A STUDY ON THE STATUS OF

FEMALE HEADS OF HOUSEHOLDS

AND THEIR ACCESSTO ECONOMIC,
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS
AMPARA DISTRICT

A STUDY ON THE STATUS OF

FEMALE HEADS OF HOUSEHOLDS
AND THEIR ACCESS TO ECONOMIC,
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS
AMPARA DISTRICT
2015

The views and opinions expressed in this publication do not represent the views of FOKUS.
Published by:
FOKUS WOMEN
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Colombo 5
Sri Lanka
Tel/Fax: +94112055404
Web: http://www.fokuskvinner.no
Cover Photo: Thilina Madiwala/FOKUS WOMEN
Printed and Published in 2015
All rights reserved. This material is copyright and not for resale, but may be reproduced by
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publications or for translation, prior written permission must be obtained from the copyright
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Printed and bound in Sri Lanka by Wits Originals

iii

FOREWORD
FOKUS WOMEN undertook this research study in 2014. The available literature on female
heads of households indicated many gaps and there was a need to clarify the conceptual
understanding of who a female head of the household (FHH) is. This common understanding
among development actors and state institutions is crucial as a first step towards working on
the issues of FHH.
500 women were interviewed from three divisions in the Ampara district. The interviewees
were selected from five Grama Niladhari (GN) divisions from these Divisional Secretariat (DS)
areas to ensure the representation of the major ethnic groups. The sample consisted of 250
women from the Tamil community, 150 Sinhalese, 50 Muslims, and 50 Kuravars (Gypsies). The
data collection was conducted through individual interviews and six focus group discussions
(FGDs ).
FOKUS WOMEN identified the need to work on issues of female heads of households (FHHs)
at the end of Phase One of the FOKUS programme. There was also a need for systematic
documentation of information on FHH who have been affected by the conflict in these areas.
We hope the findings of this research study will contribute to the states policies on female
heads of households and result in more streamlined interventions for these FHH who have
been affected by the war.
FOKUS WOMEN would like to thank Ms. Vasuki Jeyasankar, Womens Rights Activist
and Gender Consultant, who carried out the research study and wrote the report. FOKUS
WOMEN would also like to thank Ms. Kanthimathy Joy and the Womens Development Centre,
Akkaraipattu that undertook the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the research.

Shyamala Gomez
Country Director
FOKUS WOMEN

iv

A Study on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Ampara District

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author of the study would like to thank Sumithra Sellathamby
for assisting with the study, Ms. Kanthimathy Joy and the team
from Womens Development Centre, women who participated in
the focus group discussions and interviews and Marilyn Weaver
for proof reading the document.

FoKUS Women

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword
Acknowledgements
Contents

iii
iv
v

Chapter I
Introduction

1
1

Chapter II
Methodology

2
2

Chapter III
Limitations of the Study
Demographic Information
Basic Information of the FHHs
Reasons for Becoming FHHs
Dependents of FHHs

4
4
4
5
5
7

Chapter IV
Findings and Analysis
The right to be free from poverty and the status of FHHs
Livelihoods of FHHs and Family Income
Poverty within FHHs
Livelihood Support Provided for FHHs

8
8
8
8
9
10

Chapter V
Status and Social Position of Women
Recognition as Head of Household
Membership and Participation in Committees and Groups
Access and Ownership: Land, House and Other Assets
Land
House

11
11
11
11
13
13
15

Chapter VI
Government Schemes, Policies and Practices
Insufficient Support, Lack of Information and Transparency of Government
Schemes
Loans
Discriminatory Government Policies and Practices
Knowledge on Government and Other Structures for Seeking Justice

16
16
16
17
18
19

vi

A Study on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Ampara District

Chapter VII
Discriminatory Practices and Violence
Early Marriage
Physical Security and Violence
Health Issues

20
20
20
21
22

Chapter VIII
Conclusion

23
23

Chapter IX
Recommendations
Government Policies and Schemes:
General Recommendations:

25
25
25
26

Annexure: 1
Stories of Courage

27
27

Annexure: 2
Questionnaire

29
29

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

raditional gendered roles of women have been changing noticeably during the
past 3 decades due to the civil war, tsunami and various other reasons. One such major
change is the increasing number of female headed households (FHHs).
This is a study commissioned by FOKUS WOMEN with the objective to assess the status
of FHHs and their access to economic, social and cultural rights with special focus on land
and housing rights, access to public services, participation in public life and governance,
prevalence of underage marriage, and physical security and violence. Womens Development
Centre (WDC) in Akkaraipattu functioned as the field partner in the research.
For the purpose of this study the definition of FHHs is adopted from the International Labour
Organization (ILO) that female-headed households are households where either no adult
male is present, owing to divorce, separation, migration, non-marriage, or widowhood; or
where the men, although present, do not contribute to the household income, because of
illness or disability, alcoholism, and so on1.
According to the Family Income and Expenditure Survey 2012/13, 1.1 million families out
of 5.2 million families are FHHs in Sri Lanka. Further, the higher numbers of FHHs are
registered in war affected districts, North and East.
This study is conducted in 3 Divisional Secretariat Divisions of Ampara district namely
Lahugala, Akkaraipattu and Alayadivempu. Ampara district is located in the South of
Eastern Province. The district constitutes almost all the different ethnic groups of Sri
Lanka including the numerical minorities - Veddhas and Kuravars (nomads). According to
the statistics collected from the respective Divisional Secretariats there are 1140 FHHs in
Alayadivempu, 525 in Lahugala including 193 in Panama, 2053 in Akkaraipattu including
77 in Meera Nagar.

ABC of Women Workers Rights and Gender Equality, International labour Office,Geneva, p. 32.

A Study on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Ampara District

CHAPTER II

METHODOLOGY

he data collection was conducted through individual face-to-face interviews and focus
group discussions (FGDs). The key economic, social and cultural rights (ESCR) issues
encountered by FHHs in their respective areas are classified and compiled into a questionnaire
with the participation of field researchers of WDC.
3 divisions in Ampara district were selected for data gathering where all 3 major ethnic groups
and the numerical minorities are living. Interviewees were selected from 5 Grama Niladhari
(GN) divisions from these Divisional Secretariat (DS) areas and the representation of ethnic
groups is ensured.
Individual interviews were conducted by the field volunteers of WDC. FGDs were conducted
by the consultant and her assistant. 500 individual interviews and 6 FGDs were conducted. 4
FGDs were conducted before the detailed data collection and 2 FGDs were conducted with
a specific category of women to check the accuracy of some key findings. Women leaders in
the communities including presidents and secretaries of Women Rural Development Societies
(WRDS) participated in the FGDs with the local FHHs.
Field data was collected from September 2014 to November 2014.

Table 1: Details of data collection:

Number of Questionnaires Completed in Each Division
Divisional Secretariat

Village

Number of
Questionnaires

Lahugala

Panama

150

Akkaraipattu

Town Division 3 (TD-3)

50

Alayadivempu

Kannakipuram + Puliyampath

250

Aligampe

50

TOTAL

500

FoKUS Women

Table 2: FGDs with Women Leaders and FHHs

FGDs with Women Leaders and FHHs
Divisional
Village
Secretariat/Place

Date of FGD

Number of
Participants

Lahugala

Panama

07.10.2014

15

Akkaraipattu

Town Division 3(TD3)

11.10.2014

10

Alayadivempu

Kannakipuram + Puliyampath

10.10.2014

12

Aligampe

14.10.2014

WDC Office

Specific FGDs on Samurdhi, Land Rights

and Livelihood Support

11.12.2014

10

TD3

Specific FGDs on Samurdhi, Land Rights

and Livelihood Support

11.12.2014

15

A Study on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Ampara District

CHAPTER III

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

primary drawback of the study was the limited knowledge on ESCR and little or no
experience of the interviewees to complete the questionnaires. There was no scope to train
the team intensively on both the topics. There was only a one day workshop to identify key issues
pertaining to ESCR rights of women in Ampara district in order to frame the questionnaire and
to set the ethics for interviews.
The selection of study areas was limited to 3 Divisional Secretariats among the 20 Divisional
Secretariat areas of Ampara district. Additionally the interviewees were also selected by WDC
based on their contacts and experience in the field.

Demographic Information
Among the 500 women who were interviewed 250 were Tamil, 150 Sinhalese, 50 Muslims, and
50 Kuravars (Gypsies). (Kuravar in Tamil means people from a hill origin. (Table 3)
Ethnicity
Tamil
Sinhalese
Muslim
Kuravar

Total Interviews
250
150
50
50

Table3: Ethnicity of the respondents

The ages of the respondents ranged from 16 (only 1 respondent) to above 50 out of which 48%
were between 31 50, 45% above 50 and the remaining 7 % are between18-30. (Table 4)
Age
Under 18
18 - 30
31 - 50
Above 50

Total

Percentage (100%)

1
35
239
225

0%
7%
48%
45%

Table 4: Age category of the respondents

FoKUS Women

While 24% of the respondents have not received any education, another 64 % had studied
below the Ordinary Level (O/L). Only 12 % have studied O/L and above, while another 2%
have studied up to Advanced Level (A/L). (Chart 1)

No Education
24%

Under O/L
64%

A/L
2%

O/L
10%

Chart 1: Educational background of the respondents

Basic Information of the FHHs

Reasons for Becoming FHHs
Among the 500 women interviewed, 151 became FHHs within the past 5 years and 131 became
FHHs between the period of October 2004 October 2009 mostly covering the period of post
tsunami, height of war in the East and the end of the war. Another 218 became FHHs prior to 10
years; which is, before 2009. Among the first criteria which is those who became FHHs within
the past 5 years, 26 families have become FHHs during the past 1 year.(Table 5)
Categorization of time period in
which families became FHHs

No of total
individuals

No of individuals
by ethnicity
Kuravar Muslim Tamil Sinhalese

Within a year
(between October 2013 October 2014)

26

12

2-5 years
(between October 2009 October 2013)

125

21

58

37

131

85

31

218

32

17

99

70

500

50

50

250

150

6-10 years
(between October 2004October 2009)
Above 10 years
(before October 2004)

Table 5: Period in which families became FHHs

A Study on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Ampara District

Only 15 (3%) among the respondents are unmarried and heading their families, whereas 485
(97%) women are married and stating different reasons for their status as FHHs.
Findings reveal that the main cause for the creation of FHHs in the death of their husband with
273 (55%) belonging to this category . Another 26(5%) claimed that their husbands have been
disappeared. 41(8%) of them are divorcees. Of the remaining 145 women, husbands of 46(9%)
women are ill and unable to contribute to the family income, 38(7%) are unemployed and 18
(4%) are working in other locations. 43(9%) women stated other reasons such as husband in
prison, husband being an alcoholic and not taking responsibilities, abandoned the family and
living with another woman. (Table 6)
Total no of women

Percentage

Unmarried

15

3%

Husband Dead

273

55%

Husband Disappeared

26

5%

Divorced

41

8%

Husband Working Elsewhere

18

4%

Husband Unemployed

38

7%

Husband Ill

46

9%

Other Reasons

43

9%

Total

500

100%

Reasons for becoming FHH

Table 6: Reasons for becoming FHHs

The ethnic breakdown of disappearances is shown below. When compared with the sample size
the numbers among the Kuravar community is disproportionately higher (12%) than others.
(Table 7)2
No of disappearances
(Individuals)

% Based on the sample size of the

particular ethnic group

Muslim

8%

Tamil

3.6%

Sinhalese

4.7%

Total

26

Ethnicity
Kuravar

12%

Table 7: Disappearance of the male head of household by ethnicity

2 This may be due to their vulnerability of being identified as Tamil and living in the border villages whereconflicting
parties confronted each other mostly. Refer TheWar and Its Consequences in the AmparaDistrict, Special Report
No. 3, University Teachers for Human Rights (Jaffna), 16th October 1990, p.53.

FoKUS Women

Dependents of FHHs
Out of the 500 respondents, 48 (9.6%) women stated that they are not responsible for any
dependents. The remaining 452 respondents are having their children, husbands, parents or
other relatives as dependents. The majority of them, 429 (85.8%) women, are having children
as dependents. (Table 8)
Total no of
dependents

Percentage
(out of the total
500 respondents )

Parents

18

3.6%

Children

291

58.2%

Husband Only

1%

Husband and Children

37

7.4%

Husband, Children and Other Family Members

100

20%

0.2%

452

90.4%

Category of dependents

Children and Mother-in-law

Total

Table 8: Dependents on FHHs

A Study on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Ampara District

CHAPTER IV

FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS

The right to be free from poverty and the status of FHHs
Livelihoods of FHHs and Family Income
73% of the women interviewed are engaged in some kind of income generation activities and the
rest of the 27 % are not engaged in any income generating activities. (Chart 2)

Unemployed
27%

Employed
73%

Chart 2: Employment of respondents

Within the 73% of women who are engaged in livelihood activities, the majority (31.6%) are
self-employed, involved in poultry, pottery making, sewing and small businesses (eg:grocery
shop, selling rice, rice flour, curd and food). 27.2% of the interviewees work under the laborer
category as agricultural laborers, beedi making laborers and as domestic workers which
comprise. 1% (3 Tamil women and 2 Sinhalese women) are having permanent employment
as teachers. There are 51 women categorized as Other who stated that they are employed but
were unable to define the type of work clearly. Begging is stated as a means of livelihood only by
the FHHs from the Kuravar community. (Table 9)

FoKUS Women

Types of livelihood activities No of women Percentage

Permanent Job
5
1
Laborer
136
27.2
Self Employed
158
31.6
Other (not defined)
51
10.2
Begging
16
3.2
No job (Unemployed)
134
26.8

Table 9: Type of employment

Poverty within FHHs

Irrespective of whether they work or not, 99% of the interviewees claimed to be to dependant
on multiple other sources to fulfill their basic needs and the education of their children. The
other sources of support were identified as support of relatives and government and nongovernmental agencies. To the question on the fulfillment of their basic needs3 391 FHHs said
that their basic needs are not satisfied and 3 said its not fully satisfied. See Chart 3.
450
391

400
350
300
250
200
150
100

106

50

0
Satisfied

Not satisfied

Not fully satisfied

Chart 3: Fulfillment of basic needs

Since 429 FHHs among the interviewed 500 are entitled to the Samurdhi support we can assume
that the majority of them are living in poverty.
During the FGDs the reason for poverty is explained by FHHs the insufficient total family
income. It was observed during the field visit and FGDs that some FHHs were in extreme
poverty and unable to fulfill even the basic needs of their family. This phenomenon is observed
in almost all FHHs in the Kuravar community. During the field visits to Aligampe for the FGDs
the people we met there also confirmed this. One school teacher said that almost all the students
from this particular community attend the school without having a proper meal.
3 Basic need defined for the purpose of this research is food, clothing and housing.

10

A Study on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Ampara District

Livelihood Support Provided for FHHs

The question in FGDs on livelihood skills and the material support provided by different actors
to the FHHs has highlighted a few issues. From time to time women were given trainings on
various livelihood activities. Most of these trainings were closer to the traditional roles of women
such as food processing and tailoring. Also there were trainings provided on non-traditional
skills such as driving and carpentry. A few women in the FGDs said that they have received
material support such as three wheelers, sewing machines and a rice pounding machine.
But none of the women who were present in the FGDs were able to confirm that those trainings
or the material support have ensured a sustainable livelihood for them. The reasons for this in
the perception of women are;
(1) Marketing possibilities were not assessed before deciding on the provision of trainings
and items,
(2) Required long term support to the women who were trained on non-traditional
work was not given and they were left alone to struggle against the gendered social
perceptions about work.
eg 1: The woman who was donated a three wheeler said that she uses it to buy and sell
cloth. But even after 2 years of being a female driver many people of her community
are not confident about her driving and prefer to hire a three wheeler driven by
a man. If they hire her they pay less than what they are supposed to pay a male.
For example she will be given only Rs. 60/= to a distance the other male drivers
charge Rs.100/=. In addition to these hardships the men in the community still
pass comments about her.
eg 2: A woman said that she received a rice grinding machine. It is expected that she will
earn a reasonable amount by fulfilling the grinding needs of her community. But
she only receives 1-2 kilos per week. She charges Rs 20/= per kilo and around Rs6/=
will go on electricity. So she only gets approximately Rs18/= per week. Another
woman said similarly she was given a chillie grinding machine but hardly gets
work. According to them the reason for this is the divided demand. Within the same
community 4 rice grinding machines and 2 chilie grinding machines were given.
eg 3: A woman who earned from sewing clothes for the villagers in the past said that
I earned enough before, but since many women received sewing machines in the
village the orders have reduced significantly.
eg 4: A woman received carpentry training from an INGO and is good in wood carving.
She functioned as an instructor during the project period of the agency. After that
she cannot continue because men control the whole process of the work and she
has to face a lot of harassment. Since she does not have any male family member to
support her, she is not utilizing her skill. She has been trained on sewing by another
NGO and is given some support to establish a small shop in her house by another
NGO. Currently she is running a small grocery shop.
eg 5: A woman in Panama said that she is trained on shoe making but there is no
marketing facility in the area. Therefore she cannot continuing working.

FoKUS Women

CHAPTER V

STATUS AND SOCIAL POSITION OF WOMEN

Recognition as Head of Household
Among the women who are receiving some sort of government support, 354 are registered as
heads of household in government records such as the Voters List and support schemes such
as Samurdhi. 53 families are still registered in the name of their husband and 5 in a relatives
(daughters) name. Others couldnt reveal their status clearly in the interviews. (Table 8)

In Womans Name
In Husbands Name
In a Relatives Name

number
354
53
5

Table:8 Details of the person registered as head of household in FHHs

Recognition to women as head of household is given only when the husband is dead or divorced.
In all other scenarios, even in the cases where the man is severely ill or frequently away from the
house, the government officials are reluctant to give the head of household status to the woman.
This is an exact reflection of the gender biases in society. In the case of men present at home
with severe illnesses the wife is compelled to take the husband to the offices to sign any official
documents including social security benefits. In cases where the husband has abandoned the
family for a second marriage, FHHs are forced to look for them and plead with them for their
signature. This is an added burden to the already burdened lives of FHHs. (FGDs with women
from Akkaraipattu, 11.12.2014)

Membership and Participation in Committees and Groups

To the question of their participation and membership in the community groups such as Rural
Development Societies (RDS), Womens Rural Development Societies (WRDS), Samurdhi
groups, funeral service groups and other Community Based Organizations (CBOs), only
221 women said that they are part of one or many of these groups. Among them 10 are in
presidential positions, 7 as secretaries, 2 as treasurers and 2 are functioning as vice presidents.
279 women are not interested and do not take part in any of these groups. Since 429 among the

11

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A Study on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Ampara District

500 are Samurdhi recipients, most of them must be part of the Samurdhi groups. However due
to their perception, they are not claiming their membership. The reason for this was unclear.
This research doesnt have the scope of probing into such details and it could be an interesting
factor for further research.
Many of the women are members of their local WRDSs. If they save money in their groups they
are entitled to receive loans.
The major difference between the WRDSs functioning in Muslim areas (TD3) and Tamil areas
(Akkaraipattu) is that the former does charge interest from the creditor but the latter charges
some interest. Some women from the Tamil areas mentioned that the interest rate for the loan
from their WRDS ranges from 10% to 24% per annum. This research didnt gather any evidences
to prove their statement.
189 women among the 221 said that their opinions on development are heard at the divisional
and village level meetings.
454 women from the total interviewees said that they take part in social and religious events,
45 women said that they do not want to take part in any events, while 1 said that she was
abused by the community and stopped taking part in events. Most of the women, especially
the widows from the Tamil communities, felt that their presence in the family ceremonies is
restricted. Within them 39 women said that they are not allowed to be in the forefront during
the ceremonies. One FHH said that she is discriminated because of her mental illness.
Generally the community perception on FHHs is low in all communities. 32 women said
that they are seen as having a bad character by the community. During the FGD a women
explained the social taboos against them which are currently in practice. The community does
not appreciate a woman being well dressed, or traveling outside the village for work, trainings
or for any other purpose if she is a widow or if her husband has disappeared. Dressing well or
traveling far will bring unnecessary criticism of the character of the woman.
FHHs are not welcomed in meetings and public gatherings. They are discriminated in cultural
events. Having a widow in the front in any occasion or ritual is generally considered as a bad
omen among the Tamil population. According to the women who participated in the FGDs
from Akkaraipattu, the widows and the women whose husbands have been disappeared or
separated are not allowed to perform certain rituals in their family even though they have the
right to do so as sisters or aunts.
When their status is confirmed as a widow the restriction is stronger when compared to the
FHHs who are separated from their husbands.
Some women in our neighborhood dont like us to come in front when their husbands are leaving
for work. They believe it as a bad omen and it will bring harm to their husbands. We do not go out
of our gates and hide ourselves when we hear someone leaving from their homes, even when we
have to send our children to school. (A woman in the FGD, Akkaraipattu, 11th December 2014)

FoKUS Women

Access and Ownership: Land, House and Other Assets

The study posed separate questions on whether the FHHs have different assets; land, house,
cattle, jewels and savings. The respondents answer yes does not necessarily mean that she has
legal ownership. The asset may be owned by her or the family.
Properties and Resources

Land
House
Cattle
Jewels
Vehicle
Saving
Others

Yes (%)

No (%)

81%
76%
7%
4%
2%
6%
7%

19%
24%
93%
96%
98%
94%
93%

Table 9: Access and/or ownership of assets as stated by FHHs

The majority of FHHs in the study area have ownership or access to land and houses. (Table 9)

Land
No Land
19%
Brother
0%
Parent
3%

In her Name
64%

Children
6%
Husband
7%
Husband & Wife
1%

Chart 4: Land ownership of FHHs

Within the interviewed group of 500 women, 93 (19%) do not have access to any land. The
remaining 407 (82%) FHHs said that they have land.(Chart 4) The reason for the higher rate of
land ownership of women in the area can be explained by the still existing matrilineal customs of

13

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A Study on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Ampara District

Batticaloa and Ampara. as most of the women have received the land from their mothers. The
breakdown of how they received the land is shown in Table 10.
From Parents to Daughter or as Dowry
Purchased on their Own
Other from Government, Mosque
From a Relative

Number
294
90
16
7

Percentage
72%
22%
4%
2%

Table10:The ways FHHs received land

According to the understanding of FHHs, if someone in their family; the husband, children or
herself is in possession of the land they believe that they have ownership of the land. Hence all
407 women are not necessarily having the legal ownership of the land in her name.
Among the 294 women who claimed that they received land from their parents, 10 still have the
land title in their parents name. The lands of 2 women are written in both husband and wifes
name upon a demand made by the groom.
22% of women claimed that they purchased the land together with their husband. Among them
60 lands are in their name, 1 in both the partners names, 11 in the husbands name and 18 in
the childrens name.
Among those who have received land from the relatives, the lands are still in the names of
relatives for 2 women. So the actual ownership of the land is only with 318 women. The
breakdown below explains the ownership of the land perceived as their land by FHHs.
(Table 11)
Number
FHHs Name
Husbands Name
Parents Name
Childrens Name
Brothers Name
Both Husband and Wifes Name

318
38
13
33
1
4
407

Percentage
Among 407
78%
10%
3%
8%
0%
1%
100%

Table11: Details showing the ownership of land

In the context of women not having actual land ownership (among 89) 32 women said that
they do not have any issues related to land.
In all 4 cases of co-ownership, 3 owned the land through private transaction from their parents
or relative. The only case of co-ownership was derived through joint purchase.

FoKUS Women

57 women said that they have problems related to land. The main problem stated by them
was the difficulty in acquiring land titles for the permit lands. The other issue is related to the
inability to divide land between daughters. (Table 12)

Land Title in Others Name (Husband, Children)

Land is Insufficient to Share Between Girl Children
Permit Land and No Title
Not Commented

Number
2
6
46
3

Table 12: Issues on land ownership

Even though only 46 of the FHHs said that they have problems in regard to their land due to
the lack of land titles, there may be more FHHs that have similar problems without realizing this
issue. It was found during the FGDs that the women are not clear about the type of document
they possess as land documents. Also there was confusion among them on their entitlement to
receive land titles from the government. A detailed research on land issues of FHHs could shed
more light on the actual problems.

House
A house is another asset which many of the women claimed that they have (Chart 5). Only 24%
of the respondents (122 FHHs) do not have houses at all. They live with relatives or neighbors
and in some cases in rented houses.
Chart 5: Access or ownership of a house
76% of respondents claimed that they have houses but the condition of the house varies.
(Table 13)

House built with bricks

Tin Sheet - thatched hut
Partially built with Bricks

233
49
96
378

Percentage of women
who have houses
62%
13%
25%

Table 13: Type of house

If the situation of safe housing was considered, more than half of the FHHs (53.4%) in this
research would have no houses or unprotected houses.

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A Study on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Ampara District

CHAPTER VI

GOVERNMENT SCHEMES,
POLICIES AND PRACTICES
The majority of the FHHs are dependent on government support such as Samurdhi and Public
Assistance Monthly Allowance (PAMA) referred in local terms as beggars allowance. 429
FHHs, among the interviewed 500, are Samurdhi recipients.
To the question on the sustainability of this support, 71% of women do not believe that this type
of support will last long, while some 27% believe that this support will be long term. 2% women
havent commented to the question.

Insufficient Support, Lack of Information and Transparency of

Government Schemes
The support provided to the FHHs is minimal and insufficient to manage their lives. The women
we met during the FGDs receive monthly support ranging from Rs.140/= to Rs.560/= from
Samurdhi. The payments are made every 3-4 months and many reductions are made to it.
eg: Geetha and her family have resettled in a different division from their original division after
the tsunami. Their family received Rs. 140/= monthly stamp from Samurdhi before the tsunami
and still get the same amount. Even though their Samurdhi registration has been transferred to
the new division the amount has not been changed for the past 10 years. The Samurdhi savings
they had in their original place has not been transferred to the current division yet. Since her
husband cannot move around Geetha has to deal with all family matters including signing
documents. She requested the Samurdhi officers to register her name as head of household
which has not been done yet.
Women are unsure about the differences between the amount they are entitled to and the
amount they actually receive under Samurdhi. They said in every Rs. 140/= stamp Rs. 40/= was
taken back for something in the past (according to some women it was told to them that it was
taken as a donation to the military). Similarly there are various reductions made in most of the
transactions from Samurdhi to the FHHs. But the women are unaware of the exact reason. There
are no clear written acknowledgements for the money taken back by the Samurdhi officers.

FoKUS Women

Samurdhi provide loans to poor families including FHHs. But within the 429 women, only 32
said that they got loans from Samurdhi. This can be due to the high interest rate and various
deductions made to it. (Also refer to the section on Loans)
eg: A woman in the FGD said that she was granted a Rs.100000/= loan from Samurdhi. But she
received Rs. 82000/= only in hand and was told that the rest (Rs. 18000/=) had been deducted
for various reason including an insurance).
The assessment process in the selection of recipients and in deciding the monthly support is not
clear to the FHHs. One woman said, they do not listen to the requests of FHHs, they favor the
families headed by men. Another FHH said, because we received material support as a grant
from an NGO, Samurdhi support is denied. In some other cases support is reduced as they
received support from other sources.
When a new or increased Samurdhi stamp is requested by people the officers say that they
have to close the accounts of some others and transfer those stamps to the new applicants. To
do so they say that the savings of the ones whose accounts are getting closed have to be repaid.
The said amount is being demanded from the new applicants. We met a woman who has paid
Rs.3000/= already for the same reason and was waiting for 6 months to get an increased stamp.
Women during the FGDs shared that they face ignorance and discriminatory treatment from
government officers, especially Samurdhi. They were reluctant to share their experiences
about Samurdhi due to the fear of repercussions. They had such experiences in the past. When
some women raised voices and demanded information from the Samurdhi officers they were
threatened that their support will be stopped.

Loans
All 500 women said that there are various credit schemes available in their villages but only 163
of them said that they borrowed money. Some 32 women have borrowed from Samurdhi, 18
from WRDSs, 19 from banks and the others from NGOs and individuals. The major reason for
getting loans as stated by 76% of women from those that acquired loans is for seeking jobs in
the Middle East. It can be for her or to send the husband abroad. The other main reasons are
family expenditures, health issues, death or marriage of a family member, education of children
and to buy, construct or renovate a house.
23 women said that the amount they get as a loan is above Rs. 50000/=. The interest rates vary
from no interest to 48% per annum. Within the 163 women 58 women said that they cannot
repay the debts due to high interest rates and loss of livelihood activity. During the FGDs few
women said that they got loans to support their husband or a family member to seek overseas
employment but when they failed to send back money the women could not repay the loan.
In the case of one woman from TD3, the man came back with the earned money and married
another woman while the first wife was still burdened with the loan and accumulated interest.

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A Study on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Ampara District

On the whole women do not feel that the credit schemes of banks, companies or government
as supportive of women. During the FDGs women criticized those schemes as not considering
the situation of FHHs. In their understanding the interest rates are high. Except the WRDSs in
the Muslim areas which do not charge interest, no other credit facilities are seen by FHHs as
suitable to them. Even though they didnt have information on the interest rates of Samurdhi
they said that it was high4.

Discriminatory Government Policies and Practices

During the FGDs one commonly discussed issue was the migrant domestic work. Many women
believe it as a better means of earning than what they could earn in Sri Lanka. But they are not
satisfied with the policies that protect them.
They complain of the insufficient security measures for the women going to Middle East and
getting into trouble. One woman we met during the FGD in Akkaraipattu said that she got
injured in a burst gas cylinder accident when she was working as a housemaid in the Middle
East in 2002. She was treated in the hospital there and sent back when she recovered enough to
travel. She was not paid for her work there. The family that hired her said that all her earnings
were spent on her medical care. On return she was admitted again to hospital and went through
medication for a long time. She said that this mentally affected her as well. She only received Rs.
15000/= insurance payment from the Sri Lanka Foreign Employment Bureau.
Another issue they raised was about the recent policy which controls the migration of women
with children. There was uncertainty during the discussions on whether the mobility of women
with children has to be controlled. But the women felt that this policy adversely affected some
families where there is no other mean of income and the government is not in a position to fully
support the families of FHHs.
eg: A woman from TD3 lost her first husband. Her parents married her off the second time to a
sickly man who was 16years older than her. She has a 20 year old daughter from her first marriage
and 3 other children aged 9,8 and 2 from the second marriage. Her husband is asthmatic and
could not seek a job for the past 10 years. Her parents are also dead. She earns from several odd
jobs; labor work, pounding rice and making beedi. The Samurdhi support allocated to her 20
years back has not been increased until now. The family is living in debt. Since she worked as a
domestic worker in the Middle East earlier, she wanted to go again to repay the loans. But her
attempt failed due to the recent regulation of the Ministry of Foreign Employment Promotion
and Welfare to restrict the migration of women who have children below 3years. She has a 3
year old son. The family had a house built by her with the money she earned in the Middle East.
They sold it for a low price to repay their Rs. 600000/- loan. The family is still living in their
sold house but she has to buy another small house with the balance money (Rs. 700000/=) and
move soon. She is unable to visit her husband who is admitted to the hospital as she doesnt have
money to buy the bus ticket.
The SahanaAruna loan of Samurdhi charges 24% interest, refer this news which confirms the perception of
women, http://www.dailynews.lk/?q=local/sahana-aruna-loans-samurdhi-recipients

FoKUS Women

In addition to the above, women expressed their views on the ignorance and discriminatory
treatment of government officers. One of them said that some officers do not listen to the requests
of FHHs,they favor the families headed by men.

Knowledge on Government and Other Structures for Seeking

Justice
36% of the FHHs who were interviewed were not aware or unsure of the local mechanisms
where they could seek recourse for the problems and injustices against them. 64% of the FHHs
are aware of some mechanisms such as the Police and GN. Few said that they could seek legal
action but are not certain about the processes.
Among the ones who are aware of some mechanisms (321), a majority (74%) of the women
think that they could seek support from the Police. Notably, only few (7%) consider the GN as
someone who could support them when in distress. None of them were aware about institutions
such as the Human Rights Commission (HRC) where they could go to seek assistance if these
systems failed to support them. Mostly the knowledge on NGO support is minimal too. Some
24% of women are aware of the insurance schemes for people and/or for vehicles. But they said
that those are only for rich people.
During FGDs it was noted that many of them lack knowledge on the legal mechanisms or
institutions that could help them especially in regard to seeking maintenance from the separated
husbands and to claim their land rights. The Muslim women said that they do not have support
in challenging the discriminatory judgments of the Quazi Courts and their lack of follow up.

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A Study on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Ampara District

CHAPTER VII

DISCRIMINATORY PRACTICES AND VIOLENCE

Early Marriage
To the question on the age of marriage for women in the families of FHHs, 75% of them said
that the age of marriage for women in their families is between 19-25 years. 1% said the age is
above 26. 1 % of women were not certain with the answer. 23% said that the age of marriage for
women in their family is below 18. (Table 14) Interestingly, all 50 respondents from the Kuravar
community are falling under this criteria. (Table 15)
Number
115
371
6
1
1
6

Below 18
19 - 25
26 - 30
31 35
Above 36
Uncertain

Percentage
23%
75%
1%
0%
0%
1%

Table 14: The age of marriage in practice of the families of FHHs

Kuravar
Tamil
Sinhalese
Muslim

Number of
Respondents

Practice of Early
Marriage in the
Families

Percentage of Practice of Early

Marriage Based on the Sample
Size of Each Ethnic Group

50
250
150
50

50
37
18
10

100
14.8
12
20

Table 15: Practice of early marriage among different ethnic groups

The reason for early marriage as explained by the FHHs is the hardship in keeping up and
protecting female children as a single parent. Even though there is no visible threat on female
children or unmarried young women they are not encouraged to stay alone in the local cultural
context. So mothers cannot leave behind the adolescent or adult daughter at home when they

FoKUS Women

have to go out for different reasons and work. But the key reason for marrying off the daughters
at an early age is the fear of sexual harassment. A woman during the FGD said that some men
from the village take advantage towards FHHs. They wander around the houses of FHHs at night.
A woman said that she fears for the protection of her daughter due to this type of harassment.
Marriage and having a man in the family is perceived by them as a measure of protection. This
perception could be analyzed further in a detailed study and matched with the cultural beliefs
and practices.

Physical Security and Violence

The question on the violent experiences of FHHs was not answered properly by the respondents
during the individual interviews. The reason may be the cultural restrictions on women to reveal
the violence inflicted on them or the fear of the violator. The inexperience of the enumerators also
can be a reason for not probing into the issues of violence.
Only 13 women said that they faced physical violence and in addition to this, another 9 women
said there were attempts to commit violence on them. Among these 22 women who said that
they experienced violence or attempted violence, 5 women said that there were attempts of sexual
abuse.The others experienced physical violence such as beating, pushing and verbal violence such
as scolding and shouting at them.
The perpetrators of violence identified by women are relatives, travelers in public transport and
security forces.
Among the ones who said that they experienced physical or sexual violence only 3 made complaints
to the Police. They were not satisfied with the actions taken by the Police.
Case story (Seetha): We have 3 female children who are studying. We were affected by the tsunami and
resettled in this current residence after the tsunami. We were given a land in my husbands name and a
small house. We lived on the earnings of my husband as a daily laborer. He has been paralyzed below the
hip for the past 2 years. Since then I am looking after the whole family. I opened a small shop in my house
with the help of a local NGO.
A month before a man from our neighborhood who buys things from my shop for credit came to settle his
debt. It was around noon and I just came back from a wedding. He paid back the money but was angry
that I demanded it. He started abusing me verbally using filthy words. He abused my husbands inability
to make me happy and that I was earning by satisfying my sexual needs with others. When I started to
fight back he physically pushed me to a fence and tore my blouse. The people in the neighborhood were
watching but no one came forward to help me. I filed a complaint with the Police. The villagers tried to
negotiate but I refused to do so and let the case be brought to the courts. I believe that this has happened
because I am a female head of household. As no one in the neighborhood helped me to prevent the violence
I am not going to hear them in negotiation.

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A Study on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Ampara District

On the issue of security, women who are living in unfinished houses or huts, shared their worries
about the unsafe shelters. Staying alone with children is a big challenge for the FHHs living
on their own. Women with female children face additional pressure of protecting the child: the
difficulties in protecting the female children lead to early marriages. Men from the village take
advantage of FHHs, They wander around the houses of FHHs in the nights and some women in
the FGDs said that even if they shout for help at night, men of their village do not come forward
to help them as their names will be tainted.
In some instances FHHs shared that they are humiliated, threatened and discriminated by the
local politicians. Many women were complaining about the local parliamentarian. Another
woman said that she doesnt wants to seek assistance from a particular politician as he was the
one involved in the disappearance/killing of her family members. She said, As they are in politics
and have become the local leaders; one cannot go to them for justice,

Health Issues
This research has not dealt with health aspects in detail. But a general question about reproductive
health during the FGDs was raised. It was found that there is lack of awareness on reproductive
health; sexually transmitted diseases, birth control etc. Unwanted pregnancies within FHHs
were reported in some places (Panama).

FoKUS Women

CHAPTER VIII

CONCLUSION
This study has proven once again the strength and resilience of FHHs to cope with life in spite
of the challenging reality. The struggles of FHHs to overcome their low economic, social and
cultural status are mostly individual and to some extent are supported by their parents, relatives
and neighbors. The study could not locate any successful models portraying the strategy of the
State or non-governmental actors in ensuring the enjoyment of ESCR rights of FHHs.
Poverty and extreme poverty has been observed in almost all the FHHs interviewed. Patriarchy
coupled with poverty is suppressing them even more. The government schemes are insufficient
and are not necessarily considering the specific situation of FHHs and the gendered aspect of
their status.
Marginalization and discrimination of FHHs is prevalent in all different ethnic groups. The
major discriminators are the community members of the FHHs. Even though there were no
cases documented of the direct discrimination inflicted by State structures or policies, the
discriminatory practices by the service providers are highlighted by the FHHs.
The findings of this research have shown that the past approaches of economic empowerment
of FHHs by the government and non-governmental factors have had minimum impact. The
current situation of FHHs after 2 decades of intensive interventions of many development
agencies during the war and post tsunami scenario to empower women in the East is raising the
question on the lack of holistic approaches of such interventions. Poverty alleviation programs
and livelihood initiatives neither helped the FHHs to establish a sustainable livelihood nor
provided a steady income as a paid worker. Hence, the main reason for the ineffectiveness of
the support provided to the FHHs to economically empower them can be the lack of a holistic
approach and strategies of the State or any other factors responsible for protecting and promoting
the rights of women.
There is no State recognition of the multiple roles and responsibilities forced on those such
as FHHs. They are carrying both the traditional responsibilities of a man and a woman in the
family, doing paid and unpaid work and areexpected to participate in various social and public
activities including community meetings of government and non-governmental factors such as
Samurdhi, WRDSs, womens groups of NGOs and micro credit groups of financial institutions.
No means of support have been developed by the State to ease the multiple burdens of FHHs.

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The interconnection between patriarchal norms and values determining their status as women
and FHHs, obligation of additional responsibilities on them, poverty, violence and the gaps
in the institutional and legal mechanisms are not considered or addressed adequately by all
development actors including the government.
The development agencies which are expected to have a better understanding on the gendered
nature of subordination and mostly having gender and womens rights as core to their
programming have also not succeeded in changing the lives of FHHs positively. This is due to
the short term interventions, the expectation of quick results and the failure of not targeting
historical patriarchal systems where these changes are expected.
FHHs continue their struggle single handedly to bring up the children, to uplift their families
and to enjoy their rights as women.

FoKUS Women

CHAPTER IX

RECOMMENDATIONS
Government Policies and Schemes:
Policy level recognition should be given to the multiple roles and responsibilities of FHHs
and to the paid and unpaid work resulting from it. This recognition should be translated
into practice through the sensitization of all officers in the State machinery especially the
ones who are working at the divisional and district level, creating special structures to
reduce the multiple responsibilities of women, allocating financial resources to subsidize
the family expenditure and developing long term plans to ensure the enjoyment of the
rights of FHHs.
The government should take the necessary steps to broaden its definition of FHHs. Women
who are claiming themselves as FHHs and actually responsible for their households,
even in situations where the husband or an elder man is present, should be given due
respect and acknowledgement as head of the household or the person responsible for the
household in all government documents, transactions etc. Heterogeneity of FHHs should
be considered in all government schemes. For example unmarried single women who live
on their own or with a relative and mothers living with their married daughters should
have an option to register themselves as separate families.
Strategies should be developed by the government to address the various aspects of
marginalization and discrimination of FHHs. The intersectionality between poverty,
patriarchy and ethnicity based on marginalization has to be addressed in these strategies.
It should also deal with the gaps in the institutions and legal mechanisms and ensure their
access and control over resources including land, economic resources, knowledge and
skills. Special measures must be made to ensure the land rights of the FHHs who do not
own land or are having problems with the ownership due to the land permits. All these
strategies must be developed in consultation with the women. The sustainability of the
economic activities of FHHs should be envisioned considering the cultural impediments
to them. Hence, creating an enabling environment should be part of these strategies with
longer term visioning to change the patriarchal ideologies, the discriminatory attitudes
and practices of the communities.

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A Study on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Ampara District

Specific actions should be taken as immediate measures to release them from some of the
current issues given below:
Increase Samurdhi support to the FHHs families, regulate the payments and ensure that
FHHs are given the details of all transactions.
Write off the loans of the FHHs who are struggling to repay the loan and interest due to
the loss of the breadwinner , or their livelihoods.
Introduce low interest or interest free credit schemes for FHHs and poor families with
recovery plans that suit the actual income generation patterns.eg: recovery plan should
consider the actual time of return from the livelihood activity.
Issue land titles to the FHHs who are living on permit lands.
Provide information on all relevant schemes of government and semi- government
which could support FHHs.

General Recommendations:
Information: The right to have information with regard to their lives and government
schemes has to be respected. In addition to the verbal communication by the local officers,
simplified written versions of the government schemes and programs should be shared with
the people at grassroots level, who do not have access to other means of communications.
eg: information about the criteria to receive support, their entitlements and benefits under
different schemes such as Samurdhi, (currently DiviNeguma).
Transparency and Accountability: Ensuring that all the transactions to and from
the government bodies or any other actors provide written acknowledgement.
eg 1: all the breakdowns are mentioned in writing in any material or fund transactions
and copy of the detail is provided to the beneficiary, eg 2: when a portion of the Samurdhi
(DiviNeguma)allowance or the loan is deducted for savings, insurance or any other purposes
there should be a receipt provided with the details to the recipient. Similarly the bank
and finance companies, which are having business relationships, should provide written
acknowledgements for all the transactions.

FoKUS Women

Annexure: 1
STORIES OF COURAGE
1. Woman from Kannakipuram(Tamil): Her husband is a laborer and alcoholic. He never
brings home any money. They have 3 daughters and 1 son. If she requests the husband to
stop drinking, he will demand her to stop the children from attending school. They live on
the support of the relatives and at one point she decided to go as a domestic servant to the
Middle East. She worked there for a while but returned soon as the husband was not taking
care of the children. Then she got a loan from a relative and sent her husband to the Middle
East. But he neither sent sufficient money for the daily needs of the family nor to repay the
loan. She continues to live with the support of relatives. Sometime she sells household items
to repay the debts. Even with all these hardships she is determined to educate her children.
Her eldest daughter sat for the A/L exam recently. Her struggles are not limited to the family
but extend to working on behalf of the community as well. She plays key leadership roles
to bring betterment to the whole community. Currently she is the president of the WRDS.
2. Woman from Aligampe (Kuravar): Her husband died by drowning in 1990. She has 4
children; 2 daughters and 2 sons. 3 of her children were married before the age of 18 and
she goes from village to village begging along with her unmarried 17 year old daughter. She
is living alone with her children in an unprotected hut.
3. Woman from Aligampe(Kuravar): Her 36 year old husband consumed poison and died
5 years ago. She has 6 children, 2 of them had early marriages. The other 4 are attending
school. She is also begging and looking after the family. She is living alone with her children
in an unprotected hut.
4. Woman from Kannakipuram(Tamil): She lost her husband during the war and she herself
has injuries on her body by the battering of the military. She has an 18 year old son and
both of them are living with her elderly bed ridden parents. She has to attend to the parents
at home and take them to hospital. She works as an agricultural laborer in the paddy lands
for her livelihood. She sent her son to the Middle East with the hope of raising the family
income. But he met with an accident and is getting treatment there. The agencies said that
he will be sent back after recovering from the injuries. She continues to go to the paddy
fields for weeding. She said that she faces a lot of harassment in the field and on the roads
by men.
5. Woman fromTD3 (Muslim): She is living alone with her 15 year old daughter in an old
dilapidated house given to her by her parents. Her husband left her and married again. She
does not receive any maintenance from him. Both mother and daughter stay at the houses of
neighbors because some men attempted to harass them in the night. She is having breathing
problems, hence she cannot work. Both of them live on Samurdhi relief and the dry rations
given to them by the neighbors.

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A Study on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Ampara District

6. Woman from TD3 (Muslim): She sent her husband abroad by selling all her jewellery given
by her parents. Her husband never sent money to her or the children; instead he sends
money to his parents. When she demanded money from his parents they accused her of
being a bad woman. Her husband believed his parents and abused her as a woman having
affairs with many men. On his return he stayed with his parents and abandoned his family.
Since then she is heading her family; making hoppers for the school canteen. She has 2
daughters, aged 14 and 9. If she seeks support from anyone in the village the husband will
accuse them of having affairs with her. Hence no men in the village are willing to support
her. She is managing the basic needs, education of the children with hardships of mental
pressure due to the negative image portrayed of her, negligence of the society and extreme
poverty.
7. Woman from TD3 (Muslim): She is married to a vegetable seller in the local market. He
started torturing her physically demanding her to sell the house and land when his business
was lost. He left her on the 38th day of child birth. He married another woman. She took the
headship of the family earning by sewing clothes. Since many other women in the village
started sewing as their livelihood too, her income reduced. Even with all her hardship she
educated her daughter who has been selected to the university. On the day of the FGD she
was worried that she needed Rs10000/= to send her daughter for leadership training.
8. Woman from Panama (Sinhalese): She lost her husband during the war. She lives with her
2 children and parents now. She works as an agricultural laborer which is periodic and
irregular. She can stitch clothes but since she does not have a sewing machine she uses the
machine at her brothers house to make clothes for the villagers. The local authorities are
discriminatory and do not hear her problems. She said if she owns a machine her life will
be better.
9. Woman from Panama (Sinhalese): She is separated from her husband who is keeping her
3 children with him. She lives with her old parents and looks after the family. Her brother
who is a laborer supported them for a while and is not supporting them anymore. She can
make foot wear, but due to the difficulties in accessing materials and marketing, she could
not continue.
10. Woman from Panama (Sinhalese): She does labor work and when she goes to other villages
for work due to this the villagers accuse her of being a sex worker. She faces verbal abuse on
the street just for wearing good clothes.

FoKUS Women

Annexure: 2
QUESTIONNAIRE
A Study on the Status of Female Headed Households and their Access to Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights in the Ampara District - 2014;
For Official use
Name of the Interviewer : ...............................................................................................................................
Date : ........................................................
GN / DS Division : ................................................

1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4

1.5

1.6

Questionnaire No : ...................

Basic Information

Name
(Optional) :
Ethnicity : (Indicate the Ethnic Group)
Age :
Educational Level (Including vocational training, if any) :

How long do you function as the Head of your Household ?

Less than 1 year
2 - 5 years
6 - 10 years
More than 10 years
What is the reason that led you to become the Head of your Household?
Staying with the family without getting married
Death of the husband
Disappearance of the husband
Divorce
Husband working elsewhere
Husband unemployed
Ill-health of husband
Other reasons Details

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1.7

Who are your dependents ?

Livelihood

2.1

Are you engaged in any livelihood activity?

Yes

No

2.1.1 If yes, nature of your livelihood ?

Nature of Livelihood Details of the Livelihood Activity
Permanent
Labourer
Self-employed
Others
2.1.1.1 Is the income you earn from your Yes No
livelihood adequate for your living ?
2.1.2 If no, who provide you income support? (please describe)
Husband
Relative
Savings
Government
NGOs
Other
2.2

If you are receiving assistance from the government, through which channels are they
transferred to you?

2.2.2 In whose name is the government assistance provided?

2.3

Is the Government/NGO assistance provided to you sustainable ?

FoKUS Women

ASSET
Yes (Nature of asset)

Asset
2.4
Land (deed, permit, others)
2.5 House
2.6 Cattle
2.7 Jewellery
2.8 Vehicle
2.9 Savings
2.10 Others (specify)
2.11 If you own your land, how did you acquire that land ?

2.12

Directly from the parents

As dowry
We purchased
By other means
In whose name is your land registered ?

2.13
2.14

Do you face any problems with regard to the deed of your land?
If yes, can you describe the nature of such problems ?

2.15

If you have a house, what is the condition of that house ?

Yes

Nos

No

Safe house built with bricks

Tin sheet Thatched hut

3
3.1

Credit

Do you have any credit scheme for women in your village ?

Yes

No

3.1.1 Did you obtain any loans ?

Yes

No

3.1.1.1 If yes,
3.1.1.1.1
From whom

3.1.1.1.2
Amount

3.1.1.1.3
Interest p.a.

3.1.1.1.4
Repayment
weekly/monthly

3.1.1.1.5
Did you obtain this
loan as a group or as
an individual

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A Study on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Ampara District

3.1.1.1.6

Why did you obtain a loan ?

3.1.1.1.7 As a result of that borrowing do you face any problems at present ?

3.1.1.2

4
4.1

If no, can you state why the loan was not given or not obtained ?

Social Status Social Security

In the government records, are you registered as the Head of Yes

your Household ?

No

4.1.1 If not, state the reason

4.2

4.3.

4.4

Do you have membership in Yes

any CBO or Groups ?
4.2.1 If yes, details

No

Position

Position
Are your opinions heard when decisions are made at Divisional Yes
and Village level development activities ?
4.3.1 If yes, specify

Are you aware of any schemes, policies and practices that Yes
ensure your physical, material and financial security?
4.4.1 If yes, describe?

No

No

FoKUS Women

Early Marriage

5.1
5.1

What is the normal age of marriage of the girls in your family ?

If you have any girl children, did they marry below the age of Yes
18 years ?

5.2

If yes, can you state the reason for such early marriage ?

Physical Security and Violence

No

6.1

Have you ever been subjected to physical violence ? or anyone Yes

did attempt to inflict violence on you ?

6.2

Has any one attempted to misbehave (sexual violence) with Yes No

you?
If yes for 6.1 or 6.2 above, can you describe the nature of such violence ?

6.3

No

At the house
At the workplace
At a public place

6.3.2 Who are the perpetrators ?

Male Officers
General public (Male)
Security forces
(Army, Police)
Other persons
6.4

If you have been subjected to violence or faced such a situation Yes

did you lodge a complaint with any person ? any place ?

6.3.

If yes, where ? to whom did you complain ?

6.3.1 Were you able to obtain a relief for your complaint ?
6.3.1.1

If yes, were you satisfied with that relief ?

No

Yes

No

Yes

No

33

34

A Study on the Status of Female Heads of Households and their Access to Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Ampara District

Poverty

7.1

Are you satisfied with the fulfillment your basic needs such as Yes
food, clothes and shelter ?
7.1.1 If no, can you give details?

No

7.2

Do you receive Samurdhi assistance ?

No

Yes

7.2.1 If yes, are you satisfied with the assistance provided to you under Samurdhi
Scheme?
7.2.2 If not satisfied, what are the reasons ?

Cultural and religious issues

8.1
8.2

Have you been recognized by your community as a Head of a Household ?

Do you participate in the events and social functions held in Yes No
your village ?
8.2.1 If no, why ?

8.3

Do others accept you, when you are in the forefront at the Yes
functions held at your home ?

No

8.3.1 If no, can you give reasons for such disapproval ?

8.4

(In addition to the above) if you feel that you are being discriminated against for being
a Female Headed Household please describe ?

Observations of the Interviewer Additional Notes :

A STUDY ON THE STATUS OF FEMALE HEADS OF

HOUSEHOLDS AND THEIR ACCESSTO ECONOMIC,
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS
AMPARA DISTRICT
Sri Lanka has witnessed a rise in the numbers of female-headed households (FHH)
after the war. This includes those FHH in the North and East and also the military
widows in the South. Ad hoc interventions by the state and by civil society have
resulted in their concerns not being addressed meaningfully. A welfarist hand outs,
one size fits all approach to interventions has meant that their basic human rights to
physical security and right to be free from violence, socio economic, civil and political
rights and their psycho social needs have not been addressed.
FHH from different communities face various challenges. The FHH in the former
border villages struggle with young widows who have married at a young age and now
have to provide for their households while FHH in the North face militarization and
threats to their physical safety due to their physical vulnerability in addition to unsafe
housing. Further, FHH in the North are discriminated against by the Tesawalamai law,
which curtails their rights of ownership to land in the absence of a spouse. FHH also
face several obstacles when they access government services such as health facilities.
They also have to bear the brunt of being main provider to the household and to take
on the responsibilities that come with this role. The stigma and cultural ostracism they
face also needs to be tackled. The tracing of missing or disappeared spouses during the
war and those in detention is another concern that needs urgent attention.
The state also needs to address the needs of very young women who have been widowed
at an early age and the high numbers of elderly FHH in the North. In addition, economic
and social security for these FHH, their social welfare are concerns that need state
intervention. These concerns of FHH need to be addressed with their participation.
A platform that provides them with a space to take decisions and gives them the
opportunity to participate in decision-making on their issues needs to be created.
A lack of clarity on who a FHH is has hampered these interventions at every level. Eg.
single women providing for their household should also be included as FHH but are at
times not included. Human rights organizations and others working in related fields
in Sri Lanka tend to use the term widow to include many types of female heads of
households. This misrepresentation results in many FHH falling through the cracks
and not receiving state and other benefits and being unable to access their rights.
FOKUS WOMEN seeks to bring clarity to the term female head of household and
also to give visibility to the socio economic and other issues faced by FHH through
its research and advocacy with the state. Providing solutions to the problems faced
by FHH will contribute to building peace and ensure that womens voices from the
grassroots are heard at national level.

FOKUS WOMEN

34 A, Sulaiman Avenue
Colombo 5
Sri Lanka
Tel/Fax: +94112055404
Web: http://www.fokuskvinner.no