Selective attention

Filter model of selective attention- there is a selective filter on attention, unattended

channel are not detected

Anne treisman's attentuation model- same as above, but unattedded channel is just
"turned down" not of

Divided attention

controlled tasks are typically not multitasked

Jean Piaget's 4 developmental stages, schemas- mental frameworks that are
shaped by experiences

Sensorimotor- 0-2 YRS, stranger anxiety, and object permanence begins to develop

Preoperational- 2-7 yrs, lack logical reasoning, egocentric- do not understand other
peoples perspectives

Concrete Operational Stage- 7-11 yrs, learn to think logically, learn conservation- if
an object is split in two there is still the same amount, not more.

Formal Operational stage- 12-adulthood, abstract reasoning and moral reasoning.

Problem solving and decision making

Trial and error

Algorithm- step by step

Heuristics- mental shortcuts

insight- sudden flash of inspiration

Confirmation bias- confirms our preconceived thinking rather than info that might
not support it.

Fixation- inability to see problem from fresh perspective

mental set- tendency to fixate on solutions that worked in the past though they may
not apply to the current situation

functional fixedness- tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed and

unchanging

Representativeness heuristic- tendency to judge the likelihood of an event occurring

based on our typical mental representation. of those events (sharks kill more people than
vending machines, but not true because we perceive animals as more dangerous)

Availability Heuristic- tendency to make judgements based on how readily available

info is in our memories (news saying crime in neighborhoods may lead to you thinking
there is crime happening in your own neighborhood)

belief bias- tendency to judge arguments based on what one believes about their
conclusions rather than on whether they use sound logic(there are more drugs sold in poor
communities, thus, more violence)

Belief perseverance- tendency to cling to beliefs despite the presence of contrary

evidence.

overconfidence- overestimation of the accuracy of knowledge and judgements

people can be influenced by how information is framed (meat that says 75% lean
instead of 25% fat will be bought)

Consciousness- awareness that we have ourselves, our internal states and the

environment

Reticular formation- Alertness and arousal are controlled by structures within

the brainstem
Latent content- unconscious drives and wishes that are difficult to express.
Manifest content- plotlines of dreams (having a dream about falling and
hitting the ground)
Nucleus accumbens- pleasure center of brain, responsible for addiction

Emotion

Yerkes Dodson Law- relationship b/w performance and emotional arousal I a

U-shaped correlation: people perform best when they are moderately aroused
James Lange Theory- Stimulus arouses a physiological response, then
emotion happens

Cannon Bard Theory- Emotion and physiological arousal happen

simultaneously and independently
Schachter Singer Theory- Stimulus arouses the physiological response,
following by cognitive interpretation (that is a scary bear, im afraid), then
emotional response.
Role of limbic system- Amygdala- mainly involved in emotion, conductor of
emotional experiences, key role in identification of fear and aggression
Hypothalamus- controls the physiological aspects of emotion, sweating and
heartbeat, etc.
Prefrontal cortex- located in front of brain, controls approach and avoidance
behaviors, behavioral aspects of emotion. Also plays a role in executive
functions, higher order thinking, planning, organizing, inhibiting behavior,
decision making.
Hippocampus- key role in forming memories, often the emotions with the
memory are encoded.
Stress- prolonged periods of stress can have negative consequences, immunosuppression,
infertility, hypertension. Moderate amounts can improve psychological functions by
providing more energy and motivation for cognitive abilities.
Appraisal- how the stress is interpreted by the person
Learned helplessness- when stress is accompanied by perceiving a lack of control
over the stress-inducing events.
With severe or prolonged stress, one may develop PTSD

Language
Language acquisition- the way infants learn to understand and speak their native
language
Behaviorist model- infants are trained in language by operant conditioning
(giving appraisal to an infant when he says a word)
Language acquisition device (LAD)- Noam Chomsky proposed language is an
innate feature unique to the human mind that allows people to gain mastery
of language( such as grammar) from limited exposure during the sensitive
developmental years in early childhood, later renamed universal grammar.

Types of learning
Nonassociative learning- occurs when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one
type of stimulus
Habit- an action that is performed repeatedly until it becomes
automatic
Habituation- getting accustomed to a stimulus (sleeping when a loud
train passes by house everyday)
Dishabituation- occurs when previously habituated stimulus is
removed. When the person is subjected to the stimulus again
after dishabituation he is more likely to respond more strongly to
the stimulus
Sensitization- opposite of habituation, stimulus actually produces a
more exaggerated respond, usually temporary.
Associative learning- process of learning in which one event, object, or action is
directly connected with another.
Classical conditioning- process in which 2 stimuli are paired in such a way
that the response to one of the stimuli changes.
Neutral stimulus- stimulus that initially doesnt elicit intristic
response (pavlovs bell)

Unconditioned stimulus- stimulus that elicits an unconditioned

response, a reflex. Food is the US, and salivating is the UR
Conditioned stimulus- originally neutral stimulus (bell) that is
paired with an US (food) that can produce a conditioned
response (salivating)
Conditioned response- learned response to the conditioned
stimulus
Acquisition- process of learning the conditioned response
Extinction- occurs when conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are no
longer paired, eventually stop occurring
Spontaneous recovery- when an extinct conditioned response occurs
again when the conditioned stimulus is presented after some period of
time
Generalization- process by which stimuli other than the original
conditioned stimulus elicit the conditioned response, such as the dogs
salivating to the sounds of any chimes or bells
Discrimination- opposite of generalization, occurs when the
conditioned stimulus is diferentiated from other stimuli, UR only
occurs to the CS
Taste aversion- caused by nausea or vomiting. Doesnt need a long
acquisition phase, and extinction may never happen
Operant conditioning- uses reinforcement and punishment to mold behavior
and eventually cause associative behavior.
Reinforcement- anything that will increase the likelihood that a
preceding behavior will be repeated
Positive reinforcement- positive stimulus that occurs
immediately following a behavior (rat pulls lever, food drops
down) hippocampus involved
Negative reinforcement- when negative stimulus is
removed immediately following a behavior (rat pulls lever
to stop pain) amygdala involved
Escape- an individual learns how to get away from
an aversive stimulus by engaging in a particular
behavior (kid throws a tantrum b/c he doesnt want
to eat vegetables, and if parent doesnt feed him
vegetables then it will happen again)
Avoidance- occurs when a person performs a
behavior to ensure an aversive stimulus is not
presented (kid faking illness b/c mom is cooking
vegetables, and is sent to bed with ginger ale and
crackers instead)
Primary reinforcers- somehow innately satisfying or
desirable, usually not needed to learn because it is part of
survival, such as food
Secondary reinforcers- learned to be reinforced, neutral
stimuli paired with primary reinforcers to make them
conditioned, can also be paired with secondary
reinforcers. Ex- training a dog to sit, the word is the
secondary and food is the primary, a hand gesture can be
added and that is the other secondary reinforcement.
Reinforcement schedule- can be continuous, or intermittent
(occurrences are sometimes reinforced). Continuous leads to

rapid acquisition, and also rapid extinction. Intermittent leads to

slower acquisition but great persistence.
Fixed ratio schedule- reinforcement after a set number of
instances of the behavior (rat may learn that a lever gives
food every 5 pulls, so the rat learns to rapidly pull the
lever) highest response rate
Variable ratio schedule- provides reinforcement after an
unpredictable number of occurrences. Gambling is an
example. Second highest response rate
Fixed interval schedule- provides reinforcement after a set
period of time that is constant. Ex- an employee knowing
that the boss walks by every hour, so the employee
becomes efficient leading up to the hour and not during
the beginning of the hour
Variable interval schedule- reinforcement after an
inconsistent amount of time. Produces slow, steady
response rate. Ex- employee works steady because boss
walks by at random times of the day
Punishment- process by which a behavior is followed by a
consequence that decreases the likelihood that the behavior will
be repeated. Better than classical conditioning, and all
acquisition, extinction, etc. happen too
Positive punishment- involves the application, or pairing,
of a negative stimulus with the behavior. (spanking a kid
for misbehaving)
Negative punishment- removal of reinforcing stimulus
after behavior has occurred. (taking away games from kid
for breaking window)
Observational learning- known as social learning, or vicarious learning, is learned
through watching and imitating others
Modeling- an observer sees the behavior being performed by another person,
later, the observer imitates the behavior observed. Ex- an adult beating a doll
and then the kids do the same because they saw the adult beat the doll

Attitudes and behaviors

Elaboration likelihood model- explains when people will be influenced the speech,
and when people will be influenced by other more superficial characteristics, like
the appearance of the orator, or the length of the speech
Message characteristics- the features of the message itself, such as logic and
key points in the argument. Can also be more superficial, such as, length of
speech, or grammatical complexity
Source characteristics- delivering of the message, such as expertise
knowledge and trustworthiness. People would be more likely persuaded if a
study was in a medical journal than in a local newsstand
Target characteristics- characteristics of the person receiving the message,
intelligence, mood, etc. Intelligent people are less easily persuaded by one
sided messages
Persuasion- method of attitude and behavioral change.
Cognitive routes- persuasion follows under this model
Central route- people are persuaded by content of the argument.
People would only choose this if they are both motivated to listen to
the logic of the speech and not distracted

Peripheral route- functions when people focus on superficial or

secondary characteristics of the speech
Social cognitive theory- theory of behavior change that emphasizes the interactions
between people and their environment. Unlike behaviorism cognition, is also
important in determining behavior. Social factors, observational learning, and
environmental factors can also influence a persons attitude change.
Reciprocal determinism- the interaction between a persons behaviors,
personal factors, and environment
People choose their environments which in turn shape them
Personality shapes how people interpret and respond to their
environment
A persons personality influences the situation to which she then reacts
Behavioral genetics- attempts to determine the role of inheritance in behavioral
traits; the interaction b/w heredity and experience determines an individuals
personality and social behavior
Twin studies- compare traits in monozygotic and dizygotic (fraternal) twins.
The classic twin study attempts to assess the variance of a phenotype
in a large group in order to estimate genetic efects
Adoption studies- present another unique way to study the efect of genetics
and environment on phenotype
Two groups: genetic relatives, and environmental relatives. Adopted
individuals can be compared with both groups to determine if they are
more similar to their genetic relatives or their environmental relatives
Adopted children have personalities more similar to their biological
parents, however, adopted children are more similar to their adoptive
parents in terms of attitude, values, manners, faith, and political views.
Twins separated at birth are remarkably similar in terms of the tastes,
physical abilities, personality, interests, attitudes and fears.

Human development
Infancy- newborns have some automatic behaviors called reflexes which are useful
for survival. Considered primitive, originate in the CNS
Moro (startle) reflex- response to loud or sudden movement, an infant will
startle. The baby throws back its head and extends its arms and legs, cries,
then pulls the arms and legs back in. present at birth, and last about 6
months
Rooting reflex- response to touching or stroking one of the babys cheeks, the
baby will turn its head in the direction of the stroke and open it mouth to root
for a nipple
Sucking reflex- linked to rooting reflex, response to anything touching the roof
of the babys mouth, it will begin to suck
Babinski reflex- response to the sole of the foot being stroked, and the babys
big toe moves upward or toward the top surface of the foot and the other
toes fan out.
Tonic neck reflex- response to its head being turned to one side, the baby will
stretch out it arm on the same side and the opposite arm bends up at the
elbow, lasts about 6-7 months
Palmar grasp reflex- response to stroking the babys palm, the babys hand
will grasp, lasts a few months.
Walking/stepping reflex- response to the soles of a baby feet touching a flat
surface, they will attempt to walk by placing one foot in front of the other,
disappears around 6 weeks, and reappears around 8-12 month when a baby
learns to walk

Motor development
Reflexive movements- 0-1 years, primitive, involuntary movement that serve
to prime the neuromuscular system and form the basis for the more
sophisticated movement to come
Rudimentary movements- 0-2 years, first voluntary movement performed by
a child, occur in very predictable stages
Fundamental movement- 2-7 years, the child is learning to manipulate his
body through actions such as running, jumping, throwing, catching, highly
influenced by environment.
Specialized movement- 7-14 years, children learn to combine the
fundamental movements and apply them to specific tasks. Can be subdivided
into two shorter stages.
Transitional stage- combo of movement occur (learning to shoot a
basketball by combining jumping, grasping, and throwing)
Application stage- defined by more conscious decisions to apply these
skills to specific types of activities (one child may use abilities to play
basketball, but another may use the same abilities to play baseball)
Lifelong application stage- 14+ years, movements are continually refined and
applied to normal daily activities as well as recreational and competitive
activities
Early brain development
Neural networks- codified routes for information processing
Maturation- sequence of biological growth process in human development,
although largely genetic it is still environmental (humans learn how to speak,
but if severely deprived of interaction, it can significantly delay this process)
Infantile amnesia- earliest conscious memory is roughly 3.5 years, anything
before this age is infantile amnesia
Social development and attachment
Stranger anxiety- 8-12 months of age, infants developed schemas for familiar
faces, and if new faces do not fit the schema, infants become distressed
Haslow monkeys- the monkeys that are deprived of social interaction have
many social deficits, they did not get along with other monkey, no mating,
and if the female monkeys were artificially inseminate then they would either
neglect, abuse, or even kill their own ofspring
Mary ainsworh- experiment where mothers would leave their infants in an
unfamiliar environment to see their reactions
Securely attached infants in the presence of their mother will play and
explore, when the mother leaves the room, the infant is distressed, and
when she returns, the infant will seek contact with her and easily
consoled
Insecurely attached- less likely to explore their surroundings and may
even cling to their mother, when mother leaves they will either cry
loudly and remain upset or will demonstrate indiference to her
departure and return

Memory
Process of encoding information Encoding- process of transferring sensory information into our memory
system
Working memory- where info is maintained temporarily as part of a particular
mental activity, thought to include a phonological loop, visuospatial
sketchpad, central executive, and episodic bufer

Serial position efect- occurs when someone attempts to memorize a series,

such as a list of words
Primary and recency efect- in an immediate recall condition, the
individual is more likely to recall the first and last items on the list
Processes that aid in encoding memories
Mnemonic- any technique for improving retention and retrieval of info from
memory
Rehearsal- one simple process that aids in memory is use of the phonological
loop, can lead to encoding into long-term memory
Chunking- strategy in which information to be remembered is organized into
discrete groups of data. The limit f working memory is about 7 digits
Hierarchies- remembering something by its more broad term, for example,
knowing that ostriches, penguins, chickens, etc. are all birds, birds being the
hierarchy
Depth of processing- important for encoding memories, info that is thought
about at a deeper level is better remembered. Acronyms can be used to help
remember the rainbow ROYGBIV
Dual coding hypothesis- indicating that it is easier to remember words with
associated images than either words or images alone
Method of loci- involves imagining moving through a familiar place, such as
your home, and in each place leaving a visual representation of a topic to be
remembered
Self reference efect- excellent recall for information that we can personally
relate to because it interacts with our own views or b/c it can be linked to
existing memories
Memory storage
Types of memory storage
Sensory memory- initial recording of sensory information in the
memory system, very brief snapshot that quickly decays.
Iconic memory- brief photographic memory for visual information,
which decays in a few tenths of a second
Echoic memory- memory for sound, which lasts about 3-4 seconds.
Short term memory- also limited in duration and in capacity, recall
capacity is typically around or seven items plus or minus 2. Retained
for only about 20 seconds, unless actively processed so it can be
transferred into long term memory. Strongly correlated with the
hippocampus, its where new info sought to be remembered resides
temporarily and is then encoded to long term memory or forgotten
Working memory- strongly correlated with the prefrontal cortex,
storage bin for memories, that are needed at particular moment in
order to process info or solve a problem
Long term memory- info that is retained sometimes indefinitely,
believe to have infinite capacity
Implicit/procedural memory- refers to conditioned associations
and knowledge of how to do something (actually driving stick)
Procedural memory- motor skills, recall
Explicit/declarative memory- involves being able to declare or
voice what is known (knowing the concept of driving stick)
Semantic memory- memory for facts, general knowledge.
Deteriorates before episodic memory
Episodic memory- events I have experienced, such as the
surroundings from first kiss
Retrieval

Recall, recognition, and relearning

Recall- ability to retrieve info
Free recall- involves retrieving the item out of thin air (asking a
student to recall all of the capital cities all over the world)
Cued call- involved retrieving the info when provided with a cue
(asking a student to recall the capital of cities from a provided
list)
Recognition- involves identifying specific info from a set of info
that is presented, such as a multiple choice question
Relearning- involves the process of learning material that was
originally learned
Retrieval clues- provides reminders of info
Priming- prior activation of nodes and association, often occurs
without awareness. (if youre shown several red items then asked
to name a fruit, you will most likely name a red fruit)
Best retrieval clues are often contextual clues that had
associations formed at the time that the memory was encoding,
such as tastes, smells, and sights. (a child associating happiness
with a beagle and when the child is an adult and looking for a
dog he may choose a beagle without knowing because
happiness was associated with the beagle)
Role of emotion in retrieving memories
Emotion can also serve as a retrieval clue
Mood dependent memory- what we learn in one state is most
easily recalled when we are once again in that emotional state
Memory dysfunctions
Damage to the hippocampus can cause amnesia
Anterograde amnesia- inability to encode new memories
Retrograde amnesia- inability to recall info that was
previously encoded
Decay
The forgetting curve indicates that the longer the retention
interval (the time since the info was learned) the more info will
be forgotten
Interference- can result in a failure to retrieve info thats in storage
Proactive interference- info previously learned interferes with the
ability to recall info learned later (remembering where you
parked your car in a garage will be more difficult once you have
parked in that garage in diferent locations for months)
Retrograde interference- happens when newly learned info
interferes with the recall of info learned previously (someone
who moves frequently may find that learning new addresses and
directions interferes with his ability to remember old addresses
and directions
Positive transfer- old and new info doesnt always
interfere, sometimes old info facilitates the learning of
new info (learning to play rugby from knowing how to play
football)
Memory construction and source monitoring
Schema- mental blueprint containing common aspects of some
parts of the world (if asked to remember 3rd grade classroom you
might remember a board, projector, and tables because of your

schema for a classroom, when there may not have actually been
any of these)
Misinformation efect- tendency to misremember. After people
are exposed to subtle misinformation. (if an eyewitness is asked
what speed were the cars going when they smashed each other
instead of hit, they say the smashed cars were at a higher
speed)
False memories- inaccurate recollections for an event and may
be the result of the implanting ideals (if someone feels they got
lost in a shopping mall before then they may actually think they
got lost in a mall as a child, when in fact they did not)
Source monitoring- recalling info people are also susceptible to
forgetting the informations source (being mad at someone even
though the event was in a dream)

Personality
Theories of personality
Personality- essentially the individual pattern of thinking, feeling, and
behavior associated with each person
Psychoanalytic theory- developed by Sigmund Freud, personality is shaped by a
persons unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories
Libido- life instinct, drives behaviors focused on survival, growth, creativity,
pain avoidance, and pleasure.
Death instinct- drives aggressive behaviors fueled by an unconscious wish to
die or to hurt oneself or others
Psychic energy is distributed among 3 personality components that function
together
Id: largely unconscious, source of energy and instincts. Ruled by
pleasure principle. The id seeks to reduce tension, avoid pain, and gain
pleasure. Doesnt use logical or moral reasoning. Young children
function almost entirely from the id.
Ego- ruled by reality principle, uses logical thinking and planning to
control consciousness and the id. Ego tries to find realistic ways to
satisfy the ids desire for pleasure.
Superego- inhibits the id and influences the ego to follow moralistic
and ideals goals rather than the realistic goals, strives for a higher
purpose. Makes judgements of right and wrong, strives for perfection.
Avoids psychological punishments, such as guilt. Seeks to gain
psychological rewards like feelings of pride or self-love
To cope with anxiety and protect the ego, all people develop ego defense
mechanisms that unconsciously deny or distort reality
Freud suggested that sexual energy is present from infancy, each person
matures through five psychosexual stages, personality is largely dependent
on the first 3 stages, if not met then child becomes psychologically fixated at
that stage and as an adult continue to seek sensual pleasure through
behaviors related to that stage.
Oral stage- child seeks sensual pleasure through oral activities such as
sucking or chewing
Anal stage- child seeks sensual pleasure through control of elimination
Phallic stage- child seeks sensual pleasure through the genitals
In this stage, the child is both sexually attracted to the opposite
sex parent and hostile toward the same sex parent. In males this

is known as the Oedipus complex, and females as the Electra

complex
Girls are said to experience penis envy during this stage
Latency stage- sexual interests subside and are replaced by interests
in other areas such as school, friends, and sport
Genital stage- begins in adolescence, when sexual themes resurface,
and a persons life/sexual energy fuels activities such as friendships,
art, sports, and careers.
Erik Erikson extended Freuds theory of developmental stages.
1st stage, infants task is to resolve the crisis of trust versus
mistrust. If physical and emotional needs arent met as an adult he or
she may mistrust the world and interpersonal relationships.
2nd stage, toddler must resolve the crisis of autonomy versus shame
and doubt. If a toddlers need to explore. Makes mistakes, and test
limits arent met, as an adult he or she may be dependent rather than
autonomous
3rd stage, pre-school age child must resolve initiative versus guilt, if
a childs need to make decisions is not met, he may feel guilt taking
the initiative and instead allow others to choose
4th stage, school age child, industry versus inferiority, if a child
doesnt understand the world, develop a gender role identity, succeed
in school, and personal goals are not met, as an adult he may feel
inadequate
5th stage, adolescence, identity vs role confusion, if he does not
test limits to clarify his identity, goals and life meaning, he may
develop role confusion
6th stage, young adult, intimacy vs isolation, if person doesnt form
intimate relationships at this stage, he may become alienated and
isolated
7th stage, middle age, generativity vs stagnation, if person doesnt
feel productive by helping the next generation and resolving
diferences b/w actual accomplishments and earlier dreams, he may
become stuck in psychological stagnation
8th stage, later in life, integrity vs despair, if person looks back with
regrets and a lack of personal worth, he may feel hopeless, guilty,
resentful, and self-rejecting.
Humanistic perspective- developed by Carl Rogers, focuses on healthy personality
development. Humans are seen as inherently good and as having free will, rather
than having their behavior determined by their early relationships
Actualizing tendency- most basic motive, an innate drive to maintain
and enhance the organism
Self-actualization- realizing his or her human potential, as long as no
obstacles intervene
Self-concept- made up of a persons conscious, subjective perceptions and
beliefs about himself
People choose behavior consistent with their self-concepts. If they encounter
experiences in life that contradict their self-concept, they feel uncomfortable
incongruence
Behaviorist perspective- personality is a result of learned behavior patterns based
on a persons environment.
Behaviorism is deterministic, proposing that people begin as blank states,
and that environmental reinforcement and punishment completely determine
an individuals subsequent behavior and personalities.

Learning occurs through 2 forms of conditioning, classical and operant.

Social cognitive perspective- personality is formed by a reciprocal interaction among
behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors.
Factors include, patterns of behavior learned through conditioning,
observational/vicarious learning.
Cognitive component includes the covert mental processes involved in
observational/vicarious learning, as well as conscious cognitive processes
such as self-efficacy beliefs (belief about ones own abilities)
Environmental component includes situational influences, such as
opportunities, rewards, and punishments
Trait perspective
Personality trait- generally a stable predisposition toward a certain behavior
Surface traits- are evident from a persons behavior (a person might be
described as talkative)
Source traits- factors underlying human personality and behavior; source
traits are fewer and abstract
Raymond Cattell condensed traits into 5 global factors (source traits):
extroversion, anxiety, receptivity, accommodation, and self-control
Five factor model- widely accepted: extroversion, neuroticism, openness to
experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness
Situational approach to explaining behavior
Person-situation controversy/trait vs state controversy- consider the degree
to which a persons reaction in a given situation is due to their personality
(trait) or is due to the situation itself (state)
Traits- considered to be internal, stable, and enduring aspects of personality,
should be consistent across many situations (extroversion)
States- situational, unstable, temporary, and variable aspects of personality
that are influenced by external environment (stress)
In unfamiliar situations, people tend to modify their behavior based on social
clues, therefore specific traits may remain hidden

Motivation
Factors that influence motivation
Instincts- behaviors that are unlearned and present in fixed patterns
throughout a species
Drive- an urge originating from a physiological discomfort such as hunger,
thirst, or sleepiness. Can afect an organism not in homeostasis.
Negative feedback- works by maintaining stability or homeostasis
Arousal- some behaviors are motivated by a desire to achieve an optimum
level of arousal
Needs
Theories that explain how motivation afects human behavior
Drive reduction theory- suggests that a physiological need creates an
aroused state that drives the organism to reduce that need be engaging in
some behavior. (blood glucose is low, youre hungry, so you eat)
Incentive theory
Incentives- external stimuli, objects, an events in the environment that
either help or induce or discourage certain behaviors. Can be positive
or negative
Maslows hierarchy of needs- needs are met in a pyramid, the lower in the
pyramid the more important. Physiological needs, safety needs, love and
belongingness, esteem needs, and self-actualization. These must be met in
their respective order.

Psychological disorders
Psychological disorder- set of behavioral and/or psychological symptoms that arent
in keeping with cultural norms, and that are severe enough to cause significant
personal distress and/or significant impairment to social, occupational, or personal
functioning
A mental illness is diagnosable based on specific symptoms, and are
treatable with various types of medication and/or therapy.
Types of psychological disorders
Anxiety disorders
Anxiety is an emotional state of unpleasant physical and mental
arousal- a prep to fight or flee
Panic disorder- a person has sufered at least one panic attack and is
worried about having more of them. Can be spontaneous, can occur
frequently and unexpectedly
During a panic attack, a person commonly experiences intense
dread, along with shortness of breath, chest pain, a choking
sensation, and cardiac symptoms such as rapid heartbeat or
palpitations
Generalized anxiety disorder- feels tense or anxious much of the time
about many issues, but doesnt experience panic attacks
Specific phobia and social phobia- a phobia is a thing that triggers
great dear that the person recognizes as unreasonable. The person
almost always experiences either general anxiety or a full panic attack
when confronted with the feared object or situation
OCD- a person with OCD has obsessions, compulsions, or both.
Obsessions are repeated, intrusive, uncontrollable thoughts or
impulses that cause distress or anxiety. The person knows the
thoughts are irrational and tries to disregard them or suppress
them with compulsive behavior
Compulsions- are repeated physical or mental behaviors that are
done in response to an obsessions or in accordance with a set of
strict rules, in order to reduce distress or prevent something
dreaded from occurring.
Somatoform disorders- a psychological disorder characterized primarily by
physical symptoms and concerns, which may mimic physical (somatic)
disease. However, symptoms arent explainable medically and dont improve
with medical treatment, 5 types are: conversion disorder, pain disorder,
somatization disorder, body dysmorphic disorder, and hypochondriasis.
Schizophrenia- a chronic, incapacitating disorder by which a person is out of
touch with reality (psychotic) and sufers material impairment in social,
occupational, or personal functioning.
Symptoms are either positive (something added) or negative
(something has been taken away)
Positive- delusions, hallucinations disorganized speech, and
disorganized or catatonic behavior
Negative- reduced or absent emotional expression, reduced
quantity or fluency of speech, and reduced initiative or will to do
things.
Hallucination- false sensory perception that occurs while a person is
conscious. Most common are auditory and visual
True hallucinations- occurs in the absence of related sensory
stimuli

 Illusions- are misperceptions of actual sensory stimuli

Delusion- false belief that is not due to culture, and isnt relinquished
despite evidence that it is false. (believing youre a movie star, when
youre not)
Mood disorders- persistent pattern of abnormal mood serious enough
to cause significant personal distress and/or significant impairment to
social, occupational, or personal functioning.
Afect- is a persons visible emotion in moment
Mood- is a persons sustained internal emotion that colors his
view of life
Major depressive disorder- has sufered one or more major depressive
episodes
Person has at least 5 of the following symptoms: depressed
mood, significant increase or decrease in weight or appetite,
excessive or insufficient sleep, speeded or slowed psychomotor
activity, fatigue or loss of energy, thoughts of suicide, etc.
Seasonal afective disorder- episodes of depression occur
repeatedly during certain seasons, usually fall and winter
Bipolar disorders- experience cyclic mood episodes at both extremes
Bipolar I- has experienced at least 1 manic or mixed episode
Manic episode- at least one week, a person has
experienced abnormal euphoric, unrestrained, or irritable
mood with at least 3 of the following: grandiose selfesteem, high energy with little need for sleep, increased
talkativeness, poor judgement, distractibility with flight of
ideas.
Severe enough to cause psychotic features,
hospitalizations, etc.
Mixed episode- person has met the symptoms for both
major depressive and manic episodes nearly every day for
at least a week, causes psychosis
Bipolar II- manic phases are less extreme, experienced cyclic
moods, including at least one major depressive episode and one
hypomanic episode, and not manic or mixed episodes.
Hypomanic episode- for at least 4 days, a person has
experienced an abnormally euphoric or irritable mood,
with at least 3 of the symptoms for a manic episode, but
at a less sever level, there is no psychosis or delusion
Dissociative disorders- some of the persons thoughts, feelings, perceptions,
memories, or behaviors are separated from conscious awareness and control,
in a way that isnt explainable as mere forgetfulness. Sometimes occurs due
to a defense against a traumatic situation that could be too overwhelming to
hold in awareness
Dissociative disorder- disruptions in awareness, memory, and
identity are extreme and/or frequent, and they cause distress or impair
the persons functioning. Triggered by severe stress or psychological
conflicts, usually begin and end suddenly
Dissociative amnesia- had at least one episode of suddenly
forgetting important personal information, usually related to severe
stress or trauma the person may wander aimlessly during the episode.
Most often, it is localized (everything that happened during a
particular time is forgotten), can also be selective (only some events
during a particular time period are forgotten), generalized (persons

whole lifetime is forgotten), continuous (everything since a certain

time is forgotten), or systematized (only particular categories of info
are forgotten). Disorder usually ends suddenly with full recovery of
memory.
Dissociative identity disorder- alternates among two or more
distinct personality states (or identities), only one of which interacts
with other people at any one time
Personality disorders- an enduring, rigid set of personality traits that deviates
from cultural norms, impairs functioning, and causes distress to the person
with the disorder or to those in his or her life. A person isnt considered to
have a personality disorder is he or he is a child or has a mood, psychotic,
developmental, or general medical disorder that could be causing the
symptoms.
Paranoid personality disorder- person mistrusts and misinterprets
others motives and actions w/o sufficient cause, suspecting them of
deceiving, harming, betraying, or attacking him. Person tends to be
guarded, tense, and self-sufficient.
Schizoid personality disorder- loner with little interest or
involvement in close relationships, even those with family members.
Person seems unafected emotionally by interactions with other
people, appears cold and distant.
Schizotypal personality disorder- has several traits that cause
problems interpersonally, including constricted or inappropriate afect;
odd behavior, beliefs, appearance or perception, in many cases, the
person develops schizophrenia.
Antisocial personality disorder- has history of serious behavior
problems beginning as a young teen, including significant aggression
against people or animals; deliberate property destruction; lying or
theft; serious rule violation. Person seems to have lack of remorse.
Borderline personality disorder- sufers from enduring or recurrent
instability in his impulse control, mood, and image of self and others.
(like a crazy attached gf who will kill herself if you leave her, or harm
you)
Histrionic personality disorder- strongly desires to be the center of
attention, and often seeks to attract attention through personal
appearance and seductive behavior. Dramatic person
Narcissistic personality disorder- person feels grandiose selfimportance, with fantasies of beauty, brilliance, and power. Lacks
empathy for others, and may exploit other, feel entitled, arrogant, and
haughty.
Avoidant personality disorder- feels inadequate, inferior, and
undesirable and is preoccupied with fears of criticism. Person feels
ashamed, and refrains from new activities unless he is sure he will be
liked.
Dependent personality disorder- feels a need to be taken care of
by others and an unrealistic fear of being unable to take care of self.
Person urgently seeks approval, and will do anything for it, even be
beaten in an abusive relationship.
OCDP- may not have any true obsessions or compulsions, but may
instead accumulate money or worthless objects. Often a perfectionist,
will not listen to others, and will only want his way.

Alzheimers disease- most prevalent form of dementia. Disease thats

characterized behaviorally by an inability to form new memories, anterograde
amnesia
Dementia- term for a severe loss of cognitive ability beyond
what would be expected from normal aging
Its a cortical disease, meaning it afects the cortex, caused by the
formation of neuritic plaques, hard formations of beta-amyloid protein
and neurofibrillary tangles (clumps of tau protein)
Evidence of abnormalities in the activity of the neurotransmitter acetyl
choline in the hippocampus, this area plays a major role in creating
new memories
Parkinsons disease- movement disorder caused by the death of cells that
generate dopamine in the basal ganglia and substantia ganglia, 2 subcortical
structures in the brain
Symptoms: resting tremors (shaking), slowed movement, rigidity of
movements of the face, and a shuffling gait. Language is usually
spared, depression and visual-spatial problems may arise. Majority of
patients eventually experience dementia.
Treatment: L-dopa, a precursor to dopamine, is administered b/c
dopamine itself doesnt cross the blood-brain barrier

Attitudes- a persons feelings and beliefs about other people or events around them, and
their tendency to react behaviorally based on those underlying evaluations.
Components of attitude- (ABC) affect (emotion), behavior tendencies, and
cognition (thought)
The link between attitudes and behavior
When social influences are reduced- external behavior is much more
susceptible to social influences. People are much more likely to be honest in a
secret ballot than if they must overtly express their opinions. Large part due
to fear of criticism.
When general patterns of behavior, rather than specific behaviors,
are observed- Our attitudes are better at predicting overall decision-making
rather than specific behaviors. Such as a person who believes they live a
healthy lifestyle will generally be healthier than people who do not, but this
doesnt stop the person from reaching for a slice of cheesecake. This is
known as the principle of aggregation, an attitude afects a persons
aggregate or average behavior, but not necessarily each isolated act.
When specific, rather than general, attitudes are considered- It is
better to compare attitude with behavior, this is most accurate to consider
specific attitudes closely related to the specific behavior of interest.
When attitudes are made more powerful through self-reflectionPeople are more likely to behave in accordance with their attitudes if they are
given some time to prepare themselves to do so.
Processes by which behavior influences attitudes
Role Playing- most notable influence of behavior on attitudes. People can
get caught up in their role and lose sense of reality.
Public declarations- when saying something publicly can become
believing it in the absence of bribery, coercion, or some other blatant
external motive. For example, a politician who is against abortion
herself, but supports it publicly, eventually, she may start to support it
herself.
Justification effort- Just as people may modify their attitudes to match their
language, they may also modify them to match their behaviors. For example,

a student who studied very hard for the MCAT and scored very well, only to
find his calling to be acting, he will feel forced to go to medical school to
justify all his time spent studying.
Foot in door- involves enticing people to take small actions at first.
The stakes are slowly raised until the person is asked to make
donations and the person will feel obligated to make the donation.
Cognitive dissonance theory- Explains that we feel tension whenever we hold
two thoughts or beliefs that are incompatible, or when attitudes and behavior dont
match.
We may feel like hypocrites or feel confused as to where we stand
In order to reduce this unpleasant feeling of tension, we make our views of
the world match how we feel or what weve done.

Self-concept and identity formation

Self-concept/identity- Broadly defined as the sum of an individuals
knowledge and understanding of himself
Self-consciousness- awareness of ones self, self-concept includes physical,
psychological, and social attributes, which can be influenced by the
individuals attitudes, habits, beliefs, and ideas.
Self-schema- Self-concept is how an individual defines himself based on
beliefs that person has about himself.
Diferent types of identities
Personal identity- consists of ones own sense of personal attributes. Exbeing funny and smart.
Social identity- consists of social definitions of who you are; the can include
race, religion, gender, occupations, etc.
Quick way to remember diferent aspects of ones identity is using
ADDRESSING: Age, Disability status, Religion, Ethnicity/race, Sexual
orientation, Socioeconomic class, Indigenous background, National origin,
Gender.
Self-referencing effect- Tendency to better remember information relevant
to ourselves.
If something goes against self-concept, then the person may
externalize the information. For example, a smart student gets a bad
grade may blame it due to lack of sleep.
Carl Rogers proposed that the personality is composed of the ideal
self and the real self.
Ideal self- constructed out of your life experiences, societal
expectations, and the things you admire about role models. This
is the person you ought to be.
Is usually an impossible standard to meet, and that when
the real self falls short of this ideal self, the result is
incongruity.
The real self- is the person you actually are
The role of self-esteem, self-efficacy, and locus of control in self-concept and selfidentity.
Self-efficacy- a belief in ones own competence and efectiveness. If one
believes they can do something, they can perform much better on the task.
Locus of Control- can be internal or external
Internal Locus of control- believe they are able to influence
outcomes through their own eforts and actions
External locus of control- perceive outcomes as controlled by
outside forces

Learned helplessness can occur if the person cannot do anything

about the outcome, but when the task presents itself again and the
person can have control, the person will not take control.
Self-esteem- Ones overall self-evaluation of ones self-worth. Self-esteem is
related to self-efficacy; self-efficacy can improve self-esteem if one has it for
an activity that one values.
Influence of social factors on identity formation
Influence of individual
Looking-glass self-Charles Cooley, the idea that a persons sense of
self develops from interpersonal interactions with others in society and
the perceptions of others.
Begins at an early stage and continues throughout life.
People shape their self-concepts based on their understanding of
how others perceive them.
Social behaviorism- George Hebert Mead, the mind and self emerge
through the process of communicating with others
The mind and self emerge through social process of
communication or use of symbols was the beginning of the
symbolic interactionism.
Generalized other- The common behavioral expectations of general
society.
Influence of culture and socialization on identity formation
Socialization- the process through which people learn to proficient
and functional members of society; its a lifelong, sociological process
where people learn the attitudes, values, and beliefs that are
reinforced by a particular culture.
Norms- Every society has spoken or unspoken rules and expectations for the
behavior of its members
Reinforced in everyday social interactions by sanctions- rewards and
punishments for behaviors that are in accord with or against norms
Formal Norms- Generally written down; such as laws. Accompanied
by strict penalties for those who violate them.
Informal Norms- generally understood but are less precise and often
carry no specific punishments
Mores- norms that are highly important for the benefit of society and
so are often strictly enforced. For example, animal abuse and treason
break mores in the U.S. and are followed with harsh punishments
Folkways- norms that are less important, but shape everyday
behavior (style of dressing)
Agents of socialization
Family- Lifelong process of socialization begins shortly after birth and
is generally driven first by family members. Relationships heavily
influence how an individual will interact in future relationships. Family
teach children the customs, beliefs, and traditions of their cultures
through both instruction and modeling.
School- schools explicitly teach children the norms and values of their
culture. Can also afect childrens self-identities by accentuating those
intellectual, physical, and social strengths that society endorses. Also,
can reinforce divisive aspects of society.
Peer groups- as children grow older, family typically becomes less
important in social development and peer groups become more
significant.

Workplace- influences behavior through written codes and rules as

well as through informal norms.
Religion/Government- they influence the course of cultural change
by creating rites of passage. In religion, this might include traditional
milestones and celebrations such as coming of age. Govn sets legal
ages for drinking, voting, joining the military, etc.
Mass media/technology- they have extended themselves to
influence almost everyone on the planet, through tv, movies, internet,
etc.
Cultural assimilation
Assimilation- process in which an individual forsakes aspects of his
own cultural tradition to adopt those of a dif culture. Generally, a
member of a minority attempting to join the dominant culture.
Amalgamation- occurs when majority and minority groups combine to
form a new group
Multiculturalism/pluralism- a perspective that endorses equal standing for
all cultural traditions. Promotes the idea of cultures coming together in a true
melting pot, rather than a hierarchy.
Subculture- a segment of society that shares a distinct pattern of traditions
and values that difers from that of the larger society. (hippies)

Positive and negative elements of social interaction

Attribution theory- Rooted in social psychology and attempts to explain how
individuals view behavior, both our own behavior and the behavior of others.
Disposition attribution- individuals attribute behavior to internal
causes
Situational attribution- individuals attribute behavior to external
causes
What determines whether we attribute behavior to internal or external
causes?
Consistency- Disposition more likely than situational. Ex- is friend
angry typically, or at you
Distinctiveness- Situational more likely than dispositional. Ex- is
friend angry toward everyone or just toward you.
Consensus- Situational more likely than dispositional. Ex- is friend
angry the only one angry or is everyone else.
Attributional biases
Fundamental attribution error- we tend to underestimate the impact of
the situation and overestimate the impact of a persons character or
personality. Another way of saying this is that we tend to assume people are
how they act.
Actor-observer bias- the tendency to blame our actions on the situation
and blame the actions of others on their personalities. Ex- cutting someone
of because youre late for work, and blaming being late for work for cutting
someone of.
Self-serving bias- Tendency to attribute successes to ourselves and our
failures to others or the external environment. Ex- I worked hard and got a
good grade, or the teacher failed me because she doesnt like me.
Optimism bias- the belief that bad things happen to other people, but not
us
Just world phenomenon- tendency to believe that the world is fair and
people get what they deserve. Ex- good things happen to me because I

deserve them and worked for them not b/c of luck. Bad things happen to
people because they deserve it and did not act on it.
Halo effect- tendency to believe that people have inherently good or bad
natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics. Ex- thinking your
neighbor is nice makes you assume he is a good dad.
Physical attractiveness stereotype- specific type of halo efect; people
tend to rate attractive people more favorably for personality traits and
characteristics than they do those who are less attractive.
Self-perception shapes our perceptions of others
Social perception- the understanding of others in our social world; its the
initial info we process about other people in order to try to understand their
mindsets and intentions
Social cognition- the ability of the brain to store and process info regarding
social perception. Social perception is responsible for our judgements and
impressions about other people, and allows us to recognize how others
impact us, and predict how they might behave in a given situation.
False consensus- occurs when we assume that everyone else agrees with
what we do
Projection bias- happens when we assume others have the same beliefs we
do.
Stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination
Stereotypes- oversimplified ideas about groups of people based on
characteristics (race, gender, sexual orientation, etc.) can be positive
(immigrants are successful b/c they are hard workers) or negative (blacks are
poor because they are lazy)
Prejudice- refers to the thoughts, attitudes, and feelings someone holds
about a group that are not based on actual experience. Ex- if a black man
walks by with a bulge on the side of the pants one may assume it is a gun.
Discrimination- involves acting a certain way toward a group.
Affirmative action- policies that take factors like race or sex into
consideration to benefit underrepresented groups in admissions or job
hiring decisions. A way to limit discrimination.
Reverse discrimination- discriminating against the majority.
Racism- prejudices and actions that discriminate based on race, or hold that
one race is inferior to another
Institutional discrimination- Unjust and discriminatory practices employed
by large organizations that have been codified into operating procedures,
processes, or institutional objectives. Ex- when US Army had dont ask dont
tell, looked down upon openly gays and women in the army.
Emotion and cognition in prejudice
Scapegoats- The unfortunate people at whom displaced aggression is
directed.
Illusory correlation- created b/w a group of people and a characteristic
based on unique cases. Ex- all blacks are good at basketball b/c Michael
Jordan was.
Self-fulfilling prophecy and stereotype threat
Self-fulfilling prophecy- Stereotypes that can lead to behaviors that affirm
the original stereotypes.
Stereotype Threat- refers to a self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated
based on a negative stereotype
Ethnocentrism VS cultural relativism
Ethnocentrism- when dif cultures interact, there is often a tendency to
judge people from another culture by the standards of ones own culture.

Cultural relativism- judging another culture based on its own standards.

Groups- a collection of any number of people who regularly interact and identified
with each other, sharing similar norms, and expectations. Smallest social group,
known as the dyad, contains two members. The next largest group, known as the
triad, contains three members.
Aggregate- people who exist in the same space but dont interact or share a
common sense of identity. Ex- people who go to cofee shop often but dont
interact
Bureaucracy is a term used to describe an administrative body and the
processes by which this body accomplishes work tasks. Bureaucracies rise
from an advanced division of labor in which each worker does his or her small
task.
McDonaldization. This process has four components that reflect the
principles of bureaucracy: efficiency, calculability (assessing
performance through quantity and/or speed of output), predictability,
and control (automating work where possible in order to make results
more predictable).
Iron Law of Oligarchy. Oligarchy means rule by an elite few, and it comes
about through the very organization of the bureaucracy itself. Bureaucracies
depend on increased centralization of tasks as one moves up the hierarchy.
Category- People who share similar characteristics but arent otherwise tied
together. Ex- all of the people taking the MCAT this year.
Primary groups- play a more important role in an individuals life; these
groups are usually smaller and include those whom the individual engages
with in person, in long term, emotional ways. Serve expressive functions
(meeting emotional needs). A family
Secondary groups- a larger and more impersonal, and may interact for
specific reasons for shorter periods of time. Serve instrumental functions
(serve pragmatic needs). An MCAT study group
In-group- A group that an individual belongs to and believes to be an
integral part of who she is
Out-group- A group that an individual doesnt belong to
Reference group- A standard measure that people compare themselves to.
Ex- peers who are also studying for the MCAT, they might be a reference
group for you.
Social facilitation
Mere presence- most basic level of experience between members and
society, people are simply in each others presence, either completing similar
activities or apparently minding their own business
Social facilitation effect- people tend to perform simple, welllearned tasks better when other people are present
Only holds true for simple or practiced tasks, presence of others
can impair performance when completing complex or novel
tasks
Deindividualism- When people lose their sense of restraint and their individual
identity in exchange for identifying with a group or mob mentality. Lack of selfawareness and is the result of a disconnection of behavior from attitudes
Factors that reduce self-awareness increase a sense of deindividualism.
when situations provide a high degree of arousal and a very low sense
of responsibility, people may act in startling ways, surprising both to
themselves at a later time and to others who know them closely
Group size- larger groups more deindividualism. Ex- getting lost in the
crowd.

Physical anonymity- using face paint, masks, etc. makes someone less
recognizable
Arousing activities- Deindividualism usually happen when the activities
excavate, not start of in a frenzy.
Social loafing- Tendency for people to exert less efort if they are being evaluated
as s group than if they are individually accountable. Ex- clapping softer in a group of
500 than in a group of 5.
When being part of a group increases concerns over evaluation, social
facilitation occurs
When being part of a group decreases concerns over evaluation, social
loafing occurs
Group polarization- Groups tend to intensify the preexisting views of their
members that is, the avg view of a member of the group is heightened.
2 reasons why group polarization occurs
Informational influence- in group discussion, the most common
ideas to emerge are the ones that favor the dominant viewpoint. Extalking to a pro-choice person tends to strengthen your own views
Normative influence- is based on social desirability, which is,
wanting to be accepted or admired by others.
Social comparison- evaluating our opinions by comparing them to those of
other. This extends far beyond high school.
Groupthink- state of harmony within a group (b/c everyone is seemingly in a state
of agreement), it can lead to some pretty terrible decisions.
Clues to the presence of groupthink
Group is overly optimistic of its capabilities and has unquestioned
belief in stances.
Group becomes increasingly extreme by justifying its own decision
while demonizing those of opponents.
Some members of the group prevent dissenting opinions from
permeating the group by filtering out info and facts that go against the
beliefs of the group (mind guarding)
Theres pressure to conform, and so individuals censor their own
opinions in favor of consensus, which creates illusion of unanimity.
Deviance- can be defined as a violation of societys standards of conduct or
expectations.
Behavior can range from being late to an interview to smuggling drugs.
Differential association: This perspective argues that deviance is a learned
behavior resulting from interactions between individuals and their
communities (for example, the communication of ideas).
Labeling theory: This perspective suggests that deviance is the result of
societys response to a person rather than something inherent in the persons
actions; behaviors become deviant through social processes (it assumes the
act itself is not deviant for intrinsic moral reasons).
Social structures often contribute to this through allowing the dominate
groups the power to enforce the boundaries of normal behavior and thus
define the diference between non-deviant and deviant behaviors, perhaps
institutionalizing these diferences through legal policies. These groups are
often referred to as agents of social control because of their ability to
attach stigmas to certain behaviors (for example, a doctor can define
obsessive-compulsive behavior as a mental illness, a form of deviance).
Structural strain theory: This perspective purports that deviance is the
result of experienced strain, either individual or structural.

Collective behavior, in which social norms for the situation are absent or unclear.
This concept describes the actions of people operating as a collective group;
however, it is important to distinguish collective behavior from group behavior.
Crowd is a defined as a group that shares a purpose.
In general, crowds are thought to be emotional; often, in the context of
the crowds, there is a non-permanent loss of rational thought and the
crowd influences individual behaviors, sometimes referred to as herd
behavior.
Panic is a situation in which fear escalates to the point that it
dominates thinking and thus afects entire groups (for example, during
disaster situations).
Mob is a specific example of a crowd in which emotion is heighted and
behavior is directed toward a specific and violent cause. Historical
examples of mobs include lynching.
Masses is defined as a group whose formation is prompted through the
eforts of mass media; masses consist of a relatively large number of people
who may not be in close proximity but nevertheless share common interests.
Social movement is defined as collective behavior with the intention of
promoting change.
active movements, which attempt to foster social change (for
example, revolutions)
Expressive movements, which attempt to foster individual change
(for example, support groups).
Fad, also known as a craze, is an example of a collective behavior in which
something (1) experiences a rapid and dramatic incline in reputation, (2)
remains popular among a large population for a brief period, and (3)
experiences a rapid and dramatic decline in reputation.
Trends, which are longer-lived and often lead to permanent social changes;
for example, the hippie movement created visible trends, such as peace
signs, but is also prompted widespread social change.
mass hysteria, which is a diagnostic label that refers to the collective
delusion of some threat that spreads through emotions
Outbreaks, epidemics, and pandemics. These cases involve an
unexpected increase in the incidence of an infectious disease in a given
region, with outbreaks being the most limited and pandemics being the most
widespread
moral panica specific form of panic as a result of a perceived threat to
social order (executions during witch trials)
Riots are a form of crowd behavior; however, there is no specific end. Most
riots occur as the result of general dissatisfaction with social conditions, with
examples including food and bread, police, prison, race, religion, sports,
student, and urban riots.
Stigma- Society often devalues deviant members by assigning demeaning labels.
Can change the way someone is looked at, ex- a person being a felon
Conformity and obedience
People are more likely to pick something that everyone else picks, even
though it may be wrong, so as to not go against the group.
Conformity- phenomenon of adjusting behavior or thinking based on
the behavior or thinking of others
Group size- a group doesnt have to be large, but a group of 35 people will have more efect than a group of 1-2 people.

Unanimity- if everyone agrees then people are less likely to

disagree, but if one person disagrees, then more people may
follow.
Cohesion- someone will tend to agree with someone from a
group that is just like them
Status- higher status people have stronger influence on opinion
Accountability- people tend to conform more when they must
respond in front of other rather than in closed formats.
No prior commitment- Once someone commits, they are more
likely to accept the norms of that group.
3 ways that behavior may be motivated by social influences
Compliance- compliant behavior seeks reward or avoid punishment,
and easily extinguished if no reward or punishment is present.
Identification- the person wants to be like the group, so the person
will endure as long as theres still a good relationship with the group
Internalization- the beliefs of the person, if the person believes they
will do no harm to others, then they will not do harm to others, even
with an authority figure. Most enduring of the 3.
Normative social influence- When the motivation for compliance is desire
for the approval of others and to avoid rejection. People conform because
they want to be liked by others
Informational social influence- process of complying b/c we want to do
the right thing and we feel like other know something I dont know. More
likely to apply to new situations, ambiguous situations, or when an obvious
authority figure is present.

Social interaction and social behavior

Social structures
Statuses and roles
Status- broad term in sociology that refers to all the socially defined
positions within a society. Ex- President, doctor, etc.
Master status- the status that dominates the others and determines
that individuals general position in society
Ascribed statuses- statuses that are assigned to a person by society
regardless of the persons own eforts. Ex- gender and race
Achieved statuses- considered to be due largely to an individuals
efort. Ex- doctor, parent, etc.
Roles
Social roles- expectations for people of a given social status. Exexpecting doctors to be intelligent.
Role conflict- happens when theres a conflict in societys
expectations for multiple statuses held by the same person. Ex- male
nurses, gay priest.
Role strain- when a single status results in conflicting expectations.
Ex- gay man feeling hes too gay, or not gay enough
Role exit- the process of disengaging from a role that has become
closely tied to ones self-identity to take on another. Ex- transition of a
high school student to an independent college student.
Networks and organizations
Networks
Social network- a web of social relationships, including those in
which a person is directly linked to others as well as those in which
people are indirectly connected through others. Ex- Facebook

Organizations- Large, more impersonal groups that come together to

pursue particular activities and meet goals efficiently
Utilitarian organizations- those in which member get paid for their
eforts. Ex- businesses.
Normative organizations- motivate membership based on morally
relevant goals. Ex- support groups.
Coercive organizations- those for which members do not have a
choice in joining. Ex- prisons
Social interactions
Impressions management/self-representation- the conscious or
unconscious process whereby people attempt to manage their own images by
influencing the perceptions of others.
Self-handicapping- Strategy in which people create obstacles and
excuses to avoid self-blame when they do poorly. This is a defensive
strategy for impressions management, as well as avoidance. Exstudent loudly saying he didnt study so when he gets a bad grade his
intelligence is not to blame.
Front stage VS back stage self
Dramaturgical perspective- stems from symbolic interactionism and
posits that we imagine ourselves as playing certain roles when
interacting with others. Suggests that our identities are dependent on
our interactions with others.
Front stage- we play a role and use impression management to
craft the way we come across to other people
Back stage- we can let our guard down and be ourselves
Verbal and nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication- involves all of the methods for
communication that we use that dont include words. Ex- gestures,
touch, etc.
The act of communicating verbally also employs nonverbal
communication, such as pitch, volume, rate, rhythm, etc.
Social behavior
Attraction- between members of the same species is a primary
component of love, and explains much about friendship, romantic
relationships, and other relationships.
Proximity- (geographic nearness) most powerful predictor for
friendship. People prefer repeated exposure to the same stimuli,
this is known as the mere presence effect.
Appearance- also a powerful impact on attraction. People tend
to rate attractive people higher in a number of characteristics
and traits.
Similarity- b/w people also impacts attraction
Aggression- broadly defined as behavior that is forceful, hostile, or
attacking.
Frustration aggression principle- suggests that when someone is
blocked from achieving a goal, this frustration can trigger anger, which
can lead to aggression.
Social support- Major determinant of health and well-being for human and
other animals. People with social support tend to live healthier, happier lives
Biological explanations of social behavior in animals
Inclusive fitness and altruism
Inclusive fitness- defined by number of ofspring the organism has,
how it supports its ofspring, and how its ofspring support others in a

group. This theory suggests that an organism can improve its overall
genetic success through altruistic social behaviors.
Altruistic behavior- helps ensure the success or survival of the rest
of a social group, possibly at the expense of the success or survival of
the individual.

Sociology: Theoretical approaches

Society- the group of people who share a culture and live/interact with each other
within a definable area.
Sociology- the study of how individuals interact with, shape, and are subsequently
shaped by the society in which they live. Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx, Max
Weber are the fathers of sociology
Macro-sociologists are interested in large-scale structural considerations
Micro-sociologists are interested in small-scale individual considerations.
Functionalism- a view that conceptualizes society as a living organism with many
diferent parts and organs, each of which has a distinct purpose. (Macro)
Durkheim proposed that complex societies involved many diferent but
interdependent parts working together to maintain stability, a type of
dynamic equilibrium.
Manifest functions- the intended and obvious consequences of a structure.
Ex- hospital may be to promote help
Latent functions- unintended or less recognizable consequences, and can
be considered beneficial, neutral, or harmful. Ex- hospital may be to promote
job creation
Social dysfunction- a process that has undesirable consequences, and may
actually reduce the stability of society.
Conflict theory- Karl Marx is closely identified with this theory. views society as a
competition for limited resources. Society is a place where there will be inequality in
resources, therefore, individuals will compete for social, political, and material
resources like money, land, power, and leisure. Often considers the discrepancies
b/w dominant and disadvantaged groups. (Macro)
Symbolic interactionism- starts at the micro (close-up) level and sees society as
the buildup of these everyday typical interactions. This theory examines the
relationship b/w individuals and society by focusing on communication, the
exchange of info through language and symbols. Sees the individual as active in
shaping her society, instead of a merely being acted upon by society (Micro)
Subjective meaning is important because people behave based on what they
believe to be true, whether or not its actually true
Symbolic interactionism hold the principal of meaning to be the central
aspect of human behavior.
Human ascribe meaning to things, and act towards those things based
on ascribed meaning
Language allows humans to generate meaning through social
interactions
Humans modify meanings through an interpretive thought process.
Dramaturgical approach- assumes that people are theatrical performers
and that everyday life is a stage, just as actors project a certain on-screen
image. People in society choose what kind of image they want to
communicate verbally and nonverbally to others
Social constructionism- argues that people actively shape their reality through
social interactions it is therefore something thats constructed, not inherited.
(Micro)

Social construct- concept or practice that is construct of a group;

essentially, everybody in society agrees to treat a certain aspect a certain
way regardless of its inherent value. Is something that isnt, necessarily,
inherently true in nature.
Its a dynamic, ongoing process, which must be maintained, reaffirmed, and
passed along to future generations.
Focuses on the social process (rather than the biological) that drives the
formation of these concepts that people may assume to be real.
Rational choice theory is concerned with decisions made between multiple
courses of actions. This perspective argues that there is a simple instrumental
reason for all choices: it provides the greatest reward at the lowest cost. (Micro)
Methodological individualism the rational choice model argues that all
social realities are the result of individual actions and interactions
Social exchange theory is concerned with decisions regarding multiple
opportunities for interaction. The rational choice perspective explains that we assign
diferent values to diferent courses of action and prefer the action with the greatest
personal benefit (Micro)
Social institutions- a complex of roles, norms, and values organized into a relatively
stable form that contributes to social order by governing the behavior of people.
Family, over history it has tended to serve 5 functions
Reproduction and the monitoring of sexual behavior
Protection
Socialization- passing down norms and values of society
Afection and companionship
Social status- social position is often based on family background and
reputation
Nuclear family- consists of direct blood relatives
Extended family- includes grandparents, uncles, aunts, etc.
Monogamy- form of marriage in which 2 individuals are married only to each
other.
Polygamy- allows an individual to have multiple wives or husbands
simultaneously
Polygyny- man has multiple wives (gyny think of gynecologist)
Polyandry- woman married to more than one man
Endogamy refers to the practice of marrying within a particular group.
Exogamy refers to a requirement to marry outside a particular group, with it
being the norm in almost all cultures to prohibit sexual relationships between
certain relatives.
Kinship- How we think about who we are related to
If kin groups involve both the maternal and paternal relations, this is
called bilateral descent. Preference for paternal and maternal
relations is called patrilineal and matrilineal descent, respectively.
Education
Educational institutions have both manifest (stated) and latent (hidden)
functions
Manifest functions are to systematically pass down knowledge and to
give status to those who have been educated
Latent functions are just as important; they include socialization,
serving as agents of change, and maintaining social control
Residential Segregation- refers to the separation of groups into diferent
neighborhoods; separation most often occurs due to racial diferences, ethnic
diferences, and/or socioeconomic diferences

Environmental injustice- refers to the fact that people in poorer

communities are more likely to be subjected to negative environmental
impacts to their health and well-being. Ex- a power plant in a poor
neighborhood
Religion
Religiosity- refers to the extent of influence of religion in a persons life
Fundamentalists- adhere strictly to religious beliefs
Government and economy
Rational-legal authority- legal rules and regulations are stipulated in a
document like the constitution
Traditional authority- power due to custom, tradition, or accepted practice
Charismatic authority- the power in persuasion. Ex- MLK Jr
Capitalism- and economic system in which resources and production are
mainly privately owned, and goods/services are produced for a profit.
Socialism- an economic system where resources and production are
collectively owned.
Welfare capitalism- system in which most of the economy is private with
the exception of extensive social welfare programs to serve certain needs
within a society. Ex- universal healthcare in the UK
State capitalism- a system in which companies are privately run, but work
closely with the government in forming laws and regulations. Ex- School,
postal service in the US.
Health and medicine
Food desert- an area, typically in a highly populated lower-income urban
environment, where healthy, fresh food is difficult to find.

Culture and demographics

o Culture- refers to a shared way of life
Symbolic culture- consists of symbols that are recognized by people of the
same culture. Include, rituals, gestures, signs, and words that help people within
a society communicate and understand each other.
Material culture- involves physical objects that are particular to that culture
Universals- patterns or traits that are common to all people
Values- can be defined as a cultures standard for evaluating whats good or
bad.
Beliefs- the convictions or principles that people hold

Stratification
o Stratification and inequality
Social stratification- refers to the way people are categorized in society;
people can be categorized by race, education, wealth, and income. People with
the most resources comprise the top tiers of stratification
Caste system- a closed stratification where people can do nothing to change
the category that they are born into
Class system- considers both social variables and individual initiative; the class
system groups together people of similar wealth, income, education, etc. classes
are open, meaning people can strive to reach a higher class
Meritocracy- stratification system that uses merit (or personal efort) to
establish social standing; this is an idealized system no society solely stratifies
based on efort.

Socioeconomic status- can be defined in terms of power, property, and

prestige.
Social mobility- the ability to move up or down the social stratification system
Upward mobility- refer to an increase in social class
Downward mobility- refers to decrease in social class
Intergenerational mobility- occurs when there is an increase or
decrease in social class b/w parents and children within a family
Intragenerational mobility- describes the diferences in social class b/w
diferent members of the same generation. Ex- Mark Zuckerbergs sister
being at a much lower social class than Mark himself.
Social reproduction- the structure and activities in place in a society that
serve to transmit and reinforce social inequality from one general to the next.
Cultural capital- the non-financial social assets that promote social
mobility. Ex- education gives someone the potential to be upwardly mobile
Social capital- potential for social networks to allow for upward social
mobility. Ex- middle class family knowing a doctor and the child gets to
shadow said doctor, and have other tips on becoming one.
Global stratification- compares the wealth, economic stability, and power of
various countries. A comparison across the globe highlights the worldwide
patterns of global inequality.
Certain countries hold a majority of the resources
Access to resources among countries seriously impacts other social
factors, such as morality
The burden of inequality is placed on certain segments of the population
Relative poverty- The inability to meet the average standard of living within a
society
ABSOLUTE POVERTY- the inability to meet a bare minimum of basic
necessities, including clean drinking water, food, safe housing, and reliable
access to healthcare.