesignificantdeteriorationandmoldgrowth,requiringcostlyrepairs.

DurabilityandServiceLifeExpectancy
Commoncurtainwalldurabilityproblemsincludethefollowing:
Glazingfailures(seeGlazing).Glazingproblemsspecifictocurtainwallconstructionincludevisualobstructionfrom
condensationordirt,damagetoopacifierfilmsfrommaterialdegradation,condensationand/orheatbuildup,andIGU
issues/laminatedglassissues.
Failureofinternalgasketsandsealantsfromcurtainwallmovements(thermal,structural),prolongedexposuretowater
(gooddrainagefeaturesreducethisrisk),heat/sun/UVdegradation(age).Repairs(iffeasible)requiresignificant
disassemblyofcurtainwall.Ifrestorationofinternalsealsisnotphysicallypossibleornoteconomicallyfeasible,
installationofexteriorsurfacewetsealingatallglazingandframejointsisoftenperformed.
Failureofexposedgasketsandsealants,includingperimetersealants,fromcurtainwallmovements(thermal,
structural),environmentaldegradation.Repairsrequireexterioraccess.
Aluminumframesareinherentlycorrosionresistantinmanyenvironmentsifanodizedandproperlysealedorpaintedwith
bakedonfluoropolymerpaint.Aluminumframesaresubjecttodeteriorationofthecoatingandcorrosionofaluminumin
severe(industrial,coastal)environmentsandgalvaniccorrosionfromcontactwithdissimilarmetals.Framecornerseals
constructedusingsealantarepronetodebondingfromprolongedcontactwithmoistureandfromthermal,structural,and
transportationmovements.

MaintainabilityandRepairability
Curtainwallsandperimetersealantsrequiremaintenancetomaximizetheservicelifeofthecurtainwalls.Perimeter
sealants,properlydesignedandinstalled,haveatypicalservicelifeof10to15yearsalthoughbreachesarelikelyfrom
dayone.Removalandreplacementofperimetersealantsrequiresmeticuloussurfacepreparationandproperdetailing.
Aluminumframesaregenerallypaintedoranodized.Factoryappliedfluoropolymerthermosetcoatingshavegood
resistancetoenvironmentaldegradationandrequireonlyperiodiccleaning.Recoatingwithanairdryfluoropolymer
coatingispossiblebutrequiresspecialsurfacepreparationandisnotasdurableasthebakedonoriginalcoating.
Anodizedaluminumframescannotbe"reanodized"inplace,butcanbecleanedandprotectedbyproprietaryclear
coatingstoimproveappearanceanddurability.
Exposedglazingsealsandgasketsrequireinspectionandmaintenancetominimizewaterpenetration,limitexposureof
frameseals,andprotectinsulatingglasssealsfromwetting.

Sustainability
Thebeststrategyforsustainabilityofcurtainwallsistoemploygooddesignpracticestoensurethedurability(maximum
servicelife)oftheinstallationandtousesystemsthathaveagoodthermalbreakandhighRvalue(valuesashighasR
7arepossiblewithtripleglazedsystems).Also,theuseofloweandspectrallyselectiveglasscoatingscansignificantly
reduceenergyloadsandimprovecomfortclosetothewall.
Aluminumandsteelframesaretypicallyrecycledattheendoftheirservicelife.Salvageanddemolitioncontractors
generallyrequireaminimumof1,000sqftormoreofwindow/curtainwalltomakematerialrecyclingeconomical(smaller
amountsaregenerallydisposedasgeneraltrash).Recyclingislesseconomicalifthealuminumiscontaminatedwith
sealants,fracturedglazing,etc.,assalvagecompaniespayconsiderablylessforthematerial.Thereisalimitedmarketfor
salvagedsteelandwoodframes.
BACKTOTOP

APPLICATIONS
EstablishSystemTrackRecord
Selectacurtainwallwithademonstratedtrackrecordinsimilarapplicationsandexposures.Verifyingtrackrecordsmay
requiresignificantresearchbythedesigner.ASTME1825providesguidance.
Reviewlaboratorytestresultsofsystemsorsimilarcustomsystemsforair,water,andstructuralresistance,heat
transmission,condensationresistance,soundtransmission,andoperability.Verifythattestspertaintothesystemunder
considerationandnotaversionofthesystemwiththesameproductnamebutofdifferentconstruction.

DesigningforWaterproofingPerformance

Curtainwalldesignshouldstartwiththeassumptionthatexternalglazingseals,perimetersealantjointsandcurtainwall
sillswillleak.Thefollowingsummarizesrecommendedfeatures:
Selectframeswithweptglazingandpocketsillsslopedtotheexteriortocollectwaterthatpenetratestheglazingand
drainittotheexterior.Donotuseverticalmullionsasdrainconductors.Eachglazingpocketshouldbefullyisolated
fromadjacentglazingpockets.Provideasillflashingwithenddamsandwithanupturnedbacklegturnedupintothe
glazingpocketatthebaseofthecurtainwalltocollectanddraincurtainwallsillleakageprovidejambflashingsto
directperimeterleakagedowntothesillflashing.
Keyframedrainagefeaturesincludeslopetotheexterioratsurfacesthatcollectwater(slopetopofexposed
horizontalmullionsurfaces,slopeatflashings),large(3/8inchdiameteroraslot5/16"x3/8"minimum)weepholes
closelyspaced(threeweepholespereachsectionofhorizontalmullionbetweenverticalmullions,typically),and
drainageateveryhorizontalframe(donotuseverticalframestodrainpasthorizontalframes).Useasmany1/4inch
by2inchslotsasrequiredforpressureequalizedsystems.Designthedrainagesystemtohandlecondensationas
wellasrain.
Curtainwallperimetersshouldhaveflashings(sill,jambsandhead)thataresealedtotheairandwaterbarrierat
adjacentwalls.Slopeheadandsillflashingstotheexteriortopromotedrainage.Integratecurtainwallsillflashings
withsillflashingsorbaseofwallflashingsofadjacentwalls.Curtainwallshouldhaveaprimaryair/waterseal
betweentheshoulderofthetubeattheplaneoftheglazingpocketandtheairbarrieroftheadjacentconstruction.
Perimetersealantsareusefulasarainscreenforlimitingairandwaterpenetrationthroughtheoutermostplaneofthe
wall,butshouldnotberelieduponasthesoleair/waterpenetrationbarrier.
Coordinateplacementofsettingblockswithweepholestoavoidblockingdrainagepaths.

GlazingMethodsandTheirImpactonPerformance
PressurePlateGlazing:Inthissystemtheglassandinfillpanelsareinstalledfromtheexterior,typicallyagainstdry
gaskets.Theouterlayerofgasketsisinstalledandthegasketsarecompressedagainsttheglassbythetorqueappliedto
fastenerssecuringacontinuouspressureplate.Theplateislatertypicallycoveredwithasnaponmullioncover.This
systemprovidesreasonableperformancebutissusceptibletoleaksatcornersorjointsindrygaskets.Forimproved
performancefoursidedgasketscanbefabricatedatadditionalcostorwetsealantscanbeinstalledtoprovidea
concealedinteriortoebeadorexposedinteriorcapbeads.Pressureplateglazingallowstheeasiestmethodtosealan
airbarrierfromadjacentconstructionintotheairbarrierofcurtainwallsystem.
InteriorDryGlazing:Inthissystemtheglassandinfillpanelsareinstalledfromtheinteriorofthebuilding,eliminatingthe
needforsubstantialscaffoldingandsavingmoney.Theframeisfixedandexteriordrygasketsareinstalled.Typicallyonly
thetopinteriormullionhasaremovablestop.Theglassunitisslidintoadeepglazingpocketononejambfarenoughto
allowclearingtheoppositejambandisthenslidbackintotheoppositeglazingpocketandthendroppedintothesill
glazingpocket.Theremovableinteriorstopisinstalledandfinallyaninteriorwedgegasketisforcedin.Sometimesthis
methodiscalled"jiggle"or"wiggle"glazingbecauseofthemanipulationnecessarytogettheglassintoplace.
Performanceisslightlyreducedbecausedrymetaltometaljointsoccurattheendsoftheremovablestopatapointthat
shouldproperlybeairandwatertight.Wetsealantheelbeadswillimproveperformanceandsomesystemsincludean
extragaskettoformanairbarrierseal.Installationofspandrelpanelsmayneedtobeinstalledfromtheexterior.
StructuralSiliconeGlazing:Inthissystemtheglassorinfillunitisadheredtotheframewithabeadofsilicone.Outer
siliconeweathersealssupplementthestructuralseal.Unitizedsystemsarefrequentlystructuralsiliconeglazed,
especiallyiffoursideSSGisdesired.TwosidedSSG,withpressureplateglazingorwiggleglazingontheothertwo
sidesisacceptabletobefieldinstalled.
ButtGlazing:SSGisfrequentlymistakenlyreferredtoasbuttglazing.Truebuttglazinghasnomullionorotherbackup
memberbehindthejointandreliessolelyonasealant,typicallysilicone,betweentheglassunitstoprovideaperfect
barrierseal.

DesigningforCondensationResistance
AAMA'sCurtainWallDesignGuideprovidesguidanceonwindowselectionforcondensationresistance.Establishthe
requiredCondensationResistanceFactor(CRF)basedonanticipatedinteriorhumidityandlocalclimatedataandselect
acurtainwallwithanappropriateCRF.DesignersshouldbeawarethattheCRFisaweightedaveragenumberfora
curtainwallassembly.TheCRFdoesnotgiveinformationaboutcoldspotsthatcouldresultinlocalcondensation.
Projectsforwhichcondensationcontrolisacriticalconcern,suchashighinteriorhumiditybuildings,requireproject
specificfiniteelementanalysisthermalmodelingusingsoftwaresuchasTHERM.Carefulanalysisandmodelingof
interiorconditionsisrequiredtoaccuratelyestimatetheinteriortemperatureoftheairattheinsidesurfacesoftheglass
andframe.Curtainwallsthataresetwelloutboardofperimeterheatingelementswillhaveairtemperaturesalongtheir
interiorsurfacethataresignificantlylowerthanthedesignwintertimeinteriortemperatures.Thermalmodelingofthe
buildinginteriorusingComputationalFluidDynamics(CFD)softwarecanhelpestablishareasonableestimateforair

temperaturesattheinsidesurfacesoftheglassandframe.Theseinteriorairtemperaturesareinputsforthethermal
modelingsoftware.IncludelabmockupthermaltestinginadditiontoCFDmodelingforanalysisofprojectspecific
conditions.Unusualorcustomdetails,suchascopings,deepsills,projectedwindows,spandrelareasandshadowbox
candramaticallyalterperformance.
Usethermallybrokenorthermallyimprovedaluminumframesforbestperformance.Attheperimeterofthecurtainwall,
thethermalbreakmustbeproperlypositionedwithrespecttothewallsystem/insulationtoavoidexposingthealuminum
frameinboardofthethermalbreaktocoldair("shortcircuiting"thethermalbreak).Specialinsulationprovisionsmaybe
requiredwherecurtainwallsprojectbeyondadjacentcladdingsystems(e.g.,aninsulatedperimeterextrusionormetal
panning).
Considerframegeometryforthermallyconductivealuminumframematerials.Minimizetheproportionofframingexposed
totheoutdoors.
RefertoAAMA1503fordescriptionsoftestmethod,parametersandequipmentfordeterminingUfactorsandCRF'sfor
windowproducts.RefertoNFRC100forUFactorandNFRC500forcondensationresistance.

DesigningforSolarHeatGainControlandSolarOpticalProperties
Theuseofglazedcurtainwallscanpresentchallengesinbalancingthedesireformorenaturaldaylightversus
addressingtheheatgaintypicallyassociatedwithsuchsystems.Occasionally,thereareconcernsrelatingtohavingtoo
muchuncontrolleddaylight,sometimesreferredtoasglare.Thechallengeistostriveforthehighestvisiblelight
transmittance(VT)andthelowestsolarheatgaincoefficient(SHGC)whilenotpreventingtheglassfrombeingtoo
reflectivewhenviewedfromboththeexteriorandtheinterior,whilecontrollingglare.Thisglassperformancedataare
obtainedfromdatausingtheLawrenceBerkeleyNationalLaboratory(LBNL)Window5.2programwithEnvironmental
ConditionssetatNFRC100criteria.NFRC200isusedtodeterminetheVTandSHGCvalueswhilethesolaroptical
propertiesaredeterminedusingNFRC300.Typically,forproductsmorewidelyavailableonthemarket,the
aforementionedvaluesarereadilyavailablefromglassmanufacturers/fabricators.

DesigningforFinishDurability
Aluminum:ClassIanodiccoatings(AAMA611,supersedesAAMA606,607and608)andhighperformancefactory
appliedfluoropolymerthermosetcoatings(AAMA2605)havegoodresistancetoenvironmentaldegradation.

UnitizedSystems
Unitizedsystemsaretypicallycustomdesigned.Thereisawiderangeofsystemsonthemarketfrommanufacturersthat
providevaryinglevelsofreliability.Unitizedsystemsrangeinperformanceabilityfromindustrystandardtohigh
performancewalls.Itisthusrecommendedthatprojectsspecifyingunitizedcurtainwallsystemsincorporateateam
memberwhohasabreadthofexperienceindesigningandworkingwithunitizedsystems.
Unitizedsystemsaretypicallypressureequalizedrainscreensystems.Theunitsshouldbecompletelyassembledina
factoryandshippedtothesiteforinstallationonthebuilding.Theunitsareplacedonthefloors,bundledincrates,using
thetowercraneandloweredintoplaceusingasmallercraneorhoistownedbytheglazingcontractor.Themullion
dimensionstendtobeslightlylargerthanasticksystemduetotheiropensectionascomparedtothetubeshapeofa
standardstickcurtainwallsection.Theadvantagesoftheunitizedsystemderivefromthemorereliablesealsachievable
fromfactoryconstructionandthereducedcostoflaborinthefactoryversusthatofhighrisefieldlabor.Unitscanbe
assembledinafactorywhilethestructuralframeofthebuildingisbeingconstructed.Wheresticksystemsrequiremultiple
stepstoerectandsealthewall,unitizedwallsarriveonthesitecompletelyassembledallowingthefloorstobeclosedin
morequickly.Unitizedsystemsalsorequirelessspaceonsiteforlayoutthusprovidinganadvantageforurbansiteswith
spacelimitations.
Unitizedsystemsgenerallyrelyonrainscreendesignprinciplesandgasketsand/ortheinterlockofmatingframesfor
moistureprotectionatjointsbetweenadjacentmodules.Theinterlockingverticalmullionswilltypicallyhavetwo
interlockinglegs.Onelegwillbeintheplanejustbehindtheglazingpocketandtheotherattheinteriorfaceofthe
mullions.Theinterlockinglegintheplaneoftheglazingpocketwillbesealedbygasketsandistheprimarylineof
defenseagainstwaterandairinfiltration.Morerobustsystemswillalsoincludeagasketattheinteriorinterlock.Systems
whoseconnectinglegslockalsocompromisetheabilityofthesystemtoaccommodatemovement.Someunitized
designsaresensitivetosmallirregularitiesinthespacingofadjacentmodulesforexample,ifthemodulejointsare
slightlyoutoftolerance,gasketsmaynotbeproperlycompressedandmoistureprotectionmaysuffer.Robustdesigns
includemultiplelinesofdefense,realistictolerancesandadjustabilityforerectionofmodules.
Thefourwayintersectionreferstothelocationwherefouradjacentunitsmeet.Thisiswherefieldlabormustseal
betweenadjacentunitstoachieveaweathertightwall.Theinterlockinglegsofthehorizontalmullionsarethemost

criticalinterfaceofaunitizedsystem.Waterthatinfiltratestheinterlockingverticalmullionsdrainstotheinterlocking
horizontalsthatmustcollectanddivertthiswatertotheexterior.Thetophorizontalmullionofaunitincorporates
upstandingverticallegsthatmatewithcavitiesinthebottomhorizontaloftheunitabove.Theseupstandinglegshave
gasketsthatsealagainstthewallsofthebottomhorizontal.Somedesignsprovideoneupstandinglegthatprovidesone
lineofdefenseagainstairandwaterinfiltration.Morerobustsystemswillprovidetwoupstandinglegswithgasketson
bothlegs.Aspliceplateorsiliconeflashingthatisinstalledatthetopofthetwoadjacentunitsastheyareerectedonthe
buildingistypicallyrequired.
Theverticalmullionsofunitizedsystemstypicallyanchortotheslabedgeastheypassby.Thestackjointisthehorizontal
jointwhereunitsfromadjoiningfloorsmeet.Placingthestackjointatthesillofthevisionglass(typically30"abovethe
floor)willminimizethedimensionoftheverticalmullions.Thispositioningutilizesthebackspanofthemullionabovethe
anchoringpointattheslabtocounteractthedeflectionofthemullionbelowtheslab.Alsoplacingthestackjointabove
thefloorprovidesamoreconvenientlocationforfieldworkerstoachievethecriticalsealatthefourwayintersection.
Whiletwostoryspansarefeasible,theweightoftheunitisdoubledwhichmayrequireincreasedstructuralcapacityto
accommodatetheincreasedload.Windloadbracingshouldbeincorporatedatthesinglespanheighttoavoidincreasing
theverticalmulliondimensiontoaccommodatetheincreasedspan.Steelcanbeaddedtoaunitizedsystemtoincrease
itsspanningcapability.However,unlikeasticksystemwhichhasanintegralhollowshape,thesplitmullionsmustbe
allowedtomoveindependentlytoaccommodatethebuildingmovementthuscomplicatingtheintroductionofsteel.Large
unitsmayalsoincreasetransportationcostsfromthefactorytothesiteanderectioncostsofplacingtheunitsonthe
building.
Thermallybrokenunitizedsystemsareavailable,utilizingsimilartechnologyasthatusedinstickcurtainwallsystems.

LogisticalandConstructionAdministrationIssues
Theservicelifeofeventhemostdurablecurtainwallmaybeshorterthanthatofdurableadjacentwallcladdingssuchas
stoneorbrickmasonry.Therefore,thedesignofthecurtainwallandperimeterconstructionshouldpermitcurtainwall
removalandreplacementwithoutremovingadjacentwallcomponentsthatwillremain.
Theservicelifeexpectancyofcomponentsthatarematedwiththecurtainwallintoanassemblyshouldmatchtheservice
lifeexpectancyofthecurtainwallitself.Requiredurableflashingmaterials,noncorrodingattachmenthardwareand
fasteners,andmoistureresistantmaterialsinregionssubjecttowetting.
Laboratorytesting:Forprojectswithasignificantamountofcustomcurtainwall,requirelaboratorytestingofamockup
curtainwallpriortofinalizingprojectshopdrawings.Haveacurtainwallconsultantpresenttodocumentmockupcurtain
wallconstructionandverifymockupperformance.SpecifythatlaboratorytestsaretobeconductedatanAAMA
AccreditedLaboratoryfacility.
FieldMockup:Forallcurtainwalls,stockorcustom,requireconstructionandtestingofafieldmockuprepresentativeof
thewall/windowassembly.Thisisbestscheduledpriortothereleaseofshopdrawingsforwindowproduction,sothat
thereisanopportunitytomakedesignchangesbasedonthetestperformanceofthefieldmockup.Specifythatfieldtests
beconductedbyanindependentthirdpartyagencyaccreditedbyAAMA.
Fieldtestingofcurtainwalls:Requirethefieldtestingofcurtainwallsforairinfiltrationandwaterpenetrationresistance,
forqualityassuranceofcurtainwallfabricationandinstallation.Requiremultipletestswiththefirsttestoninitial
installationsandlatertestsatapproximately35%,70%andatfinalcompletiontocatchproblemsearlyandtoverify
continuedworkmanshipquality.Requireadditionaltestingtobeperformedifinitialtestsfail.
Shopdrawingcoordination:Requirecurtainwallinstallationshopdrawingsshowingalladjacentconstructionandrelated
work,includingflashings,attachments,interiorfinishes,andindicatingsequencingofthework.
Curtainwallsystems,especiallyunitizedsystems,requireexpertiseonthepartofthebuildingdesigner,themanufacturer,
thefabricator,andtheinstaller.Forallbutthesimplestofsystems,thedesignershouldconsiderengaginganoutside
consultant,ifsuchexpertiseisnotavailableonthestaff.