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GEOPHYSICS
urkey has been the site of devastating earthquakes. Two massive earthquakes in Antioch (today Antakya)
in CE 115 and 526 reportedly claimed more
than 500,000 lives. Since 1900, ~90,000
people have lost their lives in 76 earthquakes, with a total affected population of
~7 million and direct
losses of ~25 billion
U.S. dollars (USD).
About half the lives
lost were due to two
earthquakes associated with the North
Anatolian Fault in
1939 and 1999 (1).
The resulting losses place Turkey in the
top 20% of all countries exposed to earthquake hazard with regard to mortality and
economic losses ( 2). Recent efforts are
helping to increase Turkeys earthquake
preparedness.
Turkey lies on the great Alpine belt that
extends from the Atlantic Ocean to the Himalaya Mountains. This belt was formed during
the Tertiary Period when the Arabian, African, and Indian continental plates began to
collide with the Eurasian Plate. Today, the
African Plate continues to converge with
the Eurasian Plate, while the Anatolian Plate
moves toward the west and southwest along
strike-slip faults. The North Anatolian Fault
Zone forms the present-day plate boundary
of Eurasia near the Black Sea coast, and the
East Anatolian Fault Zone forms part of the
boundary of the North Arabian Plate in the
southeast (see the gure).
The North Anatolian Fault Zone, a close
analog of the San Andreas Fault in California,
saw a remarkable level of earthquake activity between 1939 and 1999. During this time,
seven large westward-migrating earthquakes
created a 900-km-long continuous surface
rupture along the fault zone from Erzincan to
the Marmara Sea, stopping just short of Istanbul. Earthquake records spanning two millennia indicate that, on average, at least one
medium intensity [Io = VII to VIII, (3)] earthquake has affected Istanbul in every 50 years.
The average return period for high intensity
0
7.1
724
100
40E
45E
Magnitude
600
M > = 7.0
Fault
Kilometers
7.1
7.5
40N
35E
150
7.2
7.2
7.3
7.17.4
7.2
7.1
7.2
7.77.17.4
7.2
7
7.1
40N
7.9
7.5
7.1
7.6
7
7.9
7.17.4
7.1
35N
7.7
7.1
35N
7.2
25E
Department of Earthquake Engineering, Kandilli Observatory and Earthquake Engineering Research Institute,
Bogazici University, 34684 Cengelkoy, Istanbul, Turkey.
E-mail: erdik@boun.edu.tr
30E
30E
35E
40E
45E
Main faults and major earthquakes in and around Turkey. Since 1900, 33 earthquakes with Mw 7 have
struck this region. Data for earthquakes from the Kandilli Observatory and Earthquake Research Insttute;
data for faults from the General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration.
Mustafa Erdik
PERSPECTIVES
it provided a strategy for sustained progress
in a range of areas, including seismic assessment and rehabilitation of existing buildings,
urban planning, education, and risk and disaster management.
Earthquake risk management measures
are now being implemented in Istanbul and
in other cities in Turkey, including a 20-year,
400 billion USD urban renewal program
that foresees the demolition and rebuilding of about seven million fragile housing
units, most of them residential. It is to be
hoped that when the next earthquake strikes
at or near one of the major cities in Turkey,
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
APPLIED PHYSICS
An optical light switch. The schematic setup and operation principle of the all-optical transistor is shown.
(A) An ensemble of laser-cooled atoms (blue) is trapped inside an optical resonator in the off-resonant
ground state. As a consequence, the incident source eld (red) is transmitted though the cavity. (B) In the
rst step of the switching process, the gate light eld (green) containing about one photon is stored in the
ensemble. A collective state is formed in which one atom is transferred to a state resonant with the cavity,
which blocks the transmission of source photons through the cavity. (C) If the source eld is weak enough, no
information on the position of the transferred atom becomes available and the gate photon can be retrieved.
optical cavity (one that has very low absorption losses) and an optical quantum memory
(2, 3). The latter enables light to be stored in
an ensemble of laser-cooled atoms and to be
retrieved later on.
The high-nesse optical cavity consists of
two highly reective mirrors that can reect
light back and forth about 25,000 times.
Inside the cavity, an ensemble of around
20,000 cesium atoms were trapped by means
of optical tweezers (4) and laser-cooled to a
temperature of a few microkelvin. Initially,
all of the atoms were prepared in an internal
state that did not interact with the light in the
cavity. The atomic ensemble was thus transparent for the cavity light, and, because the
length of a round trip between the cavity mir-
rors equaled an integer multiple of the wavelength of the incident source light eld, the
cavity transmitted the source light.
In order to realize an all-optical transistor,
it is necessary to control the cavity transmission with an external light eld that acts as
the gate. Chen et al. accomplished this feat
by sending the gate light eld from the side
into the cavity where each photon induced
through interplay with an additional control light elda coherent scattering process that changed the state of just one of the
atoms (see the gure) (2, 3). For their experimental conditions, the interaction between
the source light and atoms was strongly
enhanced because of the high nesse of the
cavity. Remarkably, transferring just a single
725
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