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Homotopy of Paths
General note: every problem here uses Theorem 18.2, mostly part (c). You should probably
be on good terms with this Theorem.
1. Show that if h, h0 : X Y are homotopic and k, k 0 : Y Z are homotopic, then
k h ' k 0 h0 .
Since h ' h0 , we have a homotopy
H :X I Y
Then define F : X I Z by
(
k(H(x, 2t)),
0 t 21
F (x, t) =
K(h0 (x), 2t 1), 21 t 1.
Then check that F does what it oughta do, at different times t:1
t=0
t=
1
2
t=1
2. Given spaces X and Y , let [X, Y ] denote the set of homotopy classes of maps of X
into Y . Let I = [0, 1].
(a) Show that for any X, the set [X, I] has a single element.
Define : X I to be the zero map: (x)
= 0, x X. Let : X I by any
continuous map. We show ' :
define : X I I by
(x, t) = (1 t)(x).
This is evidently a homotopy ' .
Since ' is an equivalence relation, this shows all maps : X I are equivalent
under ', i.e., there is only one equivalence class.
(b) Show that if Y is path connected, the set [I, Y ] has a single element.
Pick any point p Y and define : I Y by (x)
= p, so is the constant
map at p. Now let : I Y be arbitrary; we will again show ' .
Denote
(0) = a and (1) = b.
1Here,
and elsewhere, we are actually using the Pasting Lemma (Thm 18.3) to ensure this piecewise-defined
function is actually continuous. This is justified by the middle calculation, for t = 12 .
1
2
t=1
(x, 0) = (x)
x, 12 = (0) = a = (0)
(x, 1) = (1) = p.
t=1
H(x, 1) = 0.
1
2
(c) Show that if Y is contractible, then for any X, the set [X, Y ] has a single element.
Just as above, if Y is contractible, then we have a homotopy H between idY and
some constant map; call it f . So f (y) = p, y Y and H : idY ' f , i.e.,
H :Y I Y
t=1
(d) Show that if X is contractible and Y is path connected, then [X, Y ] has a single
element.
Let X be a contractible space. Then there is a homotopy H between idX and
some constant map; call it f . So f (x) = p, x X and H : idX ' f , i.e.,
H :X I X
=
q, y Y . Take any arbitrary map : X Y . We will show ' ,
so that all
maps from X to Y are homotopic to .
The plan is: use the contractibility of X to shrink it to a point (at p), then use
the path-connectedness of Y to move (p) (which is in Y ) to q Y . So we need
a path from (p) to q. By the path-connectedness of Y we have one:
: I Y,
1
2
t=1
We show =
by showing that ([f ]) = ( )([f
])
def of
def of the reverse
def of , p.326
def of
def of
are both homomorphisms from 1 (X, x0 ) to 1 (X, x1 ), we need to prove that they
both send a loop f 1 (X, x0 ) to the same loop in 1 (X, x1 ). Note that 1 (X, x1 )
must also be abelian, since
is an isomorphism, by Cor 52.2 (we are given that X is
def of
= []
[] [f ]
1 (X, x1 ) is abelian
= [ex1 ] [f ]
Thm 51.2(3)
= [f ] [ex1 ]
1 (X, x1 ) is abelian
= [f ]
Thm 51.2(2)
Thm 51.2(2)
Thm 51.2(3)
def of , p.326
1 (X, x0 ) is abelian
def of , p.326
multiply both sides on the left
Thm 51.2(3)
([f ]) = ([f
def of ,
Whew! Note that the fourth equality above is justified because is a loop, so
we avoid the problem of the other (incorrect) solution above.
([f ]) = fb([f ])
= [f] [f ] [f ]
=f
def of f
= [ex0 ] [f ]
= [f ]
Thm 51.2(2)
and
]) = f[
([f
g([f ])
= f g [f ] [f g]
= [g] f [f ] [f ] [g]
=f g
def of f
see Ex 2, at the end
= [g] [f ] [g]
Thm 51.2(2).
we know
]), and so
Since
= ,
([f ]) = ([f
[f ] = [g] [f ] [g]
[g] [f ] = [g] [g] [f ] [g]
[g] [f ] = [f ] [g],
using Thm 51.2(2,3) to cancel the gs. So 1 (X, x0 ) is abelian.
There is actually a much simpler way to do each direction of this proof. Can you
find it? Hint: remember the old tricks of adding 0 or multiplying by 1 for the
forward direction, and choose a more clever , for the backward direction.
4. Let A X; suppose r : X A is a retraction, i.e., a continuous map such that
r(a) = a for each a A. If a0 A, show that
r : 1 (X, a0 ) 1 (A, a0 )
is surjective.
Let f : I A be a loop in A, based at x0 . We must find a loop g in X, based at
x0 , such that r ([g]) = [r g] = [f ]. Because f is also a loop in X, based at x0 , we
can let g = f . Then
r f (t) = r(f (t)) = f (t),
since f (t) A and r is the identity on A.
t I,
t I,
f,
t=1
Note: we dont know that h((1 t)f (x) + ta0 ) is defined, but since h is extendible to
a continuous map on all of Rn , we konw that g((1 t)f (x) + ta0 ) is defined, since
(1 t)f (x) + ta0 is just some point between f (x) A and a0 .
6. Show that if X is path connected, the homomorphism induced by a continuous map
is independent of a base point, up to isomorphisms of the groups involved. More
precisely, let h : X Y be continuous, with h(x0 ) = y0 and h(x1 ) = y1 . Let be a
path in X from x0 to x1 , and let = h . Show that
(hx ) = (hx ) ,
0
1 (X, x0 )
1 (Y, y0 )
y
y
(hx )
1
1 (X, x1 )
1 (Y, y1 )
We need to see that these two operations do the same thing to any [f ] 1 (X, x0 ),
so let f be a loop in X based at x0 . On the one hand, we have
(hx ) ([f ]) = h[
(hx ) ([f ])
def of
0
= h[
([h f ])
= h [h f ] [h ]
= h [h f ] [h ]
def of h
def of
def of .
def of
= (hx1 ) ([
f ])
def of
= [h (
f )]
def of h
= [(h )
(h f ) (h ))]
k (f g) = (k f ) (k g)
= [h ]
[h f ] [h ]
def of .
So we still need h = [h ].
But this is true:
= h (t).
U {y}.
yY
y = y 1 = y2
U {y1 } = U {y2 }.
Let x p1 (U )
2. Let p : E B be continuous and surjective. Suppose that U is an open set of B
that is evenly covered by p. Show that if U is connected, then the partition of p1 (U )
into slices is unique.
Suppose we have two partitions of p1 (U ) into slices:
A = {V }A and B = {V }B .
Fix b B. Then for any , we can find the unique point (by homeomorphism)
b V such that p(b ) = b, and for any , we can find the unique point b V
such that p(b ) = b. Note that every V , V is connected, by homeomorphism with
U . We will show that there is a bijection between these partitions; i.e., A is actually
just a reindexing of B.
Fix 0 . Define f : A B as follows: find the unique 0 such that b0 V0 and
define f (0 ) = 0 . There will be such a V0 , because E = V , and that V0 will be
unique by the disjointness of the V .
S Now to see that this is a bijection. For b V E, such that b V because
V contains E. This shows surjectivity. For injectivity, note that
b V 1 V 1
10
1 = 2
p (U ) =
k
G
Vi
i=1
and
pVi = pi : Vi U is a homeomorphism, i.
We assume that b1 such that |p1 (b1 )| = j 6= k, and we will contradict the fact
that B is connected. Define
C = {b ... |p1 (b)| = k}
and
n
\
r(Ui Vi ).
i=1
i,
11
p(z) = z 2 = e2i .
and
For z S 1 , let z = ei so = arg(z) [0, 2). Let U be the image of 2 , + 2
under the map 7 ei so that U is the open semicircle centered at z. Then p1 (U )
consists of the quarter circle centered at z
V1 = exp 4 , + 4
and the quarter circle centered at z
V2 = exp + 4 ,
Bonus Problem: If p : E B is a covering map, show that p1 (b) E has the discrete
topology, for any b B.
Consider the topology that p1 (b) inherits from E. Since p is a covering map, we can find
a neighbourhood U of b which is evenly covered by p, i.e.,
G
p1 (U ) =
V , where the V are open.
A
V p1 (b) = {x },
where x is the unique point in V such that p(x ) = b. We have just represented {x } as
an intersection of an open set V with the subspace p1 (b) E, which shows that {x } is
open in the subspace topology of p1 (b). Since
G
p1 (b) =
{x },
A
12
= (0).
Show that
is a lifting of
.
= . By definition, p (
: I E by
We need to show p (
)
)
(
p (2t),
0 t 12 ,
p (
)(t) =
def of
1), 1 t 1,
p (2t
2
(
(2t),
0 t 21 ,
=
def of
,
(2t 1), 21 t 1,
= (t)
def of .
13
-1
2
1 ~
g
-1
-2
-1
2
~
f
-1
~
g
-2
-1
Figure 3. f g is a lifting of f g.
2I
14
~
f
S1
f
0
S1
2
S1 S1
is a loop which goes n times around the circle, in the direction of , we have
g ([]) = [g ] = [] [] = []n
|
{z
}
or
g : (t) 7 (nt).
n times
goes n times around the circle, in the direction opposite to . This gives
h ([]) = [h ] = [] [] = []n = [](n)
|
{z
}
n times
15
or
h : (t) 7 (nt).
16
17
j is inclusion.
2. Suppose h : S 1 S 1 is nulhomotopic.
(a) Show that h has a fixed point.
h extends to k : B 2 S 1 by Lemma 55.3 with X = S 1 . But S 1 B 2 , so we can
actually consider k as a mapping k : B 2 B 2 . Then k must have a fixed point
by Brouwers Theorem (55.6), call it b. Since Im(k) S 1 , k(b) = b implies that
b S 1 . Thus h(b) is defined. In fact,
as an extension, k = h on S 1
b is a fixed point of k.
h(b) = k(b)
=b
by S(x) = Ax/kAxk
18
19
20
x0
Figure 5. Loops around the axes in R3 .
fundamental group can be generated without . Also, note that ' 6= ,
so fundamental group is not abelian.
(f) {x ... kxk > 1}.
This space has 2S 1 = {x R2 ... kxk = 2} as a deformation retract by the straightline homotopy H(x, t) = (1 t)x + 2tx/kxk. 2S 1 is obviously homeomorphic to
S 1 by x 7 x/2, so 1 ((f)) = Z.
(g) {x ... kxk 1}.
This space has S 1 as a deformation retract by the straight-line homotopy H(x, t) =
(1 t)x + tx/kxk, so 1 ((g)) = Z.
(h) {x ... kxk < 1}.
By H(x, t) = (1 t)x, 1 ((h)) is trivial.
S1 (R+0)
S1 (R+R)
S1 (R0)
21
R2 (R+0)
(
x
kxk 1,
H(x, t) =
,
(1 t)x + tx/kxk kxk > 1.
we obtain the theta space of Example 3. This has the fundamental group of the
figure eight, as both are retracts of the doubly punctured plane (apply Thm.
58.3 to Example 2).
(l) R2 \(R+ 0).
By H(x, t) = (1 t)x + t(1, 0), 1 ((l)) is trivial.
3. Show that given a collection C of spaces, the relation of homotopy equivalence is an
equivalence relation on C.
We show the three properties.
(i) Let f = g = idX : X X. Then f g, g f are both homotopic to the identity
on X (since they are the identity on X). So X u X.
(ii) Let X u Y . Then f : X Y, g : Y X such that g f ' idX and f g ' idY .
But this is just the same as Y u X.
(iii) Let X u Y and Y u Z. Then we have homotopy equivalences f : X Y and
h : Y Z, with corresponding inverses g : Y X and k : Z Y . We need
to show that h f : X Z and g k : Z X are homotopy inverses of each
other. By associativity,
(g k) (h f ) = g (k h) f.
Then h, k are homotopy inverses, so k h ' idY and
g (k h) ' g idY
51 Exercise 1
51 Exercise 1 again
' g f (x)
by trivial homotopy
22
H(x, 1) = x0 ,
x X.
Suppose r : X A is a retraction, so that r A = idA . Since it doesnt matter what
point
x0 we chose above (X is path connected by Exercise 51.3(b)), let x0 A. Then
H AI defines a homotopy from idA to x0 .
23
24
and V = X (, 1) R2 ,
25
26
and
(
(
g(p(x))
z(x) 0
{x, x} z(x) 0
g f ({x, x}) =
=
= {x, x}.
g(p(x)) z(x) 0
{x, x} z(x) 0
27
def complement
= f (X)\f (U )
BST 3(d)
= Y \f (U )
f is onto
= f (U ) ,
so f (U ) is open.
3. Let p : E X be the map constructed in the proof of Lemma 60.5. Let E 0 be the
subspace of E that is the union of the x-axis and the y-axis. Show that pE 0 is not a
covering map.
Consider a tiny open disc centered at x0 . Its intersection with X is a small open
X shape. Its preimage looks like a similar open X centered at the origin, as
well as a small open horizontal interval around every point (n, 0) and a small vertical
interval
around every point (0, n), where n Z.
p E 0 is not a covering map because while these open intervals are open and disjoint,
they are not homeomorphic to the X in the base space. To see this, note that any
map from an X onto an interval is necessarily not injective.
4. The space P 1 and the covering map p : S 1 P 1 are familiar ones. What are they?
For z S 1 , define
p(z) = z 2 .
Check that this maps antipodal points to the same point:
p(z) = (z)2 = z 2 = p(z).
We already know this is a covering map, by previous problems (and homework).
So P 1 = S 1 .
28
B1
A0
A1
e1
e0
e2
B0
p
g
x0
[f ] [g] = [f g] 6= [g f ] = [g] [f ],
and the fundamental group is not abelian.
29