AC MEC 225 Theoryx

UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL &
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
REVITALISATION PROJECT-PHASE II
NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
REFRIGERATION AND AIR

CONDITIONING
COURSE CODE: MEC225
YEAR II- SE MESTER II
THEORY
Version 1: December 2008
1
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING MEC225
COURSE INDEX.
WEEK 1.
WEEK 2.
1. UNDERSTAND THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
REFRIGERATION
1.1
Introduction......1
1.2
DEFINITION OF REFRIGERATION.2
1.3
Methods of Refrigeration3
2.0
KNOW THE BASIC TOOLS AND THE EQUIPMENT USED IN
REFRIGERATION PRACTICE
WEEK 3.
2.1
COMMON HAND TOOLS IN REFRIGERATION WORKSHOP
2.2
GENERAL HAND TOOLS
2.3
SPECIALIZED SERVICE EQUIPMENTS
3.0
UNDERSTAND
THE
VARIOUS
TYPES
OF
REFRIGERATION CYCLES
3.1
Know the Thermodynamic Principles of Refrigeration
3.2
REVIEW OF FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMIC
PRACTICAL
WEEK 4.
3.3
Refrigeration System and Cycles
3.4
System Representation
3.5
REFRIGERATION CYCLE
4.0
KNOW THE THERMODYNAMICS PRINCIPLE OF
REFRIGERATION
WEEK 5.
4.1
THE REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE
4.2
SIMPLE VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
4.3
Mechanism of A VCR System
4.4
UNIT OF REFRIGERATION
4.5
REFRIGERATION SYSTEM CAPACITY
4.6
MASS OF REFRIGERANT CIRCULATED PER SECOND
4.7
VOLUME FLOW RATE OF VAPOUR
4.8
Coefficient of Performance (COP)
4.9
CONDITIONS FOR HIGHEST COP
4.10
THE CARNOTS PRINCIPLE
5.0 KNOW THE FUNCTIONS AND THE PROPERTIES OF

REFRIGERANTS
5.1
REFRIGERANTS
5.2
REFRIGERANTS:
QUALITIES
OF
DESIRED
REFRIGERANTS
5.3
CLASSIFICATIONS
5.4
COMMON REFRIGERANT TYPES
5.5
PROPERTIES OF REFRIGERANTS
5.6
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF REFRIGERANTS
5.7
REFRIGERANT PIPING MATERIALS AND ITS EFFECTS
5.8
REFRIGERANT STORAGE AND SAFETY
5.9
REFRIGERANT LEAK DETECTION
5.10
REFRIGERANT CHARGING
5.11
5.12 REFRIGERANT LEAK DETECTION

5.13 REFRIGERATIONS OILS
WEEK 6.
6.0
UNDERSTAND THE FUNCTIONS AND PROPERTIES OF
REFRIGERANTS AND KNOW THE REASONS FOR AND THE

METHODS OF LUBRICATION IN REFRIGERETION
6.1
REFRIGERANTS
6.2
REFRIGERANTS: QUALITIES OF DESIRED REFRIGERANTS
6.3
CLASSIFICATIONS
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY REFRIGERANT.
6.8
6.9

6.11 REFRIGERATION LUBRICATING OILS
6.12 METHOD OF LUBRICATION
WEEK 7.
7.0
KNOW THE PROCEDURE OF CHARGING
REFRIGERATION CIRCUIT
7.1
WEEK 8.
7.2
8.0
KNOW THE VARIOUS APPLICATIONS OF REFRIGERATION
8.1
REFRIGERATION INDUSTRY AND APPLICATIONS
8.2
CLASSIFICATION
OF
APPLICATION
OF
REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
WEEK 9.
9.0
KNOW THE FUNCTION OF AN AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM FOR A
BUILDING
9.1
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM
9.2
AIR CONDITION PLANT
9.3
OPERATION PRINCIPLES OF AIR CONDITIONING
PLANT
WEEK 10.
10.0 KNOW HOW TO CALCULATE COOLING LOADS FOR

REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
10.1 COOLING LOADS AND CALCULATION
WEEK 11.
11.0 KNOW THE FUNCTION OF AN AIR CONDITIONING

SYSTEM FOR A BUILDING CONTD
11.1 REFRIGERATED COOLING OR AIR CONDITIONING
11.2
PACKAGED AIR CONDITIONING
11.3 SPLIT SYSTEM AIR CONDITIONING
WEEK 12.
12.0 KNOW HOW TO SERVICE REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
12.1
REFRIGERATION SYSTEM SERVICE
12.2 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

12.3 ADJUSTMENT OF CONTROLS
12.4. THERMOSTATIC EXPANSION VALVES
WEEK 13.
13.0 KNOW THE FUNCTION OF COMPONENTS OF AN AIR

CONDITIONING SYSTEM FOR A BUILDING
13.1 HEAD PRESSURE CONTROLLERS
13.2 PRESSURE CONTROLS
13.3 ACCESSIBLE AND OPEN COMPRESSORS
WEEK 14.

14.1 ADDING OIL TO OPEN/ACCESSIBLE HERMETIC COMPRESSORS
14.2 REPLACING WELDED HERMETIC COMPRESSORS
14.3 AIR OR OVERCHARGE
14.4 GAS CHARGING METHODS
WEEK 15.

15.1 STEAM PAN HUMIDIFIER
15.2 ELECTRODE HUMIDIFIERS
15.3 WATER ATOMIZING HUMIDIFIERS
A15.4 CONDENSERS
15.5
WATER PUMPS
WEEK 1
1.0
UNDERSTAND THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION
LEARNING OUTCOME: C ONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES AND DEFINITIONS .
1.1
Introduction: Refrigeration and air-conditioning are now an integral part of modern

life. The application of this technology has made possible provision of every
commodities and services which have made life more comfortable, easier, safer and
healthier.
Fig 1.0
Picture of refrigeration and Air-conditioning hard wares.
Fig 1.1
Picture of refrigeration and Air-conditioning hard wares.
Making cold depends on a few simple principles. Of these, the most important is that
heat always flow from a warm to a cool body and never reverse.
Heat
Warm
Fig 1.2
Heat flow
Cool
To cool a warm object therefore, we need to place it near a cold one like a block of
ice, or in a cold well, pond or lake as is obtained in countries in cold regions. Using
natural ice and cold water to remove heat provided mans first cooling systems.
Fig 1.3
Pictures of ice blocks
Typical heat flow principles are thus so illustrated. If we put some ice cubes in a jar
with a thermometer was in fig4, heat flowing from the room and surrounding air
melts the cubes, if the room temperature is above 00c. To melt 1 kg of ice, 339.94 kg
of energy in the form of heat must be absorbed.
Fig 1.4
Heat flow
Fig. 1.5
Ice melts
Conceivably, we could cool an entire room with ice cube, but the process would not be
efficient and ultimately cumbersome.
If a concentrated heat source is applied to a jar, fig 2, water formed from the ice cubes boils
when it reaches a temperature of 1000c. Once again, heat is flowing from a warm body to a
cooler one. To make the water change to steam, a gas like vapor, we need to ad a certain
quantity of heat energy to the 1kg of water. This heat quantity is the enthalpy of
vaporization of water the steam, there is no temperature change heat absorbed by ice in
melting is enthalpy of fusion.
Fig.1.6 Superheating
When all the water changes to steam, further heat addition causes super heating,
indicating that the temperature of the steam is higher that corresponding to its
pressure fig1.6.
Water boils at 1000C when subjected to atmospheric pressure on surface of a liquids
pressure. Increasing the pressure on surface of a liquid raises the reverse of
vaporization also at constant temperature. For a given pressure of the liquid,
condensation occurs at the same temperature as vaporization.
Refrigerants are fluids that, with few exceptions, boil at low temperatures at
atmospheric pressure. For example, ammonia at 1 atm (1.013 bar) boils at 33.30,
while F-12 (Freon 12) boils at -300c- at the same pressure. Boiling and condensation
process of refrigerants are the same as for water.
The phenomena discussed above are mainly heat transfer processes. The aspect of
refrigeration can come in when the principle of heat transfer is so applied to bring
about an artificial change in a well regulated cold state production that is
reproducible irrespective of the location or environment.
Applying the concepts of heat transfer using refrigerants as a medium or system fluid
the fig. 5 represents an insulated box. With normal atmospheric pressure the liquid
boils at -150C absorbing about 1315KJ of heat energy during vaporization. Since little
heat can pass through the insulated box, heat needed for vaporization will come
from the air or other contents of the box. Thus, we have a crude system for
producing refrigeration.
Fig.1.7 Boiling Ammonia
Fig 1.8
Recovering Ammonia
This cycle can be repeated by replacing the condensed ammonia in insulated box.
This process can also be carried out the same result in different locations provided
the parameters are the same. The process so far explained is a typical refrigeration
process.
1.2 DEFINITION OF REFRIGERATION

In the light of the foregoing, refrigeration can be defined as the artificial withdrawal
of heat producing in a substance or within a space temperature lower than that
which would exist under the natural influence of surrounding. It is the science of
providing and maintaining temperature below that of surroundings. These definitions
are quite in agreement with the American Society of the Heating Refrigeration and
1.3 Methods of Refrigeration

The following means are available for achieving cold state. These methods are
capable of producing a specific degree of cold state which is reproducible if the
parameters are maintained. The methods are briefly discussed below:
(i).
Dissolution of certain salt in water: When certain salts such as sodium

chloride, salt patre etc. are dissolved in water, they absorb heat. This
property has been used to produce refrigeration. By this method, the
temperature of water can be lowered much below 00C, the freezing
temperature of water. Calcium chloride lowers the water temperature up to
around -500C while sodium chloride up to 200C.
The salt used for
refrigeration has to be regained by evaporating the solution. Also there is a

limitation on the amount of salt to be put in the solution. On one hand, the
refrigeration produced is quite small and on the other hand, the regaining
process of salt is so cumbersome that this is not feasible for commercial
exploitation. However when some salts are used with water it lowers the
freezing temperature of water by taking off its latent heat from the solution.
It is in this sense that salt may be employed as secondary refrigerant to
obtain freezing below 00C. Areas of application are numerous and include
Breweries, chemical plants, diaries, food processing, ice cream, ice plant,
meat packaging, skating ring etc.
ii.
By coolant, i.e. by lowering the temperature of a coolant. To achieve cooling,

eat is removed from a coolant and hence this lowers the temperatures of the
coolant.
If Q is heat removal rate from the coolant (we call it the cooling load),
then Qout = MCP (Tf Ti) - - - - - (i)
Qin
Tf
Ti
This is called the refrigerating effect

Where M
Then
Coolant flow rate
Cp
Specific heat of coolant
Tf
Coolant temperature at entry
Ti
Coolant exit temperature
Temperature of refrigerated space
Ti > Tf i.e
Qin
iii.
heat leakage into system
MCP (Ti Tf) - -
(1.2)
By change of phase for example, cooling is brought about by removal of heat
a phase change, i.e. heat of sublimation or vapourisation.

.
Heat of vapourisation =
hfg from liquid to gas
Heat of sublimation
hsg from solid to gas
Heat of welding or fusion = hcf from solid to liquid.
Examples
(a).
Use of packaged ice to achieve refrigeration:
dW=0
Chilled space (space whose
dQ
Temperature you want to
dm2
U2 =(Uf)2
Ice
Initial mass of ice
Mi
Initial internal energy = Ui

Final mass of ice
Final internal energy
= Me
= Ue
Also exist condition, dm, h2, U2 etc.
Therefore, energy balance on control volume

dQ
Heat leakage into control space
V2
Very small specific volume and so could be Ignored.
Hence,
DQ + Mi Ui = dm2 h2 +Me Ue
DQ = dm2 (h2) (MiUi MeUe)__________ (1.3)
U refers to the internal energy of all the content in the chilled space, ice, chilled
air, food etc.
and
dm2 = Mi Me
DQ = (Mi Me) h2 (Mi Ui Me Ue)

= heat removed from everything in the chilled space.
DQ therefore is the refrigeration that must be removed, if heat is control space must
be maintained at that of the melting ice.
h2 refers to only the liquid water coming out, i.e h2 = (hf)2
If we ignore the internal energy of other things except that for ice,
then,
DQ = (hf2) [Mi Me] (Mi Me) Usf
Fig 1.9
(b).
Picture of icebox with item stored for cool
Change of phase by heat of vapourisation:

Popular vapour compression cycles of the heat of vapourisation of refrigerant. This is
achieved by controlling pressure at which this occurs.
Fig 1.10
Diagram of V. C. Refrigeration System representation
(c).
Use of dry ice or solid carbon dioxide:

The dry ice can be produced by cryogenics. Use of dry ice involves use of
sublimation of the packaged ice but operates at a lower temperature. This is what is
used in most cases to preserve ice cream.
(vi).
Expansion of a liquid.
If the expansion occurs entirely in the liquid state, fall in temperature will be quite
small as in a- a1. Expansion that leads in liquid vapour phase will lead to higher
temperature drop in (b bi) the fluid. This expansion process of a liquid is employed
in vapour compression cycle.
T
b
a
b1
a1
Fig 1.11
(v).
Refrigeration by liquid expansion
Steady-flow Expansion of a Gas:
The throttling process for real fluid comes into this category. Throttling may lead to
cooling depending on the condition at (1). Suppose the flow passage were
converging (velocity) V2 >V1 so then h2< hi. Ideal fluids will reach a stage where h2
in less than h1 i.e T2<T1.
So, if flow passage converges, we can produce cooling effect.
H1 + V21 = h2 + V22
i.e h1 h2 = (V22 V21)
So if V2 > V1, h2<h1
(vi).
By Expansion Turbines
The expansion of gas in a turbine while producing work will produce some cooling
effect. This is used in aircraft air conditioning.
For a turbo jet, a kg of air is bled out and passed through heat exchanger. The air
leaving the compressor has high temperature and pressure and in the turbine, its
temperature and pressure are lowered and discharged into the aircraft cabin.
Humidity is low at high attitude even if temperature is comfortable. For a plane that
is in motion, we get the cooling air from the atmosphere we dont need fan.
(v).
Electrical Process
By electrical process, cooling can be produced by either of these two process.
(a).
Molecular alignment of a material under a magnetic field:

If we impose magnetic field on a specimen, cool it under the influence with
the circulation of helium, we shall be arranging the molecules as those of iron
filings, and by removing the effect of electricity, or magnetic field electrons
try to revert to their disorderly behaviour and in so doing absorb heat and so
cause cooling.
(b). Peltier effect: This is the principle of thermocouple.
Voltage differential is created if two junctions are put in cold and hot
junctions are put in cold and hot junctions.
Therefore, if we impose an e.m.f, we create cold at the cold junction and
heat in hot junction.
(c).
Purposes of Refrigeration
The followings are major and encompassing purpose of refrigeration.
(i)
To extract as much heat at possible from a cold researviour with the

minimum expenditure of work.
(ii).
To create an environment most suitable for preserving food, fruits,

meat and related products thus reducing spoilage to minimum level.
(iii).
To create a conducive environment for good and sweet or tasteful

ripening of fruits.
(iv).
To enable certain agricultural products that are seasonal to be

available at all seasons.
(v).
For moderating temperatures in industrial environment.
WEEK 2
2.0
KNOW
THE
BASIC
TOOLS
AND
THE
EQUIPMENT
USED
IN
REFRIGERATION PRACTICE
2.1
COMMON HAND TOOLS IN REFRIGERATION WORKSHOP

Air conditioning, heating and refrigeration technicians must be properly use hand tools and
specialized equipment relating to this field. Technicians must use the tools and equipment
intended for the job.
2.2
GENERAL HAND TOOLS
(i)
Portable electric drills:- These are used extensively by refrigeration and air conditioning
technicians. They are available in cord type (115v) or cordless (battery operated)
(ii)
Flaring tools: - The flaring tools has s flaring bar to hold the tubing, a slid- on yoke and a feed
screw with flaring core and handle. Several sizes of tubing can be flared with this tool.
(iii)
Swaging tools: - Swaging tools are available in punch type and lever type
Fig 2.1
(iv)
Working tools
Tube benders: - Three types of tube benders may be used: spring type, lever type and to a
lesser extend, gear type. These tools are used for bending soft copper and aluminum.
(v)
Plastic tubing shear: - A plastic tubing shear cuts plastics tubing and non-wire-reinforced or
synthetic hose.
(vi)
Tubing pinch-off tool: - A tubing pinch off tool is used to pinch shut the short stub of tubing
often provided for service, such as the service stub on a compressor. This tool is used to
pinch shut this stub before sealing it by soldering.
(vii)
Metal workers hammer: - A metal workers hammers straightens and form sheet metal for
duct work.
2.3
SPECIALIZED SERVICE EQUIPMENTS

(i)
Gage manifold: - This is one of the most important of all pieces of refrigeration and
air conditioning service equipment. It normally includes the compound gage, the
manifold, valves, and hoses. The four valve design has separate valves for the
vacuum, how pressure, high pressure and refrigerant cylinder connections
Fig 2.2 Manifold gauges
(ii)
Refrigerant charger: - This device is used to accurately charge a system with

refrigerant. It can charged by pressure or by refrigerant weight. It has both digital
and analog displays and charges R-12, R-22, R-500 AND R-502.
(iii)
Electronic charging scale: - It allows a technician to accurately charge refrigerant by

weigh. This can be done manually or automatically. The amount of refrigerant to be
charged into the system can be programmed.
(iv)
Halide leak detector: A hide leak detector detects refrigerant leaks. It is used with a
acetylene or propane gas. When the detector is ignited, the flame heats a copper disc. Air
for the combustion is drain through the attached hose. The end of the hose is passed over or
near fitting or other area where a leak the refrigerant will be drain into the hose and contact
the copper disc. This breaks down the halogen refrigerant into other compounds and
changes the colour of the flame. The colour change from green to purple, depending on the
size of the leak.
(iv)
Vacuum pump: Vacuum pumps designed specifically for servicing air conditioning
and refrigeration systems remove the air and non-condensable gases from the
system. This is called evacuating the system and is necessary because the air and
non-condensable gases take up space contain moisture and cause excessive

pressures.
(v)
Refrigerant recovery recycling station: It is illegal to vent refrigerant to the air. The
refrigerant from refrigeration and air-conditioning system is pumped into a cylinder
or container at this station where it is stored until it can be changed back into the
system if it meets the requirements or transferred to another approved container
for transportation to a refrigerant reclaiming facility.
(vii)
Compressor Oil Charging Pump: This is use specifically for charging refrigeration
compressors with oil without pumping the compressor down.
WEEK 3
3.0
UNDERSTAND THE VARIOUS TYPES OF PRACTICAL REFRIGERATION CYCLES
3.1
LEARNING OUTCOME: Know the Thermodynamic Principles of Refrigeration

Refrigeration operation is governed by thermodynamic principles. It involves energy
transactions in its operation and the energy accounting is performed. This energy
accounting is performed. This is done using basic laws of thermodynamics. Before
reviewing these laws, it is appropriate to highlight and explain terms associated with
refrigeration system operation. These terms are briefly defined below.
.
Isobaric Process: Constant pressure process, no pressure

change. During the process, remains constant. This can also
be referred to as isopiestic process.
Isentropic Process: Constant entropy process, no change

in entropy. Entropy is a state or order or disorder in a
system.
Isenthalpic Process: This is a constant enthalpy process.

During the process, the enthalpy remains unchanged.
Isobaric Process:
Constant Pressure Process, NO pressure Change
During the process, Pressure remain constant The can also be referred to an
isopiestic process
Isentropic Process: Constant isentropy, no change in entropy. Entropy is the

state of disorder in a system.
Isenthalpic Process: Constant enthalpy, no change in enthalpy
Adiabatic Process:
No heat transfer, Q = O
A process in which no heat is transferred across the boundary
Isochoric Process: In this process, the volume remains constant throughout.

It can also be called isometric process
Isothermal Process: In this case the temperature remains constant during

the process
Psychrometry deals with the state of atmosphere with respect to moisture content. It
deals with the thermal properties of air and the control and measurement of the
moisture content of air in addition to the stud of effects of atmospheric moisture on
commodities and human comforts.
Dry-Bulb Temperature, Tab: The actual temperature of gas or mixture of gases

indicated by error free temperature measuring device
Wet-bulb Temperature, Twb: It is the temperature obtained by an accurate

thermometer having a wick moistened with distilled water and the air stream across
the wet-bulb flows with a velocity of 270mm
Dew point Tdp: It is the temperature at which the liquid droplets just appear when the
moist air is cooled continuously.
Absolute humidity: It is the amount of water vapour per unit volume of the gas
Relative humidity ; It is the ratio of the actual partial pressure of water vapour in the
moist air to the saturation pressure of water vapour corresponding to the dry-bulb
temperature
= Existing partial pressure of water vapour, Pv
The saturation pressure of pure water vapour
at the same temerpature Bs
Pv/Ps
(1)
Humidity ratio, w: This is called specific humidity it is defined as the amount of water
vapour in the moist air per unit mass of the dry air in a given volume.
Using the perfect gas relation for air and water vapour for a given volume V of the
Moist air,
Mv
Pv V/(Rv T) -
--
(3)
and the mass of air is

Ma = (P - Pv) V/Ra T)
(2)
Where P = The total pressure of the moist air
From definition

0.622
- -
(4)
Ra = 8317/28.96 = 287.2 KJ/Kg-K - Gas Constant

Molecular wt
Rv = 8317/18 = 462KJ/Kg-K
Ra Gas Constant of dry air

Rv = Gas constant of water vapour
Saturated air: A mixture of dry air and enough water vapour all at the same dry-bulb
temperature
Degree of saturation u: it is defined as a ratio of the weight of the water vapour at an

given temperature associated with the unit mass of dry air to the weight of water
vapour (Ws) associated with unit weight of saturated air at the same temperature

(6)
Using equation 4 for w and Ws, it is found as:
= [Pv /(p-Pv) ] [(P-Ps)/Ps]
(5)
/
/
and
= / [1 (1-) Ps/P]
(8)

!

For moist air at 303k (30oC)

Dew point = 288K (15oC)
The total pressure = 1 bar
Obtain
(i)
Relative humidity (ii) Degree of saturation
Solution
From steam table,
Ps
= Saturation pressure at 303k = 0.04242
Pv
= Vapour pressure at 288K = 0.01744
= [Pv/ (p-pv)] [(P-Ps)/Ps]
(7)
Pv
0.0174 bar
Ps
0.04242 bar
1bar
'.'(')
"#$%# &
* &
'.'(')
'.'(' '.')+)+
*
'.')+)+
0.39
Specific Quantities: In case of moist air, the specific enthalpy, specific volume, specific
entropy specific humidity etc are expressed per unit mass of the dry air (moisture free air). If
the air is moist having specific humidity.
Specific enthalpy:
h = ha + w hv
Specific volume:
v = V a + w Vv
Specific entropy: S = Sa + W Sv
Where a and v stand for dry air and water vapour respectively
The specific volume of most air can be obtained from
V = Ra Tdb /P Pv)
Enthalpy, h = Cp Tdb + w hv
Specific enthalpy of saturated vapour, hv = hdp + 1.884 (Tdb Tdp)

Hence h = 1.004Tdb +w [hdp + 1.884 (Tdb Tdp)]
The wet-and dry-bulb temperature have been used to determine the saturation pressure
corresponding to dew point.
Dr. Carriers equation:
Pv = Pwb = (P Pwb) (Tdb Twb) -
1940 1.44 Twb
The ferrets equation

/01 +(2.3
5
4(+.4
Pv = Pwb 0.00066p (Tdb Twb) .

The Apjohns equation
Pv = Pwb P
/01 /61
3''
For temp below 273.15K, the carrier equation becomes
Pv = Pw -
/61 61 /01 /61

((3 '.'7 /61
(1)
Pv = Pwb -
/61 61 /01 /61

3)( .)) /61
Data obtained or given

Tdb = 30oC
Twb = 20oC
Barometric reading = 740mm Hg
To determine
(a) Dew point and R. H

(b) Degree of saturation
(c) Specific humidity
(d) Specific Volume
(e) Specific enthalpy
Solution
Ambient pressure =
()'
(8'
1.013 0.9863;<=
Saturation pressure at due point
Pv = Pw -
61 /01 /61

3)( .)) /61
From table, Pwb = 0.02337bar
Hence Pv = 0.0237 (0.9863 0.02337) (30.20)

1547 1.44 x 20
0.02337
0.96293 x 10
1518.2
0.02337 0.0063426
0.017027 bar
D.P = 15oC (dew point temp).

Relative humidity, R. H =

Ps = 0.04242 bar
0.017027
0.042242
The degree of saturation, =

*

& * &

'.'('+(
&'.7482 '.'('+(*
0.3909
'.7)244
&'.')+)+*
0.4014
The specific humidity, w =
'.8++

'.''37'4
'.787+(2
'.'('+(
'.7482 '.'('+(

'.''7+83>?
@A
>?
B=C <D=
Specific volume,
E
FG H
287.2 303
I
0.9863 0.017027
4('+.8
'.787+(2
10 3
10 3 0.8978 K2 /LM of dry air
Specific enthalpy, h = 1.004Tdb + w (2538.9 + 1.884 (Tdb Tdp)

= 1.004 x 30 x 0.0109265 [2528.9 + 1.884 (30-15oC)]
30.12 + 27.94 = 58.06 KJ/kg
3.2
REVIEW OF FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMIC

It is already a generally accepted concept and hypothesis that energy cannot be created nor
destroyed, but could be transferred from one form to another. This is known as the
principles of conservation of energy. It forms the basis of many of the scientific laws
including the first law of thermodynamics.
Energy is defined as the capacity of a system for interacting with and influencing its
environment or surroundings. It is the central figure or factor in all interactions between
systems. All interactions involve the flow, one way or the other of energy between the
systems involved. The flow of energy occurs either by way of heat or in the form of work, the
variety of work being extensive.
Heat and work are energy in transits (i.e. is flow) from one system to another. They may not
be said to be contained in any system. They are only recognized as such during interaction.
Systems do contain energy, but not work nor heat. Energy contained in a system is internal
energy, the sum total of the kinetic energy (or translation rotation and vibration) and
potential energy of all, along with the energy of chemical bonding and unclear bonding
among all the particles of matter making up the system. The reference to potential energy
suggests immediately that some datum or reference level must be identified from which
such energy is reckoned. The datum is usually arbitrary. In thermodynamics, the concern is
ultimately with changes in internal energy and other system properties notwithstanding the
arbitraries of the datum. When energy content of a system is reckoned relative to a different
but equally arbitrary datum, the resulting energy property of the system is known as
enthalpy.
Therefore, energy may flow from one system to another by means of either heat or work
but it may not be said to be contained in these form. This is part of the substance of the first
law of thermodynamics which states that Energy may be transferred to and from a system
by means of either heat or work. In any event, energy is conserved; it can neither be created
nor destroyed. Put differently; when any closed system is taken through a cycle, the net
work delivered to the surrounding is proportional to the net heat taken from the
surrounding
This can be expressed mathematically
As
@ OP B
Or
QP Q
This means that some work can be converted to heat in a system and some heat converted
conversely into work
Thus,
W =Q
Where W
Work
and
Heat
For a non-flow energy equation, Heat absorbed by the system = Increase in internal energy +
work done by the system
Hence Q = u +W
(1)
Where u = increase in internal energy = K + P

This agrees with the energy conservation law and is therefore a statement of the first law of
thermodynamics
3.3
Refrigeration System and Cycles
3.3.1
First law of thermodynamics and System Principles

The first law can be represented by the relationship
W
Where W
work
And
Heat
This means that some work can be converted into heat is system and conversely some heat
can be change into work
For a non flow energy equation, the can be represented thus
Q
= u+w
In general, in a thermodynamic system, Heat absorbed = Change is internal energy + work

Q1 - Q2 = V + W
Over a cycle u = O, and W = Q1 Q2
For a Carnot engine, heat Q1 is received at high temperature T1 from heat source. The
engine then converts some of this heat into work, W, and finally rejects the remainder
energy Q2 into a sink at T2 2 cold space)
T1
HOE
Source
Q1
W
Q2
Sink
T2
HOE
The thermodynamic efficiency of the engine is given by
Carnot =
RS RT
RS
1
RT
RS
For a Carnot refrigerator or reversible engine, R1 work W is done o the engine to take away
heat Q1 from a source at T1 (cold space). This work, W, is converted into heat Q2 which is
rejected into the sink at T2
The efficiency of this system is given by
RS
RT RS
The efficiency is called the coefficient of performance

The purpose of a refrigerator is TD extracts as much heat as possible from a cold reservoir
with minimum expenditure of work. The performance
Of a refrigerator is measured by the coefficient of performance.

3.4
System Representation
This diagram is a flow diagram of a simple vapour compression system.
The parts include:
1.
Evaporator
2.
Suction line
3.
Vapour compressor
4.
Discharge line
5.
Condenser
6.
Receiver tank
7.
Liquid line
8.
Refrigerant flow control
Evaporator
(Inside)
Valve
(Refrigerant flow
control)
Liquid
Line
Section
Line
Discharge
Line
Receiver
Tank
Fig 3.1 Refrigeration system representation
Assignment
Briefly describe the function and features of each of the various parts of a vapour compression
system as outlined above. Use also diagrams for your illustration
3.5
REFRIGERATION CYCLE
As the refrigerant circulates through the system, it passes through a number of changes in
state or condition. Each of this stage of change is called process. The refrigerant starts at
some initial state, passes through a series of processes in a definite sequence and returns to
the initial condition. This series of processes is called a cycle.
The charts below are the various cycle representations based on the given relationships.
Liquid
a
Vapour
Out
Liquid
Vapour
e
T2
Qout
T2
S=c
S=c
T1
T1
c
b
Qin
Qin
S
Mother Chart
P.V Chart
Qout
Qout
b
T2
T2
e
d
S=c
T1
b
T1
c
b
Qin
Qin
V
T.S Chart
c
H
Isentropic Chart
The cycle description for the processes using these charts include:
1.
ab
Irreversible throttling expansion (P, T ) no heat loss
2.
b-c
reversible isothermal expansion (evaporator) Q is absorbed at T1 (constant

temperature)
3.
c-d
reversible adiabatic compression (not heat transfer)
4.
d-e
Isobaric cooling of super heated vapour to saturation
5.
e-a
Isothermal condensation of vapour to saturated liquid (Q, lost at T2)
Qin = h c - h b
Qout = h d - h a
but h a = h b since a - b is isentropic
Qin = h c - h a
= hc - h b
= Refrigerating effect
Also
C.O.P. =
Qin
Q out - Qin
hc - h b
h d - h a - (h c - h b )
hc - ha
hd - hc
3.4.1
Refrigeration Effect (qc)

This is defined as the quantity of heat absorbed from the refrigerated space per unit mass of
refrigerant. It is the amount of costing produced by a system.
qc = h c - h a
P
= h1 - h 4
= h1 - h 3
= s T1
= (S1 - S4 )T
21
H
21
T1
4
1
S
This is sometimes called valuable commodity. Theoretically, this equal to the latent heat of
vapourisation. In actual practice, the refrigerant is at the condensing temperature before it
enters the expansion valve (point a in the diagram) and must be first reduced to the
evaporator temperature. That is, only part of the refrigerant vapours in the evaporator.
Latent heat
= hc - hf
Saturation Line
P
R. E. = q c = h c - h b
Loss (part of to cool
T2
from T1 T2) = h b - h f
T1
f
b
WEEK 4
4.0
KNOW THE THERMODYNAMICS PRINCIPLE OF REFRIGERATION
4.1
THE REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE

A reversed Carnot cycle is a refrigeration cycle and consists of four reversible processes. The
fig. T-S diagram below is used to describe the processes.
(a)
4-1, Isothermal expansion at low temperature T1 = T4 heat transfer in cold
chamber for an isothermal process,
Q = W
T1 (S1 - S4 ) = Q 4 -1 = W4 -1
= Area 5416
Qout
2
T2-T3
T1-T4
4
Qin
S3-S4
5
Cycle on T-S Diagram
6
S1-S2
S
(b)
1-2,
isentropic compression from T1 to T2. The compression is also adiabatic
Q1- 2 = 0
Condenser
and W1- 2 = u1 - u 2
Expander
Compressor
1
Evaporator
System Diagram
fig 4.1
(c)
2-3, Isothermal compression at high temperature (energy rejection)
T2 = T3
Also T2 (S 2 S3 ) = - T2 (S1 - S4 )
= - Q 2- 3 = - W2 -3 = Area 5623
The ve sign is because of the negative heat transfer. This means that the heat transfer is a
loss here. Heat is rejected into the atmosphere.
(d)
3-4,
Isentropic expansion from T3 to T4. This is the same as T2 to T1. The
expansion is also adiabatic
Q 3- 4 = 0
and
W3 4 = - U 3- 4
Qout
2
Compressor
We
Expander
We
4
Qin
Fig 4.2
System representation
For this cycle, heat received at low temperature = Refrigerating Effect.
= T1 (S1 - S4 )
For a cycle, i.e. 12341
= Q
Heat is taken from (4) to (1), Qin = s T1

Heat is taken out from (2) to (3), Qout = s T2
Net work = Heat received - Heat rejected
= T1 (S1 - S4 ) - T2 (S1 - S4 )
= s T1 - sT2
= s (T2 T1 ) = (T2 - T1 )(S1 - S4 )
The ve sign shows that work must be supplied to perform the cycle. Thus, the external
energy supplied to perform the cycle = (T2 - T1 )(S1 - S4 )
= (T2 - T1 ) s
For Carnot cycle, heat engine,
Work done
Heat absorbed
W
Q out
(T2 - T1 )
T2
(T2 - T1 )
T2
Q4 - Q2
Q -Q
= 2 1
Q2
Q2
=1-
Q1
Q2
=1-
T1
T2
For a refrigeration cycle (reversed Carnot cycle), the valuable commodity here is Qin and heat
extracted = sT1
C. O. P. =
Valuable commodity
Net work
Refrigerating Effect
External energy supplied
This is a measure of the performance of the system. Hence,
C. O. P. =
sT1
s (T2 T1 )
T1
T2 - T1
T1 (S1 - S4 )
(T2 - T1 )(S1 S 4 )
1
T2
-1
T1
Q1
Q 2 - Q1
Evidently, the COP of a Carnot refrigeration cycle is a sole function of upper and lower
temperatures.
COP can be raised by raising the top temperature and or by making (T2 T1 ) small.
T
3
Tb
(Condenser)
Tb
Ta
Ta
(Room)
4
T1
1
S
For effective exchange of heat to occur, then, the temperature of space, T0 from T1
and the space where you are depositing heat, its temperature Tb must be less than
T1, i.e. for heat to be extracted from inside the room, Ta , Ta > T1 and for heat to be
sent into the environment, Tb , T2 > Tb .
The Carnot cycle is practically not feasible since isothermal energy rejection requires
extremely slow motion followed by isentropic process during which the piston
should move at extremely faster rate. Such motion is mechanically not obtainable.
On the other hand if phase change is allowed for isothermal energy transfers, the
compression will be so wet that the same will lead to severe mechanical difficulties
since the liquid present inside the compressor may get squeezed causing bursting of
the cylinder or other components due to practically incompressible temperature of
liquid.
As such, the Carnot cycle serves as the basic ideal cycle meant for comparison of
other cycles. The deviation of various values in other cycles will be for measure of
presence of irreversibility in various processes.
4.1.1 Summary
For heat engine, Carnot efficiency
T2 - T1
T2
. (1)
For reversed carnot cycle,

12341, Heat is taken in from (4) to (1), Qin = sT1 that is taken out from (2) to
(3).
Qout
T3
T1
s
S
Qin
Qout = s T2 .. (0)
Net work = s (T2 T1 ) .. (1)

Re frigeratin g effect = Q in = sT1 .. (2)
C.O.P =
4.2
Refrigerating effect
Net work
T1
s T1
(3)
=
s (T2 - T1 )
T2 - T1
SIMPLE VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

A vapour compression refrigeration system is an improved type of air refrigeration system in
which a suitable working substance, termed as refrigerates used. It condenses and
evaporates at temperatures and pressure close to atmospheric conditions. The refrigerates,
usually used for this purpose are ammonia (NH3), carbon dioxide (CO2) and sulphur dioxide
(SO2). The refrigerant used, does not leave the system, but is circulated throughout the
system alternatively condensing and evaporating. In evaporating, the refrigerant absorbs its
latent heat to the circulating water of the water. The vapour compression refrigeration
system is therefore a latent heat pump, as it pumps its latent heat from the brine and
delivers it to the cooler.
The vapour compression refrigeration system is universally employed for all purpose
refrigeration. Its is generally used for all industrial purposes form small domestic
refrigerators to big air conditioning plant.
4.2.1 Advantage and Disadvantages of VCR system over Air Refrigeration

System
(i)
It has smaller size for given capacity of refrigeration temperature
(ii)
It has less running cost
(iii)
It can be employed over a large range value
(iv)
The coefficient of performance is quite high
4.2.2 Disadvantages
(i)
The initial cost is high
(ii)
They prevent of leakage of the refrigerant is the major problem in VCR

system.
4.3
Mechanism of A VCR System
Insulated
Chamber
Evaporator
Low pressure
liquid
Expansion valve or
refrigerant control valve
Pressure
Low pressure vapour
Gauge
Pressure gauge
High pressure
vapour
High pressure side

Low
pressure
side
Receiver
Condenser
Compressor
High pressure liquid

vapour mixture
Fig4. 3
Diagrammatic Representation of Simple VCR System
The figure show schematic diagram of a simple vapour compression refrigeration system. It
consists of the following five essential parts
1.
Compressor: The low pressure and temperature vapour refrigerant from evaporate
is drawn into the compressor through the inlet or suction value A, where it is
compressed to high pressure and temperature. This high pressure and temperature
vapour refrigerant is discharged into the condenser through the delivery or
discharge value B.
2.
Condenser: the condenser or cooler consists of coils of pipe in which the high
pressure and temperature vapour refrigerant is cooled and condensed. The
refrigerant, while passing through the condenser, gives up its latent heat to the
surrounding condensing medium which is normally air or water.
3.
Receiver: The condenser Liquid refrigerant from the condenser is stored in a vessel
known as receiver from where it is supplied to the evaporator through the
expansion valve or the refrigerant control value.
4.
Expansion value: It is also called throttle value or refrigerant control value. The
function of the expansion valve is to allow the liquid refrigerant under high pressure
and temperature to pass at a controlled rate after reducing its pressure and
temperature. Some of the liquid refrigerant evaporates as it passes through the
expansion value the greater portion is vaporized in the evaporator at the low
pressure and temperature.
5.
Evaporator: An evaporator consists of coils of pipe in which the liquid vapour

refrigerant at low pressure and temperature is evaporated and changed into vapour
refrigerant at low pressure and temperature. In evaporating, the liquid vapor

refrigerant absorbs its latent heat of vaporization from the medium (air water or
brine) which is to be cooled.
In any compression refrigeration system, there are two different pressure conditions. One is
called the high pressure side and the other is known as low pressure side. The high pressure
side includes the discharge line (i.e. piping from delivery value B to the condenser),
condenser, receiver and expansion value. The low pressure side includes the evaporator,
piping from the expansion value to the evaporator and the suction line (i.e. piping from the
evaporator to the suction value A).
4.4
UNIT OF REFRIGERATION
The unit used in refrigeration industry is tone of refrigeration (TR). A tone of refrigeration is
defined as the amount of refrigeration effect produced by the uniform melting of one tone
(1000Kg) of ice from and at 0oC in 24 hours. It is equivalent to the rate of heat transfer
needed to produce 1 tonne (20001b) of ice at 0oC from water at 0oC (32oF) in one day.
Since latent heat of ice which is enthalpy of solidification of water is given in S. I unit as
334.94Kd/kg and British unit 144Btu/1b,
ITR
=
=
1000x 335 in 24hrs
1000 x 335
24 x 60
=
232.6 KJ/min
3.88KW /ton
In actual practice, one tone of refrigeration is as equivalent to 210 KJ/min or 3.5 Kw (or 3.5
KJ/S)
In British unit therefore, 1 ton of refrigeration =
2000 1b x 144
24 x 60
2000BTU /min
12,000BTU/hrs
4.5
REFRIGERATION SYSTEM CAPACITY

This is the rate at which the system removes heat from the refrigerated space. The first
expression was based on an equivalent effect of melting ice. Melting 1 ton of ice per 24 hr day
will absorb heat at the rate of 1 ton = 2000 1b.
= 144 BTU
= 334.944KJ/Kg
1 ton of refrigeration (of ice per 24hr day) will absorb heat at the rate of =
/hr
=
210KJ/min
3.54KW
System capacity depends on
(a)
Lot of refrigerant circulated per unit time
(b)
Refrigerating effect of refrigerant
Refrigeration system capacity, Qe = Mqe (KJ/S nkw)
Where qe
refrigerating effect in KJ/Kg
12,000BTU
In
mass flow rate in Kg/S
Weight of refrigerant circulated is given by
Wt
3.5
>V
WXYZ

.[
Note that the refrigerating capacity is actually an energy transfer rate and as such is an expression of
power.
4.6
MASS OF REFRIGERANT CIRCULATED PER SECOND

The mass of refrigerant which must be circulated per second per kilowatt of refrigerating
capacity for any given operating conditions is found by dividing the refrigerating effect per
kilogram at the given conditions into 1Kw.
4.7
VOLUME FLOW RATE OF VAPOUR

When 1kg of refrigerant vaporizes, the volume of saturated vapour produced depends on
the refrigerant employed and on the vaporizing tempo. For any one refrigerant, the volume
of vapour depends only on the vaporizing temp and increase as the vaporizing temp (and
pressure) decreases. When the vaporizing temp of the refrigerant is known, the volume of
vapour produced per unit mass (specific volume) can be determined directly from the
saturated vapour tables. Once the specific volume of the vapour is known, the total volume
of vapour generated in the evaporator per unit time can be found by multiplying the
refrigerant mass flow rate by the specific volume of the vapour.
V = MV
Where
V
the total volume of vapour generated is the evaporator in mb/S
the mass flow rate of refrigerant in kg/s
the specific volume of the vapour at the vaporizing temp in
m3/kg
4.8
Coefficient of Performance (COP)

Before any evaluation of the performance of a refrigeration system can be made, an
effectiveness term must be defined. The index of performance is not called efficiency,
because that term is reserved for the ratio of output to input. The ratio of output to input
would be misleading if applied to a refrigeration system because the output in process 2-3 is
usually wasted. However, the philosophy of the performance index of the refrigeration cycle
is the same as efficiency since it represent the ratio
Amount of desired commodity
Amount of expenditure
The performance term in refrigeration cycle is called the coefficient of performance it is
defined as the ratio of the refrigerating effect to the work done or heat supplied to do work
Hence
P
COP
Useful refrigeration
Net Work
hc ha
hd - hc
e
b
refrigeration effect
Work input
heat extracted from system /cycle

Network supplied /cycle
heat absorbed from refrigerated space

Heat energy equivalent energy supplied to the compressor
Refrigerated effect
Heat of compression
The two terms which make up the COP must be in the same unit so that the COP is therefore
dimensionless.
4.9
CONDITIONS FOR HIGHEST COP

A high COP is desirable because it indicates that a given amount of refrigeration requires a
small amount of work. What then can we do in a Carnot cycle to maintain a high COP.
IF we express the COP of the Carnot refrigerator is terms of the temps of the reservoirs for
cycle analysis, the heat transferred in a reversible process is
Qrev = Tds
2
3
T
Net work
T
3
2
21oC
-18oC
4
1
DT
S
The above analysis gives a false impression that we have complete control over T1, and T2.
This highlights the limitations imposed by temperature on COP. The temperature
recruitments is governed by vaporizing temp of refrigerant and the condenser heat load. For
example, if the refrigeration system must maintain a cold room at 18oC and can reject heat
to atmosphere at 21oC, these two terms are limitations with which the cycle must abide.
The two temperature are shown in dotted liens I the T.S diagram. During the heat rejection
process, the refrigerant temperature must be higher than 21oC. During the refrigeration
process, the refrigerant temperature has to be lower than 18oC in order is transfer heat
from the cold space to the refrigerant. The cycle that result us 1-2 3-4-1
4.10
THE CARNOTS PRINCIPLE

The reversible process is considered the perfect and most efficient process. It is assumed for
this process, that there is no loss of energy. This process is applied in principle to
thermodynamic engines. A thermodynamic engine is a device which receives heat at some
high temperature from a heat source. It converts this heat into work and rejects remainder
into a sink.
A Frenchman, Sadi Carnot in reviewing an engine working on thermodynamically reversible

process states that no engine can be more efficient than a reversible engine working
between the same limits of temperature. Consider a thermodynamically reversible engine R
working between temperature limits of source T1 and sink T2(Fig D1).
Source T1
Q
R
Q-W
Sink T2
Fig. 4.3 Reversible engine
Let this engine receive Q units of heat at a given period of time from a source whole
temperature is T1. Let this engine convert W units of this heat into work and
WEEK 5
UNDERSTAND THE VARIOUS TYPES OF PARCTICAL
REFRIGERATION CYCLES & KNOW THE FUNCTIONS AND
REFRIGERANTS
A refrigerant is a medium of heat transfer through phase change
such as evaporation at low temperature and pressure, with some
exception where the sensible energy transfer occurs. There are
many substances which are used in refrigeration system for
energy transfer purposes. These refrigerants are classified under
the following headings.
A.
Based on Working Principle

These refrigerants are categorized under common and secondary
refrigerants. The common refrigerants pass through compression,
cooling or condensation, expansion and evaporation or warming
up doing cyclic. In case of phase change media such NH3, R-12, R
22, CO2 sulphur dioxide etc, the heat transfer is associated with
phase change while sensible energy transfer takes place with air.
A medium which does not undergo the cyclic process in

refrigeration system but is used only as a medium of heat transfer
is often referred to as a secondary refrigerant. E.g water, brine
solutions of sodium chloride calcium chloride.
Examples of secondary refrigerators include water, brine

solutions of sodium chloride, calcium chloride etc.
B.
Based on safety
Safety consideration as categorized into three:
(i).
Safety refrigerants: These are non-toxic, non-inflammable

and include the following.
(ii).
R - 11
Trichloromono- fluoromelth are
R 12
Dichlorodifluoromethane
R - 13
Monochloro-trifuoro-methane
R 14
Carbon Tetrafluriode
R - 21
Dchlorofluoromethane
R 22
Chlorodifluoromethane
R - 113
Trichdifluoromethane
R 114
Methyl chloride
Carbon dioxide
Water
Toxic and somewhat flammable refrigerants.
These
include,
dichloroethylene,
methyl
formate,
ethylchoride, sulphurdioxide, ammonia.
(iii). Very flammable refrigerants: They are such compounds like

Butane, Isobutane, propane, ethane, methane, ethylene.
C.
Based on Chemical Composition:

These refrigerants are grouped under the following categories:
(i).
Halocarbon compounds: The are obtained after replacing

one or more hydrogen atoms in a hydrocarbon ethane or
methane with halogens (chloride, bromine or fluorine).
(ii).
Cyclic organic compound are group in a class like

dichlorohexafluorocyclobutane.
Monochloroheptafluorocycleclobutane etc.
(iii). Azeotropes are those mixtures of two or more refrigerants

which behave as if they are compounds.
(iv). Miscellaneous: This group contains various compounds which
cannot be grouped in the above categories. They are of
about 700 series with their molecular weight as the last
numbers. They include water, air, carbon dioxide, sulphur
dioxide.
(v). Oxygen and nitrogen compounds are grouped in one

category and as given 600 series.
(vi). Inorganic compounds: They comes under two classes
(a). Cyogenic
(b). Non- cryogenic
Cryogenic fluids are those which are employed for achievement of

temperatures in the range of 113k to OK, Nitrogen, Oxygen,
Helium, Hydrogen are used to achieve temperature below 113K.
Non-cryorgenic refrigerants are those inorganic compounds which

are employed above the cryogenic ranges such as water,
ammonia, sulphur dioxide. These are grouped into 700 series.
(vii). Unsaturated compounds such as ethylene, propylene etc are

grouped into 1000 series.

Any refrigerant should be capable of absorbing heat at low temperature
and below ambient, and be capable of rejecting heat preferably to
ambient.
Selection of each refrigerant depends on P.T data at
saturation, an enthalpy of vapourization. The higher than enthalpy the
better. So refrigerant should have a higher enthalpy of vapourization

and the higher, the smaller the plant.
-
Odour should not be obnoxious
Refrigerants with high specific volume means big compressor. So

the better the sp. vol. the better especially at entry to compressor.
Should not be corrosive so it does not attack containers.
Should not be flammable to avoid out break of five and so

eliminates possibility of explosion.
In vapour compressor system, refrigerant should operate at temp

above its freezing point.
Should be stable to keep its properties same throughout its

working cycle.
Should not be soluble or react with lube oil.
Should have high thermal conductivity so in to increase mass rate

on high K gives less residence time.
Non injurious or poisonous to food, should not be toxic.
CLASSIFICATIONS
-
Halo carbon compounds are most common as refrigerants e.g

Freon.
Gzeotropes.
Some hydrocarbons, especially in oil companies.
Some inorganic compounds litte CO2.
Some unsaturated hydrocarbons organic compounds.
A.
The Helogens
The Ferons contains one or more of the halogenne made up of
chlorine, fluorine and Bromixe. F11, F12, or R12, etc sold under
several trade names e.g. freous, genetrons, isotrons, avetrous
(see table).
A. Azeotrope: Is a physical mixture of two chemically pure

substances which cannot be separated by distillation. It will
possess properties different from the two substances but behaves
like another separate pure substance e.g R500 = F12 (73.8% by
mass) + F152 cas (26.2% by mass).
Chemical Designation
Chemical Name
Chemical Formula
Bond
CL
F11
11
Trichloromonflur
CCL3F
CL
oromethane
CL
CL
R11
12
CL
Dichlorofluoro
methane
CCL2F2
CL
C
F
22
Monochlorodi-
CCLHF2
C
CL
fluoromethane
or CHCLF2
F
40
Methychloride
CH3CL
CL
113
CL
Trichlorofluoroethene
114
CL
CCL2F-CF2CL
CL
Dichlorotetraflu
CL
oroethene
CCLF2 CCLF2
CL

There are different types of refrigerants ranging from water to
synthetic fluids.
Hydrocarbon refrigerants such as ethane, propane, butane and
isobutene are used especially in the petroleum industry. Many
other types of fluids have be tested as refrigerants and are now
discarded for better synthetic ones. The most important types of
such refrigerants is the halocarbon family.
The most commonly used halocarbon refrigerants are R-12, R-22
and the intermediary R-500.
(i)
Ammonia: - Ammonia is the only refrigerant outside of the

halocarbon group that is being used to any great extent at the
present time. Although ammonia is toxic and also some what
flammable and explosive under certain conditions, its excellent
thermal properties make it the predominant refrigerant in the
production end of the food industry. Ammonia has advantage of
being an environmentally safe refrigerant.
(ii)
Refrigerant-ii (CFC)
It has a boiling temperature at standard pressure of 74.7of

(23.7oc). operating pressures at standard ton conditions are
2.94psia (0.3bar) evaporating and 18.19psia (1.25bar) condensing
due to its low operating pressure,R-11 is employed only with
centrifugal compressors and mainly in air conditioning systems for
small office buildings, factories, department stores, etc. its is
considered as a safe refrigerant and also has been used as a
solvent and as a secondary refrigerant. However, it has one of the
highest ozone destruction potentials.
(iii)
refrigerant-12(CCL2F2):- the chemical name of this fluid is

dichlorodifluoromethane
It is probably the most widely used of all of the refrigerants. It is a
safe refrigerant in that it is non toxic, non flammable and non
explosive. Further more, it is a highly stable compound that is
difficult to break down even under extreme operating conditions.
However if brought into contact with an open flame or an electrical
heating element R-12 will decomposes into highly toxic products.
It is suitable refrigerant for use in high, medium and lotemperature applications and with all three types of compressor.
(iv)
Refrigerant-22
(CHCLF2):-
the
chemical
name
of
R-22
is
monochlorodifluoromethane. It has a boiling point at atmospheric

pressure of -41.4oF(-40.8oc).it is developed originally as a low
temperature refrigerant, it has been used in the post in domestic
and industrial low temperature systems down to evaporator
temperature as low as -125oF (-87oc). its primary use today is in
packaged air conditioners, where because of space limitations, the
relatively small compressor displacement required is a decided
advantage.
(v)
Refrigerant-500:- this refrigerant is an azeotropic mixture of

73.8% R-12 and 26.2% R-152a. An azeotropic mixture is that
mixture comprised of specific proportions of liquids which behaves
as a single pure compound. Such a liquid therefore boils at
constant temperature under a constant pressure.
Refrigerant-500 is used only in commercial and industrial units. Its
normal
boiling
temperature
vaporization at 5of is 45.8 cal/kg.
is-33.3oc
and
latent
heat
of
Chemical properties of refrigerant
(i)
Flammability: - Refrigerants such as ethane, propane
e.t.c are
highly flammable. Ammonia is also somewhat flammable and

becomes explosive when mixed with air in the rate of 16 to 25
percent of gas by volume. Good refrigerants used in domestic and
industrial purpose should not be flammable
(ii)
Toxicity: - some non-toxic refrigerant (i.e. all fluorocarbon

refrigerants) when mixed with certain percentage of air become
toxic. Toxic refrigerant are not used in domestic refrigerant and
comfort air conditioning the use of toxic refrigerant is only limited
to cold storages..
(iii)
Solubility of Water: - water is only slightly soluble in R-12 the

solution formed is very slightly corrosive to any of the common
metals. Solubility of water with refrigerant should be reducing to
minimal.
(iv)
Miscibility :- the ability of refrigerant to mix with oil is called

miscibility. The degree of miscibility. The degree miscibility
depends upon the temperature of the oil and pressure of the
refrigerant vapour. The refrigerant should not in any form mix with
the oil within the crank case
(v)
Effect on perishable materials: - The refrigerants used in cold

storage
Plant and in domestic refrigerators should be such that incase of
leakage, it should have no effect on the perishable materials.
(i)
Stability and inertness: - An ideal refrigerant should not

decompose at any temperature normally encountered in the
refrigerating system. It should function for long period of time with
out dissociating into other compound.
(ii)
Corrosive property: - The corrosive property of a refrigerant must

be taken into consideration while selecting the refrigerant. The
Freon group of refrigerant is non-corrosive with all metals
ammonia is used only with iron or steel. Sulphur dioxide is noncorrosive to all in the absence of water good refrigerants should
not have corrosive tendency.
(iii)
Viscosity: - The refrigerant in the liquid and vapour states should

have low viscosity. The heat transfer through the condenser and
evaporator is improved at low viscosities.
(iv)
Thermal conductivity: - The refrigerant in the liquid and vapour

states should have high thermal conductivity. It requires the heat
transfer coefficients in evaporator and condensers.
(v)
Dielectric strength: - this is a measure of the resistance that the

refrigerant offers to the flow of electric current it is important in
hermetically sealed units in which the electric motor is expose to
the refrigerant.
(vi)
Leakage tendency: - the leakage tendency of a refrigerant should

be low. If there is a leakage of refrigerant, it should be easily
detectable the leakage occurs due to opening in the joints or flaws
in material used for construction.
(vii) Cost: - this is important in high capacity refrigerating system like

industrial and commercial the ammonia, being the cheapest is
widely used in large industrial plants such as cold storage and ice
plants.

(i)
Primary Refrigerant: - These are that working fluid which passes

through
the
refrigerating
cycle
of
evaporation,
recovery
compression, condensation and expansion. for example ammonia,

Freon, so2 , methyl chloride and co2 e.t .c
(ii)
Secondary refrigerants: - these are those working fluids which act

as cooling, medium but do not undergo the refrigerating cycle. Air,
brine and any other freezing solution are its example

In general, the type of piping material employed for refrigerant
piping depend upon the size and nature of the installation, the
refrigerant used and the cost of materials and labour. The
materials most frequently used for refrigerant piping are black
steel, wrought iron, copper, and brass. All these may not be
suitable with ammonia attacks non ferrous metals.
Copper tubing has the advantage of being lighter in weight, more
resistance to corrosion, and easier to install them either wrought
iron or black steel.
i.
PIPE JOINTS
Depending on the type and size of the piping, joints for refrigerant
piping may be severed, flanged flared, welded, brazed or soldered
when refrigerant pressures are below 250sil (17bar), screwed
joints may be used on pipe sized up to 80mm. for higher
pressures, screwed joint are limited to pipe sized B5mm and
smaller. Above these sizes, flanged joints of the tongue and
groove type should be used. Welting is probably the most
commonly used method of joining iron and steel piping.
ii.
LOCATION
In general, refrigerant piping should be located so that it does not
present a safety hazard, obstruct the normal operation and
maintenance of the equipment, or restrict the used of adjoining
spaces.
iii.
VIBRATION AND NOISE

In most cases, the vibration and noise in refrigerant piping
originates not in the piping itself but in the connected equipment.
How ever, regardless of the source, vibration, and the objectional
noise associated with it is greatly reduced by proper piping design.

Most refrigerants are supplied and stored in large pressure vessels
holding about 60kg of liquid and vapour when full. These must be
stored upright, with caps in place, in cool and well ventilated
stores located well away from boiler rooms, or areas in which
operations presenting fire hazards- e.g. welding are carried out.
Similarly, when cylinders are used in the workshop or on site,
brazing torches or welding sets must not be used close to them.
Given a pressure cylinder containing liquid and vapour, plus a
source of intense heat, one has all the necessary components to
cause a leth at explosion.
The requirement for storage of cylinders in well ventilated rooms

covers both the need to remove any refrigerant which might
escape, and the need to keep the cylinders as cool as possible. In
practical terms, storage are temperature should not reach levels at
which excessive refrigerant pressure is generated. An upper limit

of not more than 2070kpa is recommended.
At all times bear in mind that refrigerants have been specially

developed to remove a lot of heat quickly through any surface on
which they boil. If liquid refrigerant sprays onto your skin, you will
apply the necessary first aid for the treatment of cold burn.
If you have to open a circuit, or purge it, make sure that the liquid
cannot spray on you.
REFRIGERANT LEAK DETECTION

Leaks cannot be tolerated in any refrigeration system, and leak
detecting equipment must be well maintained and regularly used
during maintenance checks as well as installation work. The
methods which can be used with specific refrigerants are listed
below in increasing order of efficiency.
1.
Sulphur candles: When lit and exposed to air containing

ammonia vapour, these give off a white cloud of ammonium
chloride or ammonium sulphide. This method cannot be used
to pin point leak position.
2.
litmus Paper: Moist red limits paper will turn blue if exposed
to ammonia vapour, but cannot be used with any of the
halogen family refrigerants.
3.
Bubbles tests: Soapy water, a washing up liquid, or better,

still a purpose developed leak detector will indicate the
locations of leaks by the formation of bubbles by escaping
refrigerant. However, this type of test can only be made on
piping or fittings known to be at higher pressure than that of
the atmosphere. Test solutions applied low temperature, low
pressure suction lines could cause considerable damage
because the liquid could be drawn into the pipes.
4.
Halide test lamps: Detectors fuelled with propane, butane, or

methylated spirit can be used to locate fluorocarbon
refrigerants leaks. The detector includes a fuel tank which is
or can be pressurized to supply fuel at the at a steady and
controlled pressure and a jet to admit the fuel to a burner.
When lit, the burner flame is supported by oxygen in the air
which is drawn through the tube used as a sensing probe.
The probe is passed slowly over the joint or surfaces being
leak tested. If any fluorocarbon refrigerants are drawn into
the tube, the colour of the lamp flame will change to green
or blue, depending on the quantity of gas passed over the
burner element.
This type of detector can only be used with non-flamable

gases and care must be taken to avoid ignity any other
gases or material.
5.
Electronic leak detectors: A wide range of electronic

detectors is available. All are extremely sensitive. Battery
operated models for use on site will pick up leaks which give
a little as 14gm per year.
The refrigerant is sensed by a plug- element, exposed to air

drawn through a probe or tube. Its presence will be
indicated by a flashing lamp, an audible bleep or buzz or a
meter reading each increasing in speed or intensity as more
refrigerant passes over the element.
WEEK 6
6.0
UNDERSTAND THE FUNCTIONS AND PROPERTIES OF REFRIGERANTS

AND KNOW THE REASONS FOR AND THE METHODS OF LUBRICATION
IN REFRIGERETION
6.1
REFRIGERANTS
A refrigerant is a medium of heat transfer through phase change such as evaporation at low
temperature and pressure, with some exception where the sensible energy transfer occurs.
There are many substances which are used in refrigeration system for energy transfer
purposes. These refrigerants are classified under the following headings.
6.1.1 A
Based on Working Principle
These refrigerants are categorized under common and secondary refrigerants. The common
refrigerants pass through compression, cooling or condensation, expansion and evaporation
or warming up doing cyclic. In case of phase change media such NH3, R-12, R 22, CO2 sulphur
dioxide etc, the heat transfer is associated with phase change while sensible energy transfer
takes place with air.
A medium which does not undergo the cyclic process in refrigeration system but is used only
as a medium of heat transfer is often referred to as a secondary refrigerant. E.g water, brine
solutions of sodium chloride calcium chloride.
Examples of secondary refrigerators include water, brine solutions of sodium

chloride, calcium chloride etc.
6.1.2 B.
Based on safety
Safety consideration as categorized into three:

(i).
Safety refrigerants: These are non-toxic, non-inflammable and include the following.
R - 11 -
Trichloromono- fluoromelth are
R 12 -
R - 13 -
Monochloro-trifuoro-methane
R 14 -
Carbon Tetrafluriode
R - 21 -
Dchlorofluoromethane
R 22 -
Chlorodifluoromethane
R - 113 -
Trichdifluoromethane
R 114 -
-
Methyl chloride
(ii).
Carbon dioxide
Water
Toxic and somewhat flammable refrigerants.

These include, dichloroethylene, methyl formate, ethylchoride, sulphurdioxide,
ammonia.
(iii).
Very flammable refrigerants: They are such compounds like Butane, Isobutane,
propane, ethane, methane, and ethylene.
6.1.3 C.
Based on Chemical Composition:
These refrigerants are grouped under the following categories:

(i).
Halocarbon compounds: The are obtained after replacing one or more hydrogen
atoms in a hydrocarbon ethane or methane with halogens (chloride, bromine or
fluorine).
(ii).
Cyclic organic compound are group in a class like dichlorohexafluorocyclobutane.

Monochloroheptafluorocycleclobutane etc.
(iii).
Azeotropes are those mixtures of two or more refrigerants which behave as if they
are compounds.
(iv).
Miscellaneous: This group contains various compounds which cannot be grouped in

the above categories. They are of about 700 series with their molecular weight as
the last numbers. They include water, air, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide.
(v).
Oxygen and nitrogen compounds are grouped in one category and as given 600
series.
(vi).
Inorganic compounds: They come under two classes

(a).
Cryogenic
(b).
Non- cryogenic
Cryogenic fluids are those which are employed for achievement of temperatures in the
range of 113k to OK, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Helium, and Hydrogen are used to achieve
temperature below 113K.
Non-cryogenic refrigerants are those inorganic compounds which are employed above the
cryogenic ranges such as water, ammonia, sulphur dioxide. These are grouped into 700
series.
(vii).
Unsaturated compounds such as ethylene, propylene etc are grouped into 1000 series.
6.2

Any refrigerant should be capable of absorbing heat at low temperature and below ambient,
and be capable of rejecting heat preferably to ambient. Selection of each refrigerant
depends on P.T data at saturation, an enthalpy of vaporizations. The higher than enthalpy
the better. So refrigerant should have a higher enthalpy of vaporization and the higher, the
smaller the plant.
Odour should not be obnoxious
Refrigerants with high specific volume means big compressor. So the better the sp.
vol. the better especially at entry to compressor.

-
Should not be corrosive so it does not attack containers.
Should not be flammable to avoid out break of five and so eliminates possibility of
explosion.
-
In vapour compressor system, refrigerant should operate at temp above its freezing
point.
-
Should be stable to keep its properties same throughout its working cycle.
Should not be soluble or react with lube oil.
Should have high thermal conductivity so in to increase mass rate on high K gives
less residence time.

-
6.3
Non injurious or poisonous to food, should not be toxic.
CLASSIFICATIONS
-
Halo carbon compounds are most common as refrigerants e.g. Freon.
Azeotropes.
Some hydrocarbons, especially in oil companies.
Some inorganic compounds litte CO2.
Some unsaturated hydrocarbons organic compounds.
6.3.1 A.
The Helogens
The Freons contains one or more of the halogens made up of chlorine, fluorine and Bromixe.
F11, F12, or R12, etc sold under several trade names e.g. freous, genetrons, isotrons, avetrous
(see table).
Azeotrope: Is a physical mixture of two chemically pure substances which cannot be separated
by distillation. It will possess properties different from the two substances but behaves like
another separate pure substance e.g R500 = F12 (73.8% by mass) + F152 cas (26.2% by mass).
Chemical Designation Chemical Name Chemical Formula
Bond
CL
F11
11
Trichloromonflur
CCL3F
CL
CL
oromethane
CL
R11
CL
12
Dichlorofluoro
CL
CCL2F2
methane
22
Monochlorodi-
CCLHF2
CL
fluoromethane
or CHCLF2
F
40
Methychloride
CH3CL
CL
114
CL
Trichlorofluoroethene
114
CL
CCL2F-CF2CL
CL
Dichlorotetraflu
CL
oroethene
CCLF2 CCLF2
CL
6.4

There are different types of refrigerants ranging from water to synthetic fluids.
Hydrocarbon refrigerants such as ethane, propane, butane and isobutene are used
especially in the petroleum industry. Many other types of fluids have be tested as
refrigerants and are now discarded for better synthetic ones. The most important types of
such refrigerants is the halocarbon family.
The most commonly used halocarbon refrigerants are R-12, R-22 and the intermediary R500.
(i)
Ammonia: - Ammonia is the only refrigerant outside of the halocarbon group that is
being used to any great extent at the present time. Although ammonia is toxic and also
some what flammable and explosive under certain conditions, its excellent thermal
properties make it the predominant refrigerant in the production end of the food industry.
Ammonia has advantage of being an environmentally safe refrigerant.
(ii)
Refrigerant-ii (CFC)
It has a boiling temperature at standard pressure of 74.7of (23.7oc). operating pressures at

standard ton conditions are 2.94psia (0.3bar) evaporating and 18.19psia (1.25bar)
condensing due to its low operating pressure,R-11 is employed only with centrifugal
compressors and mainly in air conditioning systems for small office buildings, factories,
department stores, etc. its is considered as a safe refrigerant and also has been used as a
solvent and as a secondary refrigerant. However, it has one of the highest ozone destruction
potentials.
(iii)
refrigerant-12(CCL2F2):- the chemical name of this fluid is dichlorodifluoromethane
It is probably the most widely used of all of the refrigerants. It is a safe refrigerant in that it is
non toxic, non flammable and non explosive. Further more, it is a highly stable compound
that is difficult to break down even under extreme operating conditions. However if brought
into contact with an open flame or an electrical heating element R-12 will decomposes into
highly toxic products. It is suitable refrigerant for use in high, medium and lo-temperature
applications and with all three types of compressor.
(iv)
Refrigerant-22 (CHCLF2):- the chemical name of R-22 is monochlorodifluoromethane.
It has a boiling point at atmospheric pressure of -41.4oF(-40.8oc).it is developed originally as

a low temperature refrigerant, it has been used in the post in domestic and industrial low
temperature systems down to evaporator temperature as low as -125oF (-87oc). its primary
use today is in packaged air conditioners, where because of space limitations, the relatively
small compressor displacement required is a decided advantage.
(v)
Refrigerant-500:- this refrigerant is an azeotropic mixture of 73.8% R-12 and 26.2%
R-152a. An azeotropic mixture is that mixture comprised of specific proportions of liquids

which behaves as a single pure compound. Such a liquid therefore boils at constant
temperature under a constant pressure.
Refrigerant-500 is used only in commercial and industrial units. Its normal boiling
temperature is-33.3oc and latent heat of vaporization at 5of is 45.8 cal/kg.
6.5
6.5.1 Chemical properties of refrigerant

(i)
Flammability: - Refrigerants such as ethane, propane
e.t.c are highly flammable.
Ammonia is also somewhat flammable and becomes explosive when mixed with air
in the rate of 16 to 25 percent of gas by volume. Good refrigerants used in domestic

and industrial purpose should not be flammable
(ii)
Toxicity: - some non-toxic refrigerant (i.e. all fluorocarbon refrigerants) when mixed
with certain percentage of air become toxic. Toxic refrigerant are not used in domestic
refrigerant and comfort air conditioning the use of toxic refrigerant is only limited to cold
storages..
(iii)
Solubility of Water: - water is only slightly soluble in R-12 the solution formed is very
slightly corrosive to any of the common metals. Solubility of water with refrigerant should
be reducing to minimal.
(iv)
Miscibility: - the ability of refrigerant to mix with oil is called miscibility. The degree
of miscibility. The degree miscibility depends upon the temperature of the oil and pressure
of the refrigerant vapour. The refrigerant should not in any form mix with the oil within the
crank case
(v)
Effect on perishable materials: - The refrigerants used in cold storage
Plant and in domestic refrigerators should be such that incase of leakage, it should have no
effect on the perishable materials.
6.6

(i)
Stability and inertness: - An ideal refrigerant should not decompose at any
temperature normally encountered in the refrigerating system. It should function for long
period of time with out dissociating into other compound.
(ii)
Corrosive property: - The corrosive property of a refrigerant must be taken into
consideration while selecting the refrigerant. The Freon group of refrigerant is non-corrosive
with all metals ammonia is used only with iron or steel. Sulphur dioxide is non-corrosive to
all in the absence of water good refrigerants should not have corrosive tendency.
(iii)
Viscosity: - The refrigerant in the liquid and vapour states should have low viscosity.
The heat transfer through the condenser and evaporator is improved at low viscosities.
(iv)
Thermal conductivity: - The refrigerant in the liquid and vapour states should have
high thermal conductivity. It requires the heat transfer coefficients in evaporator and
condensers.
(v)
Dielectric strength: - this is a measure of the resistance that the refrigerant offers to
the flow of electric current it is important in hermetically sealed units in which the electric
motor is expose to the refrigerant.
(vi)
Leakage tendency: - the leakage tendency of a refrigerant should be low. If there is a
leakage of refrigerant, it should be easily detectable the leakage occurs due to opening in
the joints or flaws in material used for construction.
(vii)
Cost: - this is important in high capacity refrigerating system like industrial and
commercial the ammonia, being the cheapest is widely used in large industrial plants such as
cold storage and ice plants.
6.7

(i)
Primary Refrigerant: - These are that working fluid which passes through the
refrigerating cycle of evaporation, recovery compression, condensation and expansion. for

example ammonia, Freon, so2 , methyl chloride and co2 e.t .c
(ii)
Secondary refrigerants: - these are those working fluids which act as cooling, medium but do
not undergo the refrigerating cycle. Air, brine and any other freezing solution are its example
6.8

In general, the type of piping material employed for refrigerant piping depend upon the size
and nature of the installation, the refrigerant used and the cost of materials and labour. The
materials most frequently used for refrigerant piping are black steel, wrought iron, copper,
and brass. All these may not be suitable with ammonia attacks non ferrous metals.
Copper tubing has the advantage of being lighter in weight, more resistance to corrosion,
and easier to install them either wrought iron or black steel.
6.8.1 PIPE JOINTS

Depending on the type and size of the piping, joints for refrigerant piping may be severed,
flanged flared, welded, brazed or soldered when refrigerant pressures are below 250sil
(17bar), screwed joints may be used on pipe sized up to 80mm. for higher pressures,
screwed joint are limited to pipe sized B5mm and smaller. Above these sizes, flanged joints
of the tongue and groove type should be used. Welting is probably the most commonly used
method of joining iron and steel piping.
6.8.2 LOCATION
In general, refrigerant piping should be located so that it does not present a safety hazard,
obstruct the normal operation and maintenance of the equipment, or restrict the used of
adjoining spaces.
6.8.3 VIBRATION AND NOISE

In most cases, the vibration and noise in refrigerant piping originates not in the piping itself
but in the connected equipment. How ever, regardless of the source, vibration, and the
objectional noise associated with it is greatly reduced by proper piping design.
6.9

Most refrigerants are supplied and stored in large pressure vessels holding about 60kg of
liquid and vapour when full. These must be stored upright, with caps in place, in cool and
well ventilated stores located well away from boiler rooms, or areas in which operations
presenting fire hazards- e.g. welding are carried out. Similarly, when cylinders are used in
the workshop or on site, brazing torches or welding sets must not be used close to them.
Given a pressure cylinder containing liquid and vapour, plus a source of intense heat, one
has all the necessary components to cause a leth at explosion.
The requirement for storage of cylinders in well ventilated rooms covers both the need to
remove any refrigerant which might escape, and the need to keep the cylinders as cool as
possible. In practical terms, storage are temperature should not reach levels at which
excessive refrigerant pressure is generated. An upper limit of not more than 2070kpa is
recommended.
At all times bear in mind that refrigerants have been specially developed to remove a lot of
heat quickly through any surface on which they boil. If liquid refrigerant sprays onto your
skin, you will apply the necessary first aid for the treatment of cold burn.
If you have to open a circuit, or purge it, make sure that the liquid cannot spray on you.

Leaks cannot be tolerated in any refrigeration system, and leak detecting equipment must
be well maintained and regularly used during maintenance checks as well as installation
work. The methods which can be used with specific refrigerants are listed below in
increasing order of efficiency.
6.
Sulphur candles: When lit and exposed to air containing ammonia vapour, these
give off a white cloud of ammonium chloride or ammonium sulphide. This method
cannot be used to pin point leak position.
7.
Litmus Paper: Moist red limits paper will turn blue if exposed to ammonia vapour,
but cannot be used with any of the halogen family refrigerants.
8.
Bubbles tests: Soapy water, a washing up liquid, or better, still a purpose developed
leak detector will indicate the locations of leaks by the formation of bubbles by
escaping refrigerant. However, this type of test can only be made on piping or
fittings known to be at higher pressure than that of the atmosphere. Test solutions
applied low temperature; low pressure suction lines could cause considerable
damage because the liquid could be drawn into the pipes.
9.
Halide test lamps: Detectors fuelled with propane, butane, or mentholated spirit
can be used to locate fluorocarbon refrigerants leaks. The detector includes a fuel
tank which is or can be pressurized to supply fuel at the at a steady and controlled
pressure and a jet to admit the fuel to a burner. When lit, the burner flame is
supported by oxygen in the air which is drawn through the tube used as a sensing
probe. The probe is passed slowly over the joint or surfaces being leak tested. If any
fluorocarbon refrigerants are drawn into the tube, the colour of the lamp flame will
change to green or blue, depending on the quantity of gas passed over the burner
element.
This type of detector can only be used with non-flammable gases and care must be
taken to avoid igniting any other gases or material.
10.
Electronic leak detectors: A wide range of electronic detectors is available. All are
extremely sensitive. Battery operated models for use on site will pick up leaks which
give a little as 14gm per year.
The refrigerant is sensed by a plug- element, exposed to air drawn through a probe
or tube. Its presence will be indicated by a flashing lamp, an audible bleep or buzz or
a meter reading each increasing in speed or intensity as more refrigerant passes
over the element.
6.11 REFRIGERATION LUBRICATING OILS

The lubricants used in refrigeration systems must do more than protecting moving
compressor parts against wear. A film of oil is used to seal the suction and discharge values
of a compressor or the shaft seal of an open type compressor. Oil also acts as a coolant,
transferring mechanically generated heat from the crankcase to the shell of a compressor. It
dampens noise in hermetic systems, it just not attack the electric insulation. It must remain
fluid at low temperatures and mix well with refrigerants such as R22. It must not contain
waxes or other suspended matter which might clog a capillary tube or the orifice of an
expansion valve. Finally, it must remain effective for the life of an hermetically sealed
compressor which can be over 20years. The choice of oil and nomination of acceptable
alternatives can only be made by the compressor manufacturers. It is not advisable to use
other than the recommended lubricants.
Contaminations of oil by moisture or moist air cannot be tolerated. Oil containers must
therefore be stored in dry well ventilated rooms and not opened until the moment the oil is
to be used.
It must be remembered that oil is constantly circulated around systems charged with the
refrigerants. The fluorocarbon refrigerants all dissolved in oil and oil is carried away from the
compressor crankcase in refrigerants as they are pumped around the systems. Pipelines and
heat exchangers must therefore be designed to help oil flow back to the crankcase.
6.11.1 COMPRESSOR LUBLICATING OILS
The fact that the compressor lubricating oil usually comes in to contact with, and often
mixed with the system refrigerant makes it necessary that the oil used to lubricate
refrigeration compressors be special prepared for that purpose some of the more important
properties of the oil that must be considered when selecting the compressor lubricating oil
are :(1)
Chemical stability: - The important of chemical stability is emphasized by the fact that it is
necessary for the compressor lubricating oil to perform its lubricating function continuously
and effective without undergoing change for long period of time.
(2)
Dielectric strength: - The dielectric strength of oil is a measure of the resistance that oil
offers to the flow of electric current. If is expressed in terms of the voltage required to cause
an electric current to arc across a gap between two poles immersed in the oil. Since any
moisture, dissolved metal or other impurities contained in the oil will lower its dielectric
strength, a high dielectric strength is an indication that the oil is relatively free of
contaminants.
(3)
Viscosity:- viscosity is defined as the resistance that a fluid offers to flow, with regard to the
lubricating oil, viscosity may also be defined as a measure of the body of the oil or of the
ability of the oil to perform its lubricating function by forming a protective film or coaling
between the parts separated and preventing wear. In order to provide adequate lubrication
for the compressor, the viscosity of the oil must be maintained within reasonable limits.
(3)
Pour, Cloud And Floc Points: - the pour point of oil is the lowest temperature at which the oil
will flow or pour, when tested under certain specified conditions of two oil having the
same viscosity; one may have a higher pour point than the other because of a greater wax
tent.
Since all lubricating oils contain a certain amount of paraffin, wax will precipitate from any
oil if the temperature of the oil becomes cloudy at this point, the temperature at which the
wax begins to precipitate from the oil is called the cloud point of the oil.
The flash point of the oil is the temperature at which wax will start to precipitate from a
mixture of 90% R-12 and 10% oil by volume.
6.12 METHOD OF LUBRICATION

Methods of lubricating the compressor vary some what depending upon the types and size
of the compressor and upon the individual manufacturer. However, for the most part,
lubrication methods can be grouped into two general types:- splash and forced feed.
(i)
Splash method: - in this, the compressor crank case acts as an oil sump and is filled
with oil to a level approximately even with the bottom of the main crank bearings
with each revolution of the crank shaft, the connecting rod and crank shaft dip into
the oil causing the oil to be splashed up on the cylinder walls bearings and other
rubbing surfaces.
Another modified type of splash lubrication, sometimes called flooded lubrication,

employs slinger rings, dises, screws or similar devices to raise the oil to a level above
the crankshaft or main bearing, from where it is allowed to flood over the bearing s
and or feed through oil channels to the various rubbing
(2)
Forces Feed: - in the forces feed method of lubrication, the oil is forced under
pressure through oil tubes and/or rifle drilled passage in the crankshaft and
connecting rods to the various rubbing surfaces. After performing its lubricating
function, the oil drains by gravity back into a sump located in the crankcase of the
compressor, usually at the end of the crankshaft. Since most oil pumps are
automatically reversible, the direction of crank rotation is not usually critical with
regard to compressor lubrication.
Assignment
1.
What do you understand by the following teams associated with lubricants?
(i).
Pouring point
(ii).
Flash or fire point
(iii).
Close point
(iv).
Dielectric strength
2.
Sketch oil pump mechanism and describe the methods of lubrication.
Week 7
7.0
KNOW THE PROCEDURE OF CHARGING REFRIGERATION CIRCUIT
7.1
Refrigerant can be charged in liquid or gaseous form, using one of several types of
equipments. As a general rule, liquid charging methods are used on new equipment
requiring a known weight of refrigerant. The method is fast and extremely accurate when
charges do no exceed the limits 4.5kg of transparent, calibrated refrigerant vessels.
Fig 7.1
Liquid refrigerant charging
Gas charging is normally used to top-up systems. The procedure is slow, but enables gas
volumes to be accurately controlled in accordance with the readings of suction and
discharge gauges, an ammeter showing the power drawn by the compressor motor and the
absence of bubbles in liquid-line sight glasses.
Fig 7.2
Vapour refrigerant charging
7.1.1
CYLINDER POSITIONS
The logical positions of refrigerant cylinders are:
Fig 7.3
(a).
For liquid charging cylinder inverted above the system, charging value down.
(b).
For gas charging charging vertical, value uppermost, beneath the system.
Refrigerant charging system
7.1.2
CHARGING EQUIPMENT OPTIONS

1.
Conventional charging hoses: These are used to connect main items of equipment.
2.
High vacuum hoses: These are flexible seamless metal construction.
3.
Service manifolds: These are arranged for one suction and one discharge gauge; and
either three or four flared connectors for lines from the vacuum pump, refrigerant
cylinder, and the appliance to be tested. High vacuum designs have special,
diaphragm type soft seat shut off values, a vacuum port and oversize internal
passages.
fig 7.4
Compound gauge
4.
Conventional gauges: These are normally of 60mm diameter with threaded pipe
connectors. Normal calibration ranges are 0-3400kpa for pressure gauges and
760mm Hg- 800kpa for compound types.
5.
High vacuum gauges: These are electronic types. The range covered should be
20mmto zero enabling unit pressures to be watched throughout the dehydration
process which starts at approx. 210C.
6.
Vacuum Pumps: Conventional and high vacuum types are available in portable sets
suitable for site work. The high vacuum models use special high quality paraffin
based oil. Its vapour pressure is not more than 0.005mm at 37.70C; and a vacuum
pump cannot pull a total absolute pressure less than the vapour pressure of its
sealing oil.
7.
Charging stations: Many models, portable and immovable are available. They
normally incorporate a vacuum pumps; transparent, calibrated refrigerant vessels
for each important fluorinated refrigerant; gauges, valves; piped circuits, and
connections to complete.
7.2

Most refrigerants are supplied and stored in large pressure vessels holding about 60kg of
liquid and vapour when full. These must be stored upright, with caps in place, in cool and
well ventilated stores located well away from boiler rooms, or areas in which operations
presenting fire hazards- e.g. welding are carried out. Similarly, when cylinders are used in
the workshop or on site, brazing torches or welding sets must not be used close to them.
Given a pressure cylinder containing liquid and vapour, plus a source of intense heat, one
has all the necessary components to cause a leth at explosion.
The requirement for storage of cylinders in well ventilated rooms covers both the need to
remove any refrigerant which might escape, and the need to keep the cylinders as cool as
possible. In practical terms, storage are temperature should not reach levels at which
excessive refrigerant pressure is generated. An upper limit of not more than 2070kpa is
recommended.
At all times bear in mind that refrigerants have been specially developed to remove a lot of
heat quickly through any surface on which they boil. If liquid refrigerant sprays onto your
skin, you will apply the necessary first aid for the treatment of cold burn.
If you have to open a circuit, or purge it, make sure that the liquid cannot spray on you.
WEEK 8
8.0
KNOW THE VARIOUS APPLICATIONS OF REFRIGERATION
8.1
REFRIGERATION INDUSTRY AND APPLICATIONS

In the early days of mechanical refrigeration, the equipment available was bulky, expensive
and not too efficient. Also it was of such a nature as to require that a mechanic or operating
engineer will be on duty at all times. This limited the use of mechanical refrigeration to a few
large applications.
It is earlier stated that refrigeration is principally carried out for a number of reasons which
can be narrowed down to a desire to bring about cooling by reducing the temperature of a
space or product. It may be to change the state of a product, thereby transforming it from
liquid to solid. A typical example is water and similar liquid products being changed into ice.
Again, it may be directed at maintaining the state of a product as is obtainable in food
presentation. Manufacturing of certain product may require specific temperature condition
for a given property of product to be obtained, hence the need for refrigeration. Also certain
dimensional accuracies can only be obtained during manufacture under controlled
temperature condition. For effective performance of some control instruments and panels,
limits are set on the temperature of the control room to avoid overheat resulting from
instruments and power control equipment.
In the light of the above, refrigeration industries are varied and target the following six
principals areas:
In the early days of mechanical refrigeration, the equipment available was bulky, expensive
and not too efficient. Also it was of such a nature as to require that a mechanic or operating
engineer will be on duty at all times. This limited the use of mechanical refrigeration to a few
large applications.
It is earlier stated that refrigeration is principally carried out for a number of reasons which
can be narrowed down to a desire to bring about cooling by reducing the temperature of a
space or product. It may be to change the state of a product, thereby transforming it from
liquid to solid. A typical example is water and similar liquid products being changed into ice.
Again, it may be directed at maintaining the state of a product as is obtainable in food
presentation. Manufacturing of certain product may require specific temperature condition
for a given property of product to be obtained, hence the need for refrigeration. Also certain
dimensional accuracies can only be obtained during manufacture under controlled
temperature condition. For effective performance of some control instruments and panels,
limits are set on the temperature of the control room to avoid overheat resulting from
instruments and power control equipment.
In the light of the above, refrigeration industries are varied and target the following six
principal areas:
8.2
CLASSIFICATION OF APPLICATION OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

For convenience of study, refrigeration applications may be grouped into six general
categories (1) domestic refrigeration (2) commercial refrigeration, (3) industrial refrigeration
(4) marine and transportation refrigeration (5) comfort air conditioning and (6) industrial air
conditioning. It is aperients in the following discussion that the exact limits of these areas
are not precisely defined and that there is considerable overlapping between the several
areas.
8.2.1
DOMESTIC REFRIGERATION
Domestic refrigeration is rather limited in scope being concerned primary with household
refrigerators and home freezers. However, because the numbers of units in service is quite
large, domestic refrigeration represent a significant portion of this refrigeration industry.
Fig 8.1 a
Refrigerators
Domestic
Fig 8.1 b
8.2.2
Domestic Refrigerators
COMMERCIAL REFRIGERATION
Commercial refrigeration is concerned with the design, installation and maintenance of

refrigerated fixtures and the type used by retail stores, restaurants, hotels and institution for
the storing, displaying processing and dispensing of perishable commodities of all type.
Fig 8.2
8.2.3
Display cabinets
INDUSTRIAL REFRIGERATION
Industrial refrigeration is often confused with commercial refrigeration because the divisions
between these two are not clearly defined. As a general role, industrial applications are
larger than commercial applications and have the disguising feature of requiring on
attendant on duty, usually a licensed operating engineer. Typical industrial applications are
ice plants, large food creameries and industrial plants such as oil refineries chemical plants
and rubber plants.
Fig 8.3
8.2.4
Industrial Refrigerators
MARINE AND TRANSPORTATION REFRIGERATION
Application falling into this category could be listed partly under commercial refrigeration
and partly under industrial refrigeration. However, both these areas of specialization have
grown to sufficient size to warrant special instruction.
Fig 8.4
8.2.5
Refrigerated truck
AIR CONDITIONING
As the name implies, air conditioning is concerned with the condition of the air in some
designated areas on space. This usually involves control not only of the space. This usually
involves controls not only of the space temperature but also of spaces humidity and air
motion, along with the filtering and clearing of the air.
Air-conditioning application are of two types, either comfort or industrial according to their
purpose. Any air-conditioning that has as its primary function the conditioning of air for
human comfort air-conditioning are in homes, schools offices, house of workshop, hotels,
retail stores public buildings factorize auto mobiles, buses, trains, planer and ships.
Any air-conditioning that does not have as its primary purpose the conditioning of air for
human comfort is called industrial air-conditioning. This does not necessarily mean that
industrial air-conditioning systems cannot serve also as comfort air-conditioning
coincidentally with their primary function often this secondary function is served although
not always.
The application of industrial air-conditioning are almost without limit both in number and in
variety generally peaking, the function of industrial air-conditioning system are to
(1)
Control the moisture content of hydroscopic materials.
(2)
Govern the rate of chemical and biochemical reactions
(3)
Limit the variations in the size of precision manufactured articles because of thermal
expansion and contraction and
(4)
Provide clean, filtered air that is often essential to trouble free operation and to the
production of quality products.
Fig 8.5
Air conditioning system
WEEK 9
9.0
KNOW THE FUNCTION OF AN AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM FOR A BUILDING
9.1
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

Air conditioning is generally treatment of air in order to control simultaneously its
temperature, humidity, cleanliness and distribution to meet pre-determined requirements
of the conditioned space.
Fig 9.1
Air condoning system
Major reasons for the use of air condition include:

1. Comfort air conditioning:- To promote human comfort.
2. Process and product A/C:- For the maintenance of proper conditions for the manufacture,
processing and preservation of material and equipment.\
3. Control of industrial Environment A/C:- To maintain efficiency, health and safety of workers
at safe tolerance limits.
Application of air conditioning can be found in to major grouping namely.
1. Industrial air condition:- This include such area as.
a. Laboratories
b. Printing industries
c. Pharmaceutical industries
d. Photographic industries
e. Control rooms (Electrical/Electrics)
2. Comfort air conditioning: This include areas like:
a. Eating and amusement locations
b. Store/super markets
c. Residences
d. Large buildings e.g offices, hotels, hospitals etc.
e. Transportation e.g car, buses, plane.
9.2
AIR CONDITION PLANT

The function of an air conditioning plant is to provide air which is:
i. Without dust
ii. at the correct temperature
iii. at the correct humidity
Air condition when correctly used implies more than just temperature control. There are
four conditions which affect human comfort and these are:
a. The temperature of the surrounding air
b. The humidity (moisture content) of the air

c. The purity of the air
d. The movement of the air
True air conditioning implies that all four of there atmospheric conditions for human
comfort are met. To meet these conditions, there are basically seven functions which a
complete air conditioning plant should be capable of satisfying. These seven functions
include
1. Cooling
5. filtering
2. Heating
6. circulation
3. Humidifying
7. ventilation
4. de-humidifying
Fig 9.2
9.3
Evaporative cooler
OPERATION PRINCIPLES OF AIR CONDITIONING PLANT

Air is drawn in from the atmosphere and is passed through filters. After the air has passed
through filters, it is then passed over a cooling coil which may make the temperature of the
air to fall below the dew point. If the temperature of the air falls below the dew point,
some of the water moisture is condensed and extracted from the air; the cooling coils could
thus have the effect of both cooling and de-humidifying the air. They could then be heated
to the correct temperature, in the heater and then prayed with water to the required
humidity before being delivered through the ducting is the conditioned space.
In order to condition air as per required, it is important to have knowledge of the condition
of air that is being drawn in. if the condition of the in-coming air is known, then it can be
decided whether or not it will be necessary to cool it, humidify it, dehumidify it, heat it or do
all of the above processes other things.
It is a common practice to exhaust about 1/3 of this air and draw in a quantity direct from
the atmosphere to replace this. This is particularly desirable for air conditioning for human
occupancy.
ASSIGNMENT
Sketch a window air conditioner, label it properly and briefly explain the function of the
major component parts.
WEEK 10
10.0 KNOW HOW TO CALCULATE COOLING LOADS FOR REFRIGERATION
AND AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
10.1 COOLING LOADS AND CALCULATION
Cooling load is the rate at which heat must be removed from the refrigerated space or
material in order to produce and maintain the desired temperature condition.
Some of the sources of heat in the refrigerated space include:
1. Heat leak by conduction from outside into the refrigerated space through the insulated
walls. This is called wall gain load.
2. Heat by radiation through glass windows and other transparent items into the
refrigerated space.
3. Heat by warm outside air entering through open doors, or through cracks around
windows and doors. This is called air change load. This air change load can be due to air
infiltration into the refrigerated space or ventilation airs to make up for require air in a
conditioned space for the occupants.
4. Heat given off by warm products entering into the refrigerated space. This is called
product load.
5. Heat given off by people occupying the refrigerated space.
6. Heat given off by heat producing equipment located inside the refrigerated space.
10.1.1 WALL GAIN LOAD

The wall gain load is given.
by
Q = A x U x DT x 24hr x 60min x 60sec
where A = sum of wall area of the refrigerated space

DT = temperature change (corrected for solar radiation from table)
U = overall heat transfer coefficient.
Where U =
h1
Connection coefficient (surface conductance) inside walls
ho
Convection coefficient (surface conductance) outside walls
t1
Wall thickness
k1
Thermal conductivity
Product load (including containers and packing materials)

For storage temperature above freezing point of product (24 - hr)
Qp = Wp x C x (T2 T1) x 24 hrs
Desired cooling time (hr)
Where
Wp = weight of product
C = specific heat capacity
T1 = entering temperature
T2 = storage temperature
For storage temperature below freezing point of product (24 - hr)
Qpf = Wp x Cf x (T1 Tf) + W f + Wp x Cf x (Tf T2)
Tf
= freezing point
= latent heat of fusion
From the above, the quantity of heat given off by product in cooling from entering
temperature to its freezing temperature is
Qp = Wp x Cf x (T1 - Tf)
Also the quantity of heat off by the product of in solidifying or freezing is given by
Qpp
= Wf
The quantity of heat given off by the product in cooling from its freezing temperature to
final storage temperature is given by
Qps
= {Wp x Cf x (Tf T2) }
10.1.2CHILLING RATE FACTOR

This means that factor introduction into chill load calculation to compensate for the uneven
distribution of chilling load. The effect of the chilling rate factor is to increase the product
load calculation by an amount sufficient to make the average hourly cooling rate approx
equal to the hourly load at the peak condition. This results in the selection of larger
equipment having sufficient capacity to carry the load during the initial stages of chilling.
Qp =
Wp x C x (T2 T1)
Chilling time(s) x chilling rate factor
Qp =
WCDT x 24 hr
Chilling rate x MAT
W = wt of product
C = specific heat capacity
DT = change in temperature
MAT = Max allowable time.
Change load:
QA = M (ho - hi)
Where
QA
M
= air change load (kw)
= mass of air entering space (kg/s)
ho
= enthalpy of outside air (KJ/kg)
Also the heat load due to infiltration can be calculated for a known volume of air.
If
Then
V1
= the infiltration of air
Va
= specific volume of ambient air
ho
= enthalpy of ambient air
hi
= enthalpy of inside air

QA = (Vi / Va) (ho hi)
WEEK 11
11.0 KNOW THE FUNCTION OF AN AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM FOR A
BUILDING CONTD
11.1 REFRIGERATED COOLING OR AIR CONDITIONING
Refrigerated air conditioning is similar to commercial refrigeration because of the same
components that are used to cool the air: (1) the evaporator, (2) The compressor, (3) the
condenser and (4) metering devices. These components are assembling in several ways to
accomplish the same goal, refrigerated air to cool space.
11.2 PACKAGED AIR CONDITIONING
The four components are assembled into two basic types of equipments for air conditioning
purposes: packaged equipment and split system equipment. With package equipment all of
the components are building into one cabinet. It also called self contained equipment.
Package equipment may be located beside the structure or on top of it. In some instances the
heating equipment is built into the same cabinets.
Fig 11.1 Package unit installation
11.3 SPLIT SYSTEM AIR CONDITIONING

In spit system air conditioning the condenser is located outside, remote from the evaporator,
and uses interconnected refrigerant lines. The evaporator may be located in the attic, a crawl
space, or a closet for up flow or down flow applications. The fan to blow the air across the
evaporator may be included in the heating equipment, or a separate fan may be used for air
conditioning system.
Fig 11.2 Split air conditioning system
11.3.1THE EVAPORATOR
The evaporator is the component that absorbs heat into the refrigeration system; it is a
refrigeration coil made of aluminum fins on either type attached to the coil to give it more
surface area for better heat exchange.
The evaporator coil has several designs for airflow through the coil and draining the
condensate water the coil, depending on the installation. The different designs are known as
the A coil the slant coil and the H coil.
Fig 11.3 Evaporator with a coil case
11.3.2THE A COIL
The A coil is used for upflow; downflow, and horizontal flow applications. It consists of two
coils with their circuits side by side and spread apart at the bottom in the shape of the letter
A, in the figure below. When used for upflow or downflow, the condensate pan is at the
bottom of A pattern. When used for horizontal flow, a pan is placed at the bottom of the coil
and the coil is turned on its side. The air flows through A coil is through the coil of the coil. It
can not be from side to side with the two coils in series. A coil is not the best coil application
for horizontal application. When horizontal air flow is needed slant or H coils may be more
desirable.
Fig 11.4
An A coil
11.3.3 THE SLANT COIL

The slant coil is one piece coil mounted in the duct on an angle (usually 60o) or slant to give
the coil more surface area. The slant of the coil causes the condensate water to drain to the
coil causes the condensate water to slant. The coil can be used for upflow, down flow, or
horizontal flow when designed for these applications.
Fig 11.5 A slant coil
11.3.4THE H COIL
The H coil is normally applied to horizontal applications although it can be adopted to
vertical applications by using special drain pan configuration. The drain is normally at the
bottom of the H pattern.
Fig 11.6 An H coil
11.4 COMFORT AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

In comfort air conditioning, the air is brought into the required dried bulb temperature and
relative humidity for the human health, comfort and efficiency. If sufficient data of the
required condition is not given, then it as assumed to be 21oC dry bulb temperature and
50o/o relative humidity. The sensible heat factor is generally kept as follow;
For residence or private office = 0.9
For restaurant or busy office = 0.8

Auditorium or cinema hall = 0.7
Ball room dance hall etc =0.6
The comfort air conditioning may be adopted for homes, offices, shops, restaurant, theatre,
hospital, schools etc .
11.5 INDUSTRIAL AIR CONDTIONING SYSTEM

It is an important system of air conditioning these days in which the inside dry bulb
temperature and relative humidity of the air is kept constant for proper working of the
machines and for the proper research and manufacturing processes. Some of the
sophisticated electronic and other machines need a particular dried bulb temperature and
relative humidity. Sometimes, these machines also required a particular method of
psychometric processes. These types of air conditioning system is used in textile mills, paper
mills, machine parts manufacturing plants, tools room, photo processing plant etc.
11.6 UNITARY AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

In this system, factory assembled air conditioners are installed in or adjacent to the space to
be conditioned. The unitary air conditioning systems are of the following two types,
1
window units: These are self-contained units of small capacity of 1 TR 3TR and are
mounted in a window or through the wall. They are employed to condition the air of
one room only. If the room is bigger in size, then two or more unit are installed.
Vertical packed unit: These are self contained unit of bigger capacity of 5-20TR and
are installed adjacent to the space to be conditioned. This is very useful for
conditioning the air of a restaurant, bank or small office.
11.7 CENTRAL AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

This is the most important types of air conditioning system, which is adopted, when the
cooling capacity required is 25TR or more. It is also adopted when the air flow is more than
300m3/min or different zone in a building are to be conditioned.
WEEK 12
12.0 KNOW HOW TO SERVICE REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
12.1 REFRIGERATION SYSTEM SERVICE

For simplicity, service operations have been divided into two groups. This deals with work on
refrigeration systems. A number of relevant procedures have been described previously, and will not
be repeated. For example, from the previous discussion details procedures to be followed when
cutting and jointing pipelines; brazing or silver soldering; evacuating and leak testing; and charging
with either gaseous or liquid refrigerants. Noise and vibration precautions, and drive kit adjustment
methods are also described previously; and many service pointers are included in earlier lessons
describing specific system components.
12.2 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

Precautions to be taken when handling refrigerants or other chemicals, and flushing out or brazing
pipelines which have contained refrigerants, have also been detailed earlier. We must however
repeat the following points,
a) Wear suitable protective clothing (including safety glasses or goggles) whenever refrigerants are
handled, or refrigeration systems opened to atmosphere
b) Always purge refrigerants to the outside atmosphere when a system is to be emptied
c) Do not braze or weld systems containing refrigerants or refrigeration oil

d) Do not blow through systems which might contain oil, with oxygen or other potentially explosive gases
e) Use only suitable materials, and good practices, when working on any type of system.
12.3 ADJUSTMENT OF CONTROLS

A number of adjustments do not require circuits to be opened - especially if systems have adequate
provision for instrumentation. We will review them before passing on to more complex work, involving
opening refrigeration systems.
12.4. THERMOSTATIC EXPANSION VALVES

Before adjusting the superheat screw of a TEV, because an evaporator is receiving too much or too
little refrigerant, make sure that the sensing bulb is firmly connected to the suction line and is correctly
positioned), and that neither the bulb nor the capillary has been damaged and part or all of the bulb
charge lost. Check also that all capillary tubes from the refrigerant distributor (if fitted) are undamaged
and passing refrigerant.
Fig 12.1 TEV superheat test positions
If the above checks prove satisfactory, check the valve superheat as follows.
a) Using (preferably) an electronic thermometer, or alternatively a sensitive dial thermometer with a
gas-filled bulb, clamp the thermocouple or bulb securely to the suction line at point A.
b) Using a self-sealing access valve at point B, fit a gauge to read the evaporator outlet pressure and,
using a pressure/temperature chart, convert this to the equivalent temperature. (N.B. suction
temperature can be calculated from the pressure at the compressor suction port, minus say 1 C or a
more accurate estimate of pressure drop in the suction line; but this is not as accurate as the method
first described.) Subtract temperature B from temperature A to determine the superheat of the
system.
For example:
Temperature at A ...................5 C (41 F)

Pressure at B = 62 kPa
(9 pslg) which if using
R12 is equivalent to ................0 C (32 F)
Therefore superheat............... 5 C ( 9 F)
Too low a superheat means that too much refrigerant is entering the cooling coil, the suction pressure is
high, and the Suction line may frost back to the compressor. Too high a superheat means that the
evaporator is starved. The suction pressure Is low, and only part of the cooling coil is fully used. To
adjust superheat, remove the cap from the adjustment screw, and turn it not more than one quarter of
a revolution at a time. Note the effect on the temperature at point A (remembering that it can take up
to half an hour for a valve to settle down gain). Unfortunately, TEV manufacturers have not
standardized settings - one cannot, for example, say 'turn anti-clockwise to reduce superheat'. To be
safe, look up the technical data on the valve concerned, or be prepared to spend time getting the
correct setting by trial and error. If It is necessary to strip a TEV for any reason, the system should be
pumped down and valves off so that the valve is at a slight positive refrigerant pressure - say 14 kPa (2
psi). This system pressure will resist the entry of air or other contaminants.
12.5 CAPILLARY TUBES

Instructions of questionable value appear in some service manuals, in the form of advice on clearing
blockages from capillary tube refrigerant controls. The procedures -normally involving the use of a
hand pump, and hydraulic oil to force the contaminant out of the capillary - are usually effective. But
the cost of the operation, in terms of materials and labour, often exceeds that of a shiny new capillary
control of guaranteed quality. If a capillary tube is blocked, remove and replace both it and the liquidline strainer. If it is necessary to change evaporator or condenser, replace both capillary and liquidline strainer.
12.6 SOLENOID VALVES

The most frequent cause of trouble with solenoid valves - be they liquid-line, hot gas bypass, or
reverse-cycle/defrost controls are:
a) dirt, sludge or other system contaminants; or
b) valve bodies distorted by excessive heat when brazed or soldered into place.
Either may result in any of the common symptoms 'valve will not open'; 'valve will not close'; Valve is
not seating properly' or 'the coil has burned out'. Cross-sections through various types of solenoid
valve appear in Fig. below (reversing) and (liquid-line).
In the event of trouble with a solenoid valve, pump down to a slight positive pressure and
check it for wax, carbonized oil or other contaminants. If any are present, strip and
thoroughly clean the valve and renew the refrigerant strainer ahead of the valve, as well
as the strainer in the entry port of the valve (if applicable). Distorted valve bodies can only be
replaced. If doing this, note the procedures detailed in the previous lessons point the flame
away from the valve body. If possible favour designs with longer, not shorter sweat
connection 'tails'. Valves must be installed in the same plane (horizontal or vertical) as the
original, and be of the same make and type - some will only work if plungers are vertical (i.e.
the body is horizontal) but others have strong enough coils to work in any plane.
Fig 12.2
Liquid line solenoid valves
12.7 HOT GAS BYPASS VALVES

These capacity regulating valves are installed in a bypass between the discharge line from the
compressor and (ideally) an entry port between the expansion valve and distributor. They
modulate towards their fully open position as suction pressure falls. Figure below shows a
typical installation layout. The set point pressure is adjusted by the control spring, and the
valve remains closed so long as evaporator pressure is above the preset level. If it falls below
the set point, the valve starts to open and hot gas is injected into the entrance to the
evaporator. This increases suction pressure, and the load on the compressor, and prevents
frosting back or liquid slugging. Note from Fig. below that a solenoid valve is installed in the
discharge line ahead of the bypass valve (it is wired in parallel with the liquid-line solenoid
valve) to prevent the refrigerant pump-down system from being bypassed and rendered
inoperative. To adjust such a valve, fit a suction gauge and coarse-set the desired suction line
pressure by adjusting the liquid-line valve. Finer settings can then be made by retensioning
the adjustment spring. Bypass valve problems are not common if systems are free from
contaminants. Two types of defects can be found.
a) Valve will not open - due to the seat or piston being affected by sludge or other
contaminants. Pump down to a slight positive pressure and strip and clean the valve
b) Valve will not close - due to one of:
i) presence of contaminants - see (a) above
ii) bypass tube blockage or restriction -clean or replace bypass, and strip and clean valve
iii) diaphragm failure - replace valve power element.
Fig 12.3 Hot gas bypasses line
WEEK 13
13.0 KNOW THE FUNCTION OF COMPONENTS OF AN AIR CONDITIONING

SYSTEM FOR A BUILDING
13.1 HEAD PRESSURE CONTROLLERS
Two main types of controller are available:
a) Pressure operated - actuating dampers at one or more evaporator fan outlets or electronic
motor speed controllers;
b) Temperature operated - actuating electronic motor speed controllers or cycling one or
more fan motors on/off in accordance with ambient conditions. The second type of controller
may be less effective than the first, since there is not necessarily a fixed relationship between
system pressures and ambient temperatures. Controllers should be set to be fully effective
(i.e. motor at lowest speed, or dampers fully closed) at a liquid-line pressure slightly above
the minimum level nominated by the manufacturer of the compressor and then operated to
increase condensing efficiency as refrigerant pressures/temperatures increase. A typical 'as
fitted' circuit is as shown in Fig. below. Head pressure controllers can only be re-set using
specific instructions
manufacturers.
issued
by
their
Fig 13.1 Head pressure controller layout
13.2
PRESSURE CONTROLS
A typical pressure control section is illustrated in Fig. below. To adjust control settings, fit suction and
discharge pressure gauges and make only small changes to settings before checking effects on system
procedures. Control operation, and the accuracy of existing settings, can be tested by 'rigging' the
equipment. For a high pressure control, progressively blank off an air-cooled condenser with a sheet
of hardboard, and note the pressure at which the control operates (or fails to operate!). For a low
pressure control, system pressures can be steadily reduced by throttling down at the liquid-line valve.
In either case, be ready to remove the 'obstruction' quickly if pressure changes are greater, and occur
more quickly, than expected.
Fig. 13.2
Pressure control
13.3 ACCESSIBLE AND OPEN COMPRESSORS

13.3.1
COMPRESSOR SHAFT SEALS
The weakest point of an open compressor is its shaft seal, which is likely to leak oil and refrigerant as
the result of mechanical damage by misaligned drive kits, as well as 'fair wear and tear1. A typical shaft
seal is illustrated in Fig. below. The seal is contained between a step (or 'shoulder') in the shaft, and a
bolt-on seal (or 'gland') cover. The shaft passes through the seal and cover, to carry the half shaft or
vee belt pulley.
The wearing surfaces of a seal are held in place by a spring, or bellows. This is slipped over the shaft,
and secured at the shaft 'shoulder' by a sleeve. At its front end, the spring presses a carbon sealing
ring against a matching metallic surface. The two wearing surfaces are lapped to optical standards of
flatness and covered by a film of recirculated refrigeration oil, which provides the ultimate seal against
differing pressures at each side of the assembly. A gasket is normally used inside the seal end cover,
which is itself machined to close tolerances around the shaft aperture. A shaft seal leak is indicated
first by loss of refrigerant - which can be detected by a lamp or electronic refrigerant detector -and
then by refrigeration oil seeping through the seal. To replace a seal, the compressor should be
pumped down to a slight positive pressure (14 kPa (2 psi)), switched off, and its service valves frontseated. N.B. This procedure is followed every time, it is necessary to open an open or accessible
hermetic sealed compressor or system component.
The seal cover is then carefully unbolted, leaving two bolts at opposite extremes of the cover until last,
so that any excess pressure can be released in a controlled fashion. When the cover has been removed,
the seal components can be removed by hand, or using a seal withdrawal tool. The wearing surfaces of
seals which are leaking but not badly damaged can be repaired by carefully relapping.
Fig 13.3 compressor shaft seal section
13.3.2
COMPRESSOR VALVE PLATES
The valve plate and suction/discharge reed assemblies can be easily removed after an open or
accessible hermetic compressor has been pumped down. Valve plates can be relapped if slightly
worn, but there is little future in attempting to repair damaged valve reeds. Note that new
gaskets should always be fitted when a compressor Component is removed for scrutiny or repair.
Fig 13.4 Valve plate assembly
13.3.3
STRIPPING COMPRESSORS
After systems are pumped down, and seal end covers removed, compressors can be separated from
their service valves and the Oil poured into suitable containers. Examine the oil to see if it contains any
swarf or contaminants, but do not use it again in the compressor. After removing the rear (or motor)
end cover and gasket, the compressor pistons, connecting rods and crankshaft can be removed in that
order. Con rods and pistons must be marked, to ensure that they are replaced in their original
positions. Any damaged items must be replaced and all components should be stored in clean
refrigeration oil until it is time for them to be cleaned (preferably using R11 or a non-toxic, nonexplosive cleansing/grease solvent; caustic soda and trichloroethylene are not recommended) and
replaced. Do not forget Shaft or other bearings, which must be examined for fit and wear and must be
replaced if their condition is less than excellent. Oil strainers and channels must also be carefully
inspected, and any contaminants removed.
When re-assembling compressors, take care not to use the original gaskets (or other sealing materials)
or oil. All components (including the crankcase and other castings) must be cleaned and examined to
ensure they are free of defects, then coated with fresh, dry refrigeration oil. Care must be taken not to
over-tighten bolts, and the use of torque-indicating wrenches is desirable. We list a logical order in
which components can be refitted.
a) Crankshaft bearings (often grooved or marked to indicate which side should contact the thrust
surfaces of the crankshaft).
b) Crankshaft (inserted from the front (seal) end) then the seal end cover.
c) Oil pump end bearing head. Adjust the end play of the crankshaft by shims between the bearing head
and housing. Double check the end play with a feeler gauge after the bearing head is positioned and
tightened.
d) Remove the seal end cover, and insert the shaft seal. Replace the end cover.
e) Install the oil pump and suction strainer.
f) Assemble and test (i) valve plates and reeds, and (ii) the cylinder unloader mechanism, if used.
g) Fit piston compression oil rings, if used.
h) Assemble pistons, con rods, and (if used) cylinder liners,
i) Properly position the crankshaft, insert pistons and con rods through cylinders, and complete the
assembly to the crankshaft.
j) Refit the valve plate and cylinder head,
k) Replace the compressor on its base, and connect the service valves.
l) Insert a new charge of dry refrigeration oil.
m) Evacuate and leak test the compressor,
n) Return the unit to operation.
Fig 13.6
Section of accessible hermetic compressor
Fig 13.5 Piston and con rod assembly
WEEK 14

14.1 ADDING OIL TO OPEN/ACCESSIBLE HERMETIC COMPRESSORS
Never pour refrigeration oil into a compressor crankcase - it is likely to be contaminated by air and
moisture in the process. With the compressor pumped down as instructed, remove the oil filler plug,
and insert new, dehydrated refrigeration oil using a fully-primed hand pump. Make sure that air
entering the can to replace oil used is passed through a drier and that both the compressor and the oil
can are sealed immediately the correct quantity of oil has been added.
Fig. 14.1
Hand pump
14.2 REPLACING WELDED HERMETIC COMPRESSORS

The replacement of a welded hermetic compressor after a motor burn-out is potentially the most
critical operation we are likely to perform. Unless the job is planned and carried out to the highest
standards, there is every possibility that the replacement compressor will also burn out. Both
equipment and labour costs are too high for repeat burn-outs to be acceptable. The first essential is, to
be 100 per cent certain that it is necessary to fit a replacement before proceeding beyond the test stage.
The electrical checks to be made to establish whether motor windings or insulation have been
irrevocably damaged are detailed in the next chapter. Mechanical defects which justify replacing a
compressor are as follows.
a) Components being jammed, or 'frozen' - normally follows lubrication problems, but can occur as
the result of tight tolerances between piston and cylinder or stator and rotor. In this case, it may be
possible to get a compressor "running by increasing the starting torque of its motor (using 'starting
gear' or fitting it for C.S.R. operation) arid/or running the motor backwards for a minute or two.
b) The unit 'jumping' from its internal mounting springs as the result of mishandling (normally the
consequence of an appliance not standing upright during transit). The symptom is an abnormally high
noise level (hammering), frequently followed by loss of pumping efficiency as the result of internal
pipelines fracturing.
c) Damage to suction or discharge valves, or other components, resulting in unacceptably low
pumping efficiency. This condition can be positively checked if the compressor does not incorporate
gauge ports, by installing line-tap or Schrader valves close to suction and discharge tubing connections
to the compressor casing. The most serious damage is that which results from a compressor motor
burning out. This causes oil to carbonize, form sludge, and contain acids as well as pieces of charred
winding insulation and electrical materials. All traces of these contaminants must be removed from the
system when the compressor is replaced, since their presence inevitably leads to a repeat burnout.
Burned out compressors must be handled with caution. If the seal of the service (or 'slave') tube is
broken, the characteristic smell of burned windings is unmistakable and the compressor oil will be
dark, evil-smelling and contaminated with carbonised particles. Contaminated refrigerant should be
purged to fresh air, using a disposable length of tubing, before the compressor is removed; and
protective clothing (goggles and gloves) must be worn to prevent refrigerant, oil or acids from injuring
skin or the eyes. Compressor replacement procedures are given below.
a) With power off, remove all electric conductors and accessories. Using a pipe cutter, cut suction and
discharge lines close to (within 50 mm of) the compressor housing, unless service valves are fitted.
Release the external mountings and remove the burned-out compressor.

b) Remove the original capillary tube and refrigerant strainer.
c) Using a purpose-made pump, thoroughly flush out the remainder of the system with R11.
Continue until no traces of oil or contaminants emerge from the suction line and/or suctionline accumulator.
d) Fit a new capillary tube, an over-sized liquid-line strainer/drier, the new compressor and a
suction-line filter-drier (or 'burn-out'/'clean up' kit) immediately upstream of the
compressor. If this does not have service valves, install Schrader valves before and after the
suction-line drier. All electrical accessory items (capacitors, relay, overload etc.) must be
replaced with new equipment.
e) Carefully silver solder all new joints whilst washing through the system with dry nitrogen
applied at low pressure.
f) Evacuate the system, using either the Triple Evacuation Method at 710 mm (28 in) Hg or,
preferably, a high vacuum pump recording 250 microns or better on an electronic vacuum
gauge. Under no circumstances use the compressor as a vacuum pump.
g) Leak test, by making certain that gauge pressures do not increase (other than in step with
room temperature changes) for three hours if using the Triple Evacuation Method, or one hour
if using an electronic high vacuum kit.
h) Using a fully-equipped charging station, add the correct refrigerant (and if applicable oil)
charge.
i) Remove the charging equipment, remake all electrical equipment and start up the new
compressor.
j) Check the pressure drop across the suction-line filter-drier, using a differential pressure
gauge if possible and check the amperage drawn by the compressor.
k) After one hour, recheck the pressure drop. Ideally, this should not exceed the values.
I) After three hours, again check the pressure drop. If this exceeds three times the value
quoted, fit new liquid and suction-line driers. This procedure must be repeated until the
pressure drop stabilizes at or below the levels indicated above, for permanent operation.
m) Where the replacement compressor is a second or third replacement, i.e. the system is
one in which there have been several burn-outs, an oil sample should be taken and acid-tested
when the suction line drier pressure drop is at an acceptable level. Only if the oil is confirmed
to be acid-free can the operation be regarded as satisfactorily completed.
The above procedures are fully current, many being based on Tecumseh recommendations.
The sequence of operations and end objectives is of course the same in systems using welded
or accessible hermetic compressors. The only changes are those resulting from variations in
evacuation and leak testing procedures when working on large systems.
14.3 GAS CHARGING METHODS

Conventional procedures are: to charge gas from a vertical cylinder, standing charging valve
upwards; or to charge liquid from an inverted cylinder with the charging valve beneath the
liquid refrigerant level. This is no longer an invariable rule, since du Pont now packs some Freon
refrigerants in cylinders with a new type of charging valve. This enables liquid or gaseous
refrigerant to be selected at the valve, with the cylinder remaining upright.
14.4 AIR OR OVERCHARGE

Abnormally high condensing pressures can result both from an overcharge of refrigerant and
from air in the condenser. The question 'which' is not difficult to solve. If a head pressure gauge is
fitted and the system switched off, then:
a) If there is an overcharge of refrigerant, the condensing pressure will fall slowly but steadily until it is
equivalent to room temperature.
b) If there is air in the condenser, pressure will remain well above that of the equivalent room
temperature.
Fig 14.3
Charging cylinder positions
14.5 PRESSURES IN WELDED HERMETIC SYSTEMS

The ready availability of line-piercing valves which can be easily and permanently installed in lines up
to I" has removed the major difficulty in diagnosing faults in small all-welded systems. They are not
expensive, and their use can only help to avoid errors and repeat service calls. When piping up larger,
field-assembled systems the use of Schrader valves is desirable, even when compressor and liquid line
valves are provided. This type of valve costs even less than line-tap models and has many uses. In split
systems, refrigerant can be charged at either condensing or air handling units. Suitably located valves
make it quick and easy to adjust TEV superheat or the settings of head pressure controllers or bypass
valves, to take oil samples, or to check pressure at or through any part of the system.
14.6 ROTOLOCK WELDED COMPRESSOR VALVES

An increasing proportion of welded hermetic compressors incorporate suction and discharge valves,
which again help to eliminate guesswork. Some other 'cans' incorporate provision for the installation
of service valves by equipment manufacturers - or distributors - who consider that service costs and
standards are more important than minimal first costs. The following notes will be of help to those
fitting replacement compressors. Some compressors have 'spuds' brazed into their casings. If screwon caps and seals are removed from 'spuds', Rotolock service valves can be screwed onto the fittings.
Alternatively, suction or discharge line terminals can be silver-soldered to the screw-on capping rings,
using appropriate precautions against over-heating compressor casings.
A second type of fitting uses a steel adaptor, which fits over and is silver-soldered to stub tube
connections emerging from the compressor casing. (Don't forget to cut the end seals from stubs
before fixing the adaptors!) The other end of the adaptor is threaded to receive a screw-on Rotolock
valve (which has a capped service or charging port). Electrically or mechanically operated recording
Instruments covering a variety of applications are available - some forming in Integral part of control
systems. Figure below, Illustrates a two-pen, 24-hour DB and WB temperature recorder which is typical
of a wide range of instruments available.
Fig 14.4 Rotorlock valve adaptor
Fig 14.5
DB/WB temperature recorder
REVISION QUESTIONS
1 The plant for a commercial cold room includes a 0-5 kW semi-hermetic compressor charged with R12. It is
suspected that air has entered the system, and service pressure gauges have been installed.
a) List two major observations made using the gauges which would confirm the presence of air.
b) Enumerate two other ways in which the presence of air could be confirmed.
c) Describe in detail the method used to eliminate the air.
d) What signs would confirm that air has been present, the compressor valve cover and valve plate having been
removed for inspection?
2 a) Make a labeled line sketch showing the layout of a commercial refrigeration evaporator and an externally equalized
thermostatic expansion valve.
b) With the help of your diagram, explain briefly how the TEV superheat setting can be checked and altered.
WEEK 15

Several different types of humidifier are available, all designed to admit steam or spray small water
droplets into the supply airstream where the moisture will be vapourised and immediately increase
RH. Again, a wide range of capacities is available, equipment being rated in terms of the moisture it will
distribute, or the steam it will generate, in a given period of time - usually one hour. The types most
often used are listed below.
15.1 STEAM PAN HUMIDIFIER

Steam pan humidifiers Water is gravity-fed into a closed container which contains one or more electric
elements. If the control circuit is made, elements are energized and boil some of the water. The steam
passes out of the boiling pan and is fed directly, or through a supply line connecting the pan and steam
distributing nozzles, into the supply airstream which has left the evaporator. Water which has been
boiled is replaced from a break tank fitted with a ball-type make-up valve. When space RH reaches the
set point, the humidifier de-energizes the heating elements. This arrangement, illustrated in Fig.
below, is simple and economical. Drawbacks are that there is a time lag between the need for steam
being sensed, and its being generated, and that in hard water areas heating elements will - like those in
electric kettles - become coated with scale, which increases the time taken to produce steam. This can
of course be removed using a standard descaling chemical, but if treatment is neglected the humidifier
will cease to operate effectively. Water bleed-off or water drainage and refilling cycles initiated by
time clocks are often provided, to reduce scaling.
Fig 15.1 Steam pan humidifiers
15.2 ELECTRODE HUMIDIFIERS

Electrode humidifiers The control sequences and water supply arrangements of this type are as
described above, but steam is generated by the action of electrodes, so that there are no heating
elements which can be scaled over by hard water. Scale does of course form as water bo
boils, but
accumulates in the container and takes much longer to affect the efficiency of the system.
Sophisticated control systems can be used to adjust the current drawn according to the pH of the
water and, where necessary, to boil or drain off and replacee part or all of the water in the boiler until
its chemical characteristics is suitable for the equipment.
Electrode humidifiers are more expensive than steam pan types, but offer advantages where water
characteristics lead to heavy scale formation. The average
average time taken to produce steam is minimized
by the absence of scale on heating elements.
Fig 15.2 Electrode humidifiers
15.3 WATER ATOMIZING HUMIDIFIERS

Water atomizing humidifiers The spinning disc type shown below uses a horizontal, quickly-rotating
surface to atomize (make into tiny droplets) water sprayed onto it, or admitted in drops from an
overhead supply grid. Rotary drum construction features a horizontal drum or brush construction, in
which only its top portion rises above water level. As the drum rotates it sprays a shower of fine
droplets into the airstream which passes through the drum into the conditioned space.
Water atomizers are economical in terms of first cost, and not affected by scale formation. It is
however necessary to install effective water eliminators to prevent any droplets which are not
completely vaporized from being carried over into ducts or conditioned space. Efficiency will vary with
changes in the temperatures of the water or room air.
Fig 15.3
Water atomizers
15.4
CONDENSERS
15.4.1
AIR -COOLED
Structural details are as described in Chapter 6, and the use of motor speed controllers or fan outlet
dampers is more common in tropical installations than would at first sight seem likely. It must be
remembered that condensers operating in extremely hot climates are 'oversized' to secure acceptable
condensing pressures by day in extreme heat. When temperatures fall overnight, or in winter, condensers
may become effectively oversized and be unable to maintain liquid refrigerant at pressures high enough to
ensure satisfactory system operation. Whilst it is not necessary to build solar screens for properly designed
condensers, it is desirable to take advantage of any shade provided by buildings when outdoor
temperatures are at their peak.
Fig 15.4
Air-cooled packaged chiller
15.4.2 WATER -COOLED

Apart from systems with welded hermetic compressors (which generally use tube-in-tube, or tube-in-shell
condensers because they are cheapest) the use of shell-and-tube models is standard in units with 7-5 kW
(10 hp) or larger motors. The use of evaporative condensers is rare, since they are not compatible with
factory assembled, packaged the equipment.
Fig 15.5
15.5
water-cooled packaged chiller
WATER PUMPS
For air-conditioning needs - whether circulating chilled or condenser water -centrifugal
pumps such as the one shown in Fig. below are invariably used. These operate on similar
principles to the centrifugal compressors described earlier in this chapter. Water enters at
the centre of a fast-turning impeller; it is thrown to the outside of the impellers, the
converging blades of which add to its speed; and it collects in a volute leading to a discharge
port at right angles to the direction of entry. In many cases, the casing can be rotated to
enable the discharge connection to be made to pipework at several optional positions
around 'the clock'.
Two pump speeds are most likely to be used on 50 Hz supplies: 1 500 or 3 000 r.p.m.
synchronous. The faster the speed, the greater the head against which the pump can deliver
water, but the more noise it generates. There is also a risk that pumps running at the same
speed as centrifugal compressors may set up sympathetic vibrations which affect both, so
the lower running speed is usually favoured.
The bodies of pumps designed to handle water are likely to be of cast-iron construction,
trimmed in bronze with a bronze or stainless-steel shaft, and bronze impeller(s) - like
compressors, pumps can have several stages to enable them to operate against higher
pressures - and bearings. Water leaks are normally avoided by the use of rotary shaft seals.
The old fashioned stuffing box is rarely seen on new equipment.
There are several means of connecting the motor and the pump. If the pump is mounted on
a baseplate a direct-drive coupling is usually employed, but some prefer to use pulleys and
vee belts. The most foolproof arrangement is that used in accessible hermetic compressors
with both pump and motor on a common shaft and secured within a single-piece or closecoupled body assembly.
Whilst installation and instrumentation needs are covered in the previous discussion, it
should be noted that pumps should always have a valve, an anti-vibration coupling and
provision for the use of a pressure gauge on both suction and discharge sides. The use of a
water strainer immediately before the pump is essential. In many cases, a second pump is
piped into the circuit ready for use if the first fails. This entails some complicated pipework,
and, in order to avoid the need for this, an increasing number of manufacturers now offer
factory-assembled dual-pump assemblies, with both the running and standby pumps
completely plumbed in at the factory. One such assembly is shown in Fig. below.
There is little basic difference between pumps designed to handle water, brine or
refrigerants. All components in contact with the liquid being handled must be chemically
compatible with it at operating temperatures, but operating principles are little changed.
Fig 15.6a
Fig 15.6b
Centrifugal
entrifugal water pump
Dual
ual pump assembling
15.6 AIR HANDLING UNITS

The main duties of any air handling unit, whether a factory package or fieldfield
assembled, must be capable of some or all of the following.
a) Mixing return and ventilation air ssupplies.
b) Filtering all air to required standards of efficiency.
c) Cooling, or cooling and
Dehumidification, with or without reheating the total airstream or heating, or
heating and humidification.
d) Avoiding carrying over into ductwork or conditioned
conditioned space, any moisture
deposited on cooling coils during the dehumidification processes or by water spray
or fed into the air stream by humidifiers.
Fig 15.7
Central plant air handling unit
e) Discharging all air at a pressure equaling the sum of the resistances to airflow offered by
ductwork, supply grilles and diffusers, and all airhandling unit components. Each of these
requirements can be satisfied in one of several ways. We shall note most in passing, but study in
detail only those in widespread use in our specific (geographical) areas of interest.
15.6.1 AIR MIXING

Fresh, ventilation air is normally drawn into plant-rooms through weatherproof louvred intakes fitted with
volume dampers and mesh screens, which prevent the entry of leaves, birds and insects. It is
filtered before
being mixed with return air in either a plenum, or a mixing box fitted with opposed-blade
dampers
regulate the volume of each type. In regions with wide seasonal variations in temperature,
air
volumes are often varied by thermostatic controls reacting to changes in external
intake
temperatures,
reduce demands for refrigeration or heating at times when the ambient air temperatures
to
to
approach
design air-off-coil levels.
15.6.2 FILTRATION
There are three types of filter for normal use:
a) Throwaway types, of foamed plastic or glass fibre construction.
b) Cleanable types, normally using metal 'wool* or fibre as the filtering medium. This can be
washed clean, and may be coated with oil or other viscous material to increase its efficiency,
c) High efficiency filters, used dry and made from pleated mats of
fibre,
wool
felt,
cellulose
or synthetic materials. The choice of material in this and other types of filter depends upon the
efficiency required, and the velocity of the air to be filtered.

Efficiency ratings are usually expressed in terms of the percentage of air contaminants of a
specified size, removed when the air passes through the filter at a known velocity. For
example, 95 per cent at 5 micron is a good standard filter performance; with a normal high
efficiency filter rating being 80 per cent at 0-5 micron; both at a velocity of 2-54 m/s (500
ft/min). Where high standards of air cleanliness must be maintained, differential pressure
gauges can be used to sense increased resistance to airflow resulting from the accumulation of
dirt on filters. This can be read directly, or the pressure change used to operate a signal to change
the filter when resistance reaches a preset level. Automatic roll filters which react to the same
information by automatically winding on a new section of filter material, are very effective, but their use is
limited by first costs. Electrostatic or electronic air filters are discussed later.
15.6.3 COOLING COILS

All air-cooling or heating coils are of copper-tube, aluminum-fin construction, with spacing
options varying from 6 to 14 fins per 25 mm. Fins are often corrugated to increase the
turbulence of air passing through the coil, and thus increase its heat transfer capacity.
Moisture carry-over is prevented by limiting air velocity to approximately 3-0 m/s (600
ft/min). Direct-expansion coils These must be in refrigeration-quality copper tubing with
formed return bends (preferably silver-soldered) and guaranteed for pressures of 2 410 to 2 760
kPa (350-400 psi). Evaporators of this type (and also air-cooled condensers) are normally
tested for leaks when first manufactured. This is done by charging them with dry nitrogen at
the required pressure, completely immersing them in back-lit, colored water and detergent
tanks and looking for escaping gas. This does not prevent the possibility of leaks developing
later, following mechanical or other damage. Measurements for copper tubing are at present
given in British units and | in to I in outside diameter (OD) are the most used tube sizes,
depending upon the capacity of the coil. Refrigerant flow is evenly balanced over the tubes by
a distributor located immediately after the TEV. Coils are often divided into two or more
separate circuits, each with its own TEV and distributor. Coil divisions can be made in the
vertical plane (face control) or in depth (depth control). Depth control might, for example, use
two rows of coil for each of two circuits. This approach requires fine balancing, as the first two
or three rows of a coil will always remove more heat than the next two or three, if both sections
are at identical refrigerant temperatures. TEVs must therefore be set to match the design cooling
capacity of each section. This layout has the advantage that the entire face of the coil is always at a
suitable refrigerant temperature. It provides better humidity control than a face-controlled coil,
when capacity controls interrupt the supply of refrigerant to one complete section. Chilled-water
coils The main difference between direct-expansion and chilled-water coils is that water designs
use only one circuit, Capacity control is provided by modulating the volume of chilled water
passing through the coil, or by using face and bypass dampers to vary the quantity of air passing
over it. The use of one continuous tube would result in excessive water pressure drops and, to
avoid this, headered construction is used to supply a number of circuits in parallel. Air vent plugs
are usually provided at the top of coils, and drainage plugs at low level. Water inlets are normally at
the top of coils. Condensate disposal Cooling coils - and control valves - must be provided with fullsize condensate trays, to collect moisture removed from conditioned air. These trays are
normally of pressed-steel construction, insulated with sprayed-on polystyrene or polyurethane
to prevent condensation forming on external surfaces. They also include provision for the
connection of drainage lines.
Fig 15.8 Refrigerant distributor layout
15.6.4
Heating coils
Electric heating coil construction, and safety provisions, has already been described. We
must also be familiar with hot-water and steam heating coils; which are sometimes needed
in even the hottest of climates, to treat air used in industrial processes. General
construction
methods are similar to
two rows
those used for chilled water, but coil depth is only one or
and headered construction not
designated for use
with a
therefore necessary. These coils are
specific heat medium.
Low pressure hot water (LPHW) The maximum temperature of water leaving a low
pressure boiler is 121 C (250F). Typical water conditions through coils are: entry at 82 C
(180 F) and exit at 71 C (160 F). Air quantities over LPHW coils normally produce
velocities between 2-0 and 4-0 m/s (400 and 800 ft/min).
Medium pressure hot water (MPHW) This type, which is seldom used, has a
maximum temperature of water leaving the boiler only slightly higher than
that of LPHW types. In practice, water temperatures at coils are generally of the order of
127 C (260 F) at entry and 99 C (210F) at discharge.
Steam
There is a wide variety of operating ranges of steam boilers and gauge pressures at coil
entries can be between 34 kPa (5 psig) and 1 380 kPa (200 psig). These pressures are
equivalent to temperatures of 108 C (227 F) and 198 C (388 F). Face velocities of air
usually fall in the 2-54 to 6-60 m/s (500 to 1 300 ft/min) range. Coil tubes are normally
larger (25 mm (1") OD) than those used for water, and installations must include steam
traps and condensate return lines. Capacity control is by hot-water or steam flow-control
valves. Water valves are likely to be of three-way, bypass design, and steam valves
two-
connection throttling types in supply lines.
15.6.5 Fans
It is unusual to find airhandling units of factory-assembled or 'modular' types, which do not use
centrifugal fans. These are normally double-width, double-inlet types with forward-inclined
blades; and consist of scroll(s), impeller(s) and cone(s), and bearing support pedestals. Sleeve-type
bearings are normally used when motor sizes do not exceed 2-25kW (3 hp), plummer blocks being
fitted for larger capacities. Fan speeds can normally be varied by altering the pitch of a motor
pulley designed for use with either one or two vee belts (although the use of direct-drive, variablespeed electric motors is likely to increase as electronic controllers become more competitive). The
main components of a centrifugal fan, and the varying names which they may be called, are
illustrated below. Other types of centrifugal fans available have backward-inclined, radial or
airfoil blades. The main advantages of centrifugal fans as a class are compact size, reasonable
efficiency and low noise levels in applications against head pressures up to approximately 250 mm
(10 in) water gauge (wg).
Fig 15.9 Centrifugal fan components

AC MEC 225 Theoryx

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UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL &

REFRIGERATION AND AIR

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING MEC225

1. UNDERSTAND THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

KNOW THE BASIC TOOLS AND THE EQUIPMENT USED IN

COMMON HAND TOOLS IN REFRIGERATION WORKSHOP

GENERAL HAND TOOLS

SPECIALIZED SERVICE EQUIPMENTS

Know the Thermodynamic Principles of Refrigeration

REVIEW OF FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMIC

Refrigeration System and Cycles

KNOW THE THERMODYNAMICS PRINCIPLE OF

THE REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE

SIMPLE VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

Mechanism of A VCR System

REFRIGERATION SYSTEM CAPACITY

MASS OF REFRIGERANT CIRCULATED PER SECOND

VOLUME FLOW RATE OF VAPOUR

Coefficient of Performance (COP)

CONDITIONS FOR HIGHEST COP

THE CARNOTS PRINCIPLE

5.0 KNOW THE FUNCTIONS AND THE PROPERTIES OF

COMMON REFRIGERANT TYPES

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF REFRIGERANTS

REFRIGERANT PIPING MATERIALS AND ITS EFFECTS

REFRIGERANT STORAGE AND SAFETY

REFRIGERANT LEAK DETECTION

REFRIGERANT STORAGE AND SAFETY

5.12 REFRIGERANT LEAK DETECTION

UNDERSTAND THE FUNCTIONS AND PROPERTIES OF

REFRIGERANTS AND KNOW THE REASONS FOR AND THE

REFRIGERANTS: QUALITIES OF DESIRED REFRIGERANTS

COMMON REFRIGERANT TYPES

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF REFRIGERANTS

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY REFRIGERANT.

REFRIGERANT PIPING MATERIALS AND ITS EFFECTS

REFRIGERANT STORAGE AND SAFETY

6.10 REFRIGERANT LEAK DETECTION

KNOW THE PROCEDURE OF CHARGING

REFRIGERANT STORAGE AND SAFETY

KNOW THE VARIOUS APPLICATIONS OF REFRIGERATION

REFRIGERATION INDUSTRY AND APPLICATIONS

KNOW THE FUNCTION OF AN AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM FOR A

AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

AIR CONDITION PLANT

OPERATION PRINCIPLES OF AIR CONDITIONING

10.0 KNOW HOW TO CALCULATE COOLING LOADS FOR

11.0 KNOW THE FUNCTION OF AN AIR CONDITIONING

PACKAGED AIR CONDITIONING

11.3 SPLIT SYSTEM AIR CONDITIONING

12.0 KNOW HOW TO SERVICE REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

REFRIGERATION SYSTEM SERVICE

12.2 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

13.0 KNOW THE FUNCTION OF COMPONENTS OF AN AIR

14.0 KNOW THE FUNCTION OF COMPONENTS OF AN AIR

15.0 KNOW THE FUNCTION OF COMPONENTS OF AN AIR

UNDERSTAND THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF REFRIGERATION

LEARNING OUTCOME: C ONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES AND DEFINITIONS .

Introduction: Refrigeration and air-conditioning are now an integral part of modern

Picture of refrigeration and Air-conditioning hard wares.

Picture of refrigeration and Air-conditioning hard wares.

Pictures of ice blocks

Fig.1.7 Boiling Ammonia