Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
extract (USDA, 1954; Mass and Hoffman. 1977). On the other hand, other extracts of fixed soil to
water ratio, especially 1:1 and 1:2 on weight basis, have also been widely used by many laboratories
for reducing the difficulties associated with the preparation of saturated paste extracts.
Soil sodicity is generally characterized by exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) based on
sodium saturation of cation exchange capacity (CEC). However, it is more often expressed by
sodium absorption ratio (SAR) due to the easy determination of individual ions in soil solutions (or
water extracts) and the close numeric relationship between the two (Evangelou, 1998). SAR is
calculated as Na/(Ca+Mg)1/2 based on concentrations of Na+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ in mmol L-1 in the
extract of a saturated paste or other soil to water ratios as measured by an ICP.
Reagents
1. Deionized (D.I.) water
2. Standard KCl solution at 0.010 M: Dissolving 0.7456 g KCl (fw: 74.551, CAS# 7447-407) in 1 liter of D.I. water. The EC for this solution is 0.147 dS/m at 25 oC.
3. Standards for ICP analysis.
Procedure
Extraction
Cell Constant
m-1
0.001
0.001-0.2
4
0.01-2
0.01
0.10
0.1-20
1-200
0.5
2. Calibrate the conductivity meter using 0.010 M KCl solution following manufacturers
recommendations in the operation and calibration of the meter instrument. This solution
should yield EC of 0.147 dS/m at 25 oC (1 cm cell). A 0.1 M KCl solution should be used
to calibrate the meter when measuring high salinity soils. The EC of 0.1M KCl is 12.9
dS/m at 25oC.
3. Insert the calibrated conductivity cell in the extract and make the measurement.
Analysis of Specific solutes with ICP
1. Calibrate the ICP using multiple element standards following manufacturers
recommendations in the operation and calibration of the instrument.
2. Analyzing samples. A portion of extract or extract after EC measurement will be used
for individual solute analysis. Dilution should be made if a sample has concentrations
above the highest standard.
While most inorganic solutes in extracts can be determined by ICP, some ICPs are unable
to analyze Cl- and therefore ion chromatography or flow injection analyzer are used for
chloride and other anion measurements.
Calculations
1.
2.
3.
5.
Analytical Performance
Laboratory measurements of EC for soil and water salinity are generally accurate and
reproducible to 0.005 dS m-1. Common errors in EC measurement are often due to inadequate
sample circulation and electrode fouling. The four electrode EC cell may be used to overcome
the problems of electrode fouling associated with the conventional two electrode conductivity
cell. Exposure of an extract sample to air may cause changes in EC due to the dissolution of
atmospheric gases such as CO2. The latter is significant when the extract sample contains little
dissolved solids. When EC measurement is not immediately performed after obtaining an extract,
1 drop of 0.1% (NaPO3)6 solution may be added per 25 mL of the extract to prevent the
precipitation of CaCO3. For most EC measurements for assessing soil and water salinity,
common pipet-type and dip- type conductivity cells will serve the purpose although flow-through
conductivity cells may be used for EC measurements expected below 0.01 dS m-1 to minimze
exposure of measurements to atmosphere. Soil EC may be determined by direct measurement in
soil suspensions when individual solutes are not required. However, these measurements were
found to be generally lower than those made in extracts of similar soil to water ratios (Hogg and
Henry, 1984).
For calculation of SAR, an ICP may be used to determine individual ions of an extract.
Modern ICP can reliably detect metal elements in water extracts of soils to 0.1 mg L-1 for major
elements and 0.01 mg L-1 for trace elements, which are satisfactory for making soil and water
salinity evaluations.
Interpretation
6
The methods outlined here are convenient ways of assessing soil salinity by measuring
EC and sodicity by calculating SAR based on ICP measurements of individual solid
concentrations of K+, Na+, Ca2+, and Mg2+. While the 1:1 and 1:2 extracts of soil to water ratio on
weight basis for determining soil salinity are commonly done in routine laboratories, the
interpretations of soil salinity and sodicity as related to crop response are often based on the
measurements made in saturated pastes. Therefore, the conversion of EC or SAR in different
extracts of soil to water ratios to that of SP extract may be necessary. On the other hand, although
EC and individual ions of 1:1 or 1:2 soil/water ratio extracts are generally correlated with SP extracts,
the correlations appear to be different for different soils (Hogg and Henry, 1984; Zhang et al., 2005).
Caution needs to be taken for the interpretation of soil salinity and sodicity of a specific extraction
of soil to water ratio under local soil-climate-crop conditions. A general guideline of
interpretation based on saturated paste extraction is illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1. EC(dS/m) vs. ESP(%)
0
ESP 15
%
30
Normal
Soil
Sodic Soil
EC (dS/m)
8
12
Saline Soil
Increase salt hazard
Saline-Sodic Soil
General limit for most plants
Effects of Storage
1. Air-dried soils may be stored several months without affecting the EC and SAR
measurement.
References
Evangelou, V.P. 1998. Environmental soil and water chemistry. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
Hogg, T.J. and J.L. Henry. 1984. Comparison of 1;1 and 1:2 suspensions and extracts with the
saturation extract in estimating salinity in Saskatchewan soils. Can. J. Soil Sci. 64:699-704.
Mass, E.V. and G.J. Hoffman. 1977. Crop tolerance current assessment. J. Irrig. Drain. Div., Am.
Soc. Civ. Eng. 103(IR2):115-133.
Rhoades, J.D. 1990. Determining soil salinity from measurement of electrical conductivity.
Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 21:861-901.
Rhoades, J.D. 1996. Salinity: Electrical conductivity and total dissolved solids. P. 417-435. In D.L.
Sparks (ed.) Methods of soil analysis: Chemical methods, Part 3. ASA and SSSA, Madison, WI.
USDA, 1954. Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils. U.S.Dept. of Agriculture
Handbook no. 60. USDA, Washington, DC.
Zhang, H., LJ.L. Schroder; J.J. Pittman, J.J. Wang, and M.E. Payton. 2005. Soil salinity using
saturated paste and 1;1 soil and water extracts. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 69:1146-1151.