Calculus 2

------------------Overview:
*Hyperbolic
*Integration tecniques
*Geometry
*Sequences
*Polar coordinates
Hyperbolic review:
sinh(x) = [e^(x) - e^(-x)]/2
cosh(x) = [e^(x) + e^(-x)]/2 | always pos.
tanh(x) = sinh(x)/cosh(x) = [e^(x) - e^(-x)]/[e^(x) + e^(-x)]
cosh(x)^2 - sinh(x)^2 = 1
d/dx(sinhx) = cosh(x)
d/dx(coshx) = sinh(x)
d/dx(tanhx) = sech(x)^2
Trig review: ** = Important to rememember
sin(x)^2 + cos(x)^2 = 1 | **
tan(x)^2 + 1 = sec(x)^2 | **
1 + cot(x)^2 = csc(x)^2
sin(2x) = 2sin(x)cos(x)
cos(2x) = cos(x)^2 - sin(x)^2 = 2cos(x)^2 - 1 = 1 - 2sin(x)^2cos
sin(x)^2 = (1/2)*[1-cos(2x)] | **
cos(x)^2 = (1/2)*[1+cos(2x)] | **
sin(-x) = -sin(x) | odd function
cos(-x) = cos(x) | even function
Basic differentiation and integration:
See appendix for full content, below are **:
sin(x)^2 dx = x/2 - (1/4)sin(2x) + C
cos(x)^2 dx = x/2 + (1/4)sin(2x) + C
tanx dx = ln|sec(x)| + C
secx dx = ln|sec(x) + tan(x)| + C
[1/(a^2 + x^2)] dx = (1/a)arctan(x/a) + C
---------------------------------------------------------Integration by parts (IBP, Reverse Product Rule):
u dv = uv - v du | u = f(x), du = f'(x), v = g(x), dv = g'(x)
Same for definite integrals:
{b,a} u dv = uv|{b,a} - {b,a} v du
Use IBP for:
arctan(x) dx, arcsin(x) dx, ln(x) dx,
xcos(x) dx, (x^3)e^x dx, ln(n^x) dx, (e^x)cos(x) dx
Examples:
[sin(x)^m][cos(x)^n] dx
->Case 1: Odd sin power
sin(x)^3 dx = (1/3)cos(x)^3-cos(x) + Calculus
->Case 2: Odd cos power
[sin(x)^2][cos(x)^5] dx = (1/3)sin(x)^3 - (2/5)sin(x)^5 +

(1/7)sin(x)^7 + Calculus
->Case 3: Even sin/cos power
[sin(x)^4][cos(x)^2] dx = x/16 - sin(4x)/64 - [sin(2x)^3]
/48 + Calculus
[tan(x)^m][sec(x)^n] dx
->Case 1: Even sec power
[tan(x)^4][sec(x)^6] dx = (1/5)tan(x)^5 + (2/7)tan(x)^7 +
(1/9)tan(x)^9 + Calculus
->Case 2: Odd tan power
[tan(x)^3][sec(x)^5] dx = (1/7)sec(x)^7 - (1/5)sec(x)^5 +
C
Reduction Formula (n >= 2): Use IBP
cos(x)^n dx = (1/n)[cos(x)^(n-1)]sin(x) + [(n-1)/n]cos(x)^(n-2) dx
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Trigonometric Inverse Substitution:
Let x be a trig function:

/|
(1) sqrt(a^2 + x^2) | let x = a*tan() = s rt(a^2 + (a^2)tan()^2) =
s rt((a^2)sec()^2) = a*sec() | = arctan(x/a) -> -/2 < < /2 ( is
ositive, so x is

sitive) => s rt(x^2 + a^2) / | x
/_|
a
/|
(2) s rt(a^2 - x^2) | let x = a*sin() [alt: x = a*cos()] = s rt(a^
2 - (a^2)sin()^2) = s rt((a^2)cos()^2) = a*cos() | = arcsin(x/a) -> -/2 =< =< /2 =>
a / | x
/_|
s rt(a^2 - x^2)

/|
(3) s rt(x^2 - a^2) | let x = a*sec() = s rt((a^2)sec()^2 - a^2) = s rt((a
^2)*[sec()^2 - 1]) = s rt((a^2)*tan()^2) = a*tan() | = Q1, Q3 => x / | s rt(x^2 a^2)
/_|
a
Ex: 1/[s rt(4 + x^2)] dx = ln|s rt(x^2 + 4)/2 + x/2| + Calculus

Com
leting the s uare....

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Partial Fractions Decom
osition:
*For integrating ration functions: P(x)/Q(x) dx | works only if 1) Q(x)
is factorable, 2) P(x)/Q(x)
ro
er fraction, i.e. degree of P(x) < degree of Q(x
)
*Method 1: match x^n terms
*Method 2:
lug in x values
*Exam
le: (5x -3)/(x^2 - 2x - 3) dx = (A/(x-3) + B/(x+1)) dx =>
A(x+1) + B(x-3) = 5x - 3
-Method 1: A(x+1) + B(x-3) = Ax + A + Bx - 3B = (A+B)x +
(A-3B) = 5x - 3 | A+B = 5 and A-3B = -3 ==> A = 3 and B = 2
-Method 2: x = -1 :: -4B = -8 => B = 2 and x = 3 :: 4A =
12 => A = 3
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Numerical Integration:
*Left:
*Right:
*Mid
oint:
*Tra
:
-Write a

roximations increasing order: Ln, Rn, Mn, Tn | also: '
under' or 'over' actual area
*Error bounds for Tn and Mn
-For Tn (or Mn), how large should n be for accuracy to be within
10^-4
-Find reasonable u

erbounds for |f"|
Im
ro
er integrals:
*Bounds has +/- infinity (either a, b, or both) & functions goes to infi
nity
*Convergent or Divergent?
-integral = a number | Convergent
-integral = +/- infinity | Divergent
*Ty
e 1: infinite interval
*Ty
e 2: interval discontinuity
{, 1} 1/(x^
) dx
*if
=< 1 : divergent
*if
> 1 : convergent
*Com
arison test with another known con./div. integral
-Exam
le: {, 1} (sin(x)^2)/x^2 dx => Com
are to {, 1
} 1/(x^2 dx which is convergent |...
since (sin(x)^2)/x^2 =< 1/(x^2
) b/c 0 =< sin(x)^2 =< 1
so {, 1} (sin(x)^2)/x^2 dx conve
rgent by the Com
arison Test
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Area between Curves:
{b, a} [f(x) - g(x)] dx | f(x) is 'to
' function and g(x) is 'bottom' fun
ction
*Gra
h functions and/or find intersection
oints, then find area
b/w curves

Disc method (solid sha
e, no holes):

*Slices are 'dx' wide, and
er
endicular to axis-of-rotation, rotates *(r
^2) = *(f(x)^2): V = {b, a} [*(f(x)^2)] dx
*For around y-axis: V = {b, a} [*(f(y)^2)] dy
Washer method (solid sha
e, a hole):
*Find volume by taking small circle area (radius r) from big circle area
(radius R): {b, a} [R^2 - r^2] dx = {b, a} [f(x)^2 - g(x)^2] dx
Volume by slicing: cross section area
-s uare, isosceles triangle, semi-circle,...
Cylindrical Shell:
*slices
arallel to non-rotating axis | rotate around y-axis for f(x) an
d around x-axis for f(y): V = {b, a} 2*[rh] dx | rh in terms of x
*rectangle
ieces: width = 2x and h = f(x)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Arc length:
*Given y = f(t) | L(x) = {a, b} s rt[1+(dy/dt)^2] dt and L(y) = {c, d} s r
t[1+(dx/dt)^2] dt
Cavalieri's Theorem:...
Area of Surface Revolution: S = 2*f(x) ds (or 2*f(y) ds) | ds = s rt[1+(dx/dt)^2] dx
(or ds = s rt[1+(dx/dt)^2] dx)
*Surface area of frustrum: S = (area of large cone) - (area of small con
e)
Moments and center of mass:
*For 1-D and 2-D:
*Density:
-For 1-D: mass = density*length
-For 2-D: mass = density*area = *Aea | = unifom density and p(x
) = vaiable density
*Equations of Moments:
Mx = {b, a} (1/2)(f(x)^2 - g(x)^2) dx
My = {b, a} x(f(x) - g(x)) dx
*Cente of mass coodinates:
xba = (My)/M
yba = (Mx)/M
*M = A
*A = {b, a} [f(x)-g(x)] dx
Theoem of Pappus:
*V = A*d | A = aea of egion, d = distance taveled by centoid
Applications to Physics:

Wok = foce*distance
Diffeential Equations:
-Fist ode, sepaable equations...
-Law of exponential change...
-Logistic Gowth...
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Sequences:
*An odeed list of numbes: {a1, a2, a3,..., an} = {an} o {an}|{infini
ty, n=1}
*Hamonic sequence: {1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4,...} = {1/n} | sqc -> 0 (sequence
conveges to 0)
*Altenating hamonic sequence: {1, -1/2, 1/3, -1/4,...} = {[(-1)^(n-1)]
/n} | sqc -> 0
*{n/(n+1)} -> 1
*{ln(n)} -> infinity
-A seq. has limit 'L' if lim{n->infinity} {an} = L | convegent
-if L undefined, seq. divegent
-Theoem: can tun seq. into function (f(n) = a[n]) to find limi
t
*can eindex sequence
Convegence of altenating seies (non-positive):
*if lim |a[n}]=0, then lim a[n]=0
Squeeze theoem:
*if an =< bn =< cn and lim an = lim cn = L, then lim bn = L
Geometic sequence: {^n}
*lim {^n}:
*L = 0 | -1 <  < 1 => || < 1
*L = 1 |  = 1
*divegent othewise
Recusive:
*sequence tems dependent on pevious tems
*example: a1 = 1, a[n+1] = sqt(1+a[n])
-lim {..., a[n-1], a[n], a[n+1],...} = L | a[n+1] = sqt(a+a[n])
--> L = sqt(1+L)
--> L^2 = 1+L --> L^2 - L - 1 = 0 --> L = (1+sqt(5))/2
| Golden atio
Monotonic sequences:
*an inceasing o deceasing sequence
*Monotonic Sequence Theoem: evey boudned mono-seq. is convegent
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Seies:

*infinite seies: {, n=1} a[n] = a1 + a2 + a3 + ...

-infinite seies may convege into a function
-fo 1 + x + x^2 + ... = 1/(1-x) fo some x | used fo a
ppoximating & integating/diffeentiating moe easily

seies diveges

-If (inf.) seies convegent, then lim a[n] = 0 (seq. -> 0)

-Test fo Divegence: if lim a[n]0 o lim a[n] = DNE, then (inf.)

-adding/emoving a finite numb. of tems fom seies DOE

S NOT CHANGE convegence/divegence of a seies
*patial sum: sum of fist 'n' tems of a seies
-sequence s[n] has tems that ae the "sum" of all pevious, con
secutive tems
-take limit of patial sum s[n] {n->} to find if (infinite) seie
s conveges o diveges | if lim s[n] = L, convegent and if DNE, divegent
*if s[n] = a1 + a2 + ..., then s[n] - s[n-1] = a[n]
*geometic seies: {, n=1} a*^[n-1] o {, n=0} a*^[n]
-sum of finite geom. seies: s[n] = a*([1-^n]/[1-]) | 1
-sum of a geometic seies: {, n=1} a*^[n-1] = a/(1-) if || < 1
*Combining seies: if a[n] and b[n] ae convegent, and c[n] and d[n] diveg
ent, then
K*a[n] = ka[n] | convegent
(a[n] +/- b[n]) = a[n] +/- b[n] | convegent
k*c[n] = kc[n] | divegent
(a[n] +/- c[n]) = a[n] (conv.) +/- c[n] (div.) | divegent
(c[n] +/- d[n]) = indeteminate
*Hamonic seies: diveges (but hamonic seq. conveges)
*Telescoping seies - S[n] has constant # of tems
-tems cancel out and finding limit is possible (hint: put tems
vetically and wite fom fist to nth tem)
Integal Test:
*if a[n] is f[n] fo f(x) & f(x) is continuous, oos., deceasing functio
n on [1,]:
-if {, 1} f(x) dx conveges/diveges, {, n=1} a[n] conveges/divege
s
Diect Compaison Test:
*if a[n] & b[n] ae seies with positive foms:
(1) a[n] =< b[n] & b[n] convegent == a[n] convegent
(2) a[n] >= b[n] and b[n] divegent == a[n] divegent
Limit Compaison Test:
*if a[n] and b[n]
, then both seies convege
-if c=0, if
-if c=, if

have pos. tems and lim{n->} a[n]/b[n] = c (constant > 0)

o divegence
b[n] con. then a[n] con.
b[n] div. then a[n] div.

Altenating Seies Test:

*if [(-1)^(n-1)]*b[n], b[n] > 0 and:
(1) b[n+1] =< b[n]
(2) lim {} b[n] = 0
-then seies conveges | sometimes inconclusive
Evey seies: Abs./Cond. con. o div.
*Absolute Convegence: a[n] is absolutely convegent if |a[n]| is convege
nt
-An absolutely convegent seies is convegent
*Conditional Convegence: a[n] diveges but b[n] conveges
*Othewise divegent
Altenating Seies Estimation Theoem:
*if S = {, n=1} (-1)^(n-1) b[n] and:
(1) 0 =< b[n+1] =< b[n]

(2) lim {n->} b[n] = 0

-then emainde = |R[n]| = |S-S[n]| =< b[n+1]
Ratio Test:
*Let  = lim {n->} |a[n+1]/a[n]|, then if:
(1)  < 1: a[n] abs. conv.
(2)  > 1: a[n] div.
(3)  = 1: inconclusve
*good test fo factoial and exponential functions
*not good test fo ational o oot functions
Root Test: Let a[n] be of the fom (--)^n | (--) can be anything
*Let  = lim {n->} sqt(|a[n]|) = lim {n->} (|a[n]|)^(1/n), then:
(1)  < 1: a[n] abs. conv.
(2)  > 1: a[n] div.
(3)  = 1: inconclusve
Impotant:
*ln(n) < n^p, p>0
*Ratio & oot test eval. @ same limit: if one fails, so does othe one
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Powe Seies:
*Any seies in the fom {,n=0} c[n]*(x-a)^n = c0 + c1(x-a) + c2(x-a)^2 + .
.., centeed @ x = a
-c[n]'s ae coefficients of the seies
-seies a function of x
*conveges always @ x=a*
*adius of convegence (of seies): R > |x-a|
*inteval of convegence (of seies): a-R < x < a+R | al
so detemine if eithe x = a-R o x=a+R conveges, and include in inteval of co
nvegence
-if R=0, inteval of con. {a}
-if R=, inteval (-,)
-if R>0, inteval (a-R, a+R), possibly endpoints
-use Ratio/Root Test to find inteval of conveg
ence
Repesent functions as Powe Seies:
*Recall geometic seies S = a/(1-) = {, n=1} a*^[n-1] = {, n=0} a*^[n] >fom of powe seies
-Powe seies {, n=0} a*x^n = a/(1-x) fo |x|<1
-Convet a/(1-) -> geom. seies -> powe seies (and vice vesa
)
*Diffeentiation and Integation of Powe Seies
-by whole function o tem-by-tem
-same cente a and adius R; endpoints may change
*ln(1+x) = {,n=1} [(-1)^(n-1)]*(x^n)/n | a=0, R=1-D
*actan(x) = {,n=0} [(-1)^n]*(x^(2n+1))/(2n+1) = x - (x^3)/3 + (x^5)/5 - (
x^7)/7
-can appoximate
Taylo and Maclauin Seies:
*Taylo: given f(x) is powe seies and diffeentiable, then:

(x^n)

f(x) = {,n=0} ((f(a)^[n])/n!)*(x-a)^n | [n] ae pimes

-Maclauin: a=0 (special case of Taylo) | {,n=0} ((f(0)^[n])/n!)*

*e^x: {,n=0} (x^n)/n!

*cos(x) = {,n=0} [(-1)^n*(x^(2n))]/(2n)!
*sin(x) = {,n=0} [(-1)^n*(x^(2n+1))]/(2n+1)!
*Binomial seies: (1+x)^k = *cos(x) = {,n=0} (k n) x^n, (k
n) is binomial coefficient(s)
*Taylo's fomula: if f has (n+1) deivatives in inteval 'I' containing
'a', numbe 'z' b/w 'a' and 'x' so:
if f(x) = Tn(x) + Rn(x), then Rn(x) =
((f(z)^[n+1])*[(x-a)^(n+1)])/(n+1)!
-Fo eo appoximations
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Paametic Cuves:
*x = f(t), y = g(t), a =< t =< b
-cicle @ (h,k) w/ aidus : x = cos(t)+h, y=sin(t)+k | ccw, s
tats @ ight
-ellipse (x^2)/(a^2) + (y^2)/(b^2) = 1: x = acos(t)+h, y=bsin(t)
+k*c
*catesian to paametic:
- y=f(x) => x=t, y=f(t) & x=g(y) => y=t, x=g(t) | solve fo t, t
hen sub
*cycloid: x=(t-sin(t)), y=(1-cos(t))
Calculus w/ Paametic cuves:
* dy/dx = (dy/dt)/(dx/dt), dx/dt0
* Aea A: given x=f(t), y=g(t), a=f(), b=f(), {,a} F(x) dx = {,} g(t)f'(t) dt
* Arc length: {,} sqrt[(dx/dt)^2 + (dy/dt)^2] dt
Ares nd lengths in polr coordintes:
*Are = (1/2)*(r^2) d
*Area /w polar curves = {,} (1/2)[r1^2 - r2^2] d | r1=f()=outer & r2=g()=inne
r
*Arc length: {,} sqrt[r^2 + (dr/d)^2] d
Conic sections:
*ellipse, circle, hyperola, paraola