Module 8 Pressure Measurement

Energy Systems Engineering Technology
College of Technology
Instrumentation and Control
Module # 8 Pressure Measurement
Document Intent:
The intent of this document is to provide an example of how a subject matter expert might teach
Pressure Measurement. This approach is what Idaho State University College of Technology is
using to teach its Energy Systems Instrumentation and Control curriculum for Pressure
Measurement. The approach is based on a Systematic Approach to Training where training is
developed and delivered in a two step process. This document depicts the two step approach
with knowledge objectives being presented first followed by skill objectives. Step one teaches
essential knowledge objectives to prepare students for the application of that knowledge. Step
two is to let students apply what they have learned with actual hands on experiences in a
controlled laboratory setting.
Examples used are equivalent to equipment and resources available to instructional staff
members at Idaho State University.
Pressure Measurement Introduction:
This module covers aspects of pressure measurement as used in process instrumentation and
control. Pressure measurement addresses essential knowledge and skill elements associated with
measuring pressure. Students will be taught the fundamentals of positive and negative pressure
measurement using classroom instruction, demonstration, and laboratory exercises to
demonstrate knowledge and skill mastery of pressure measurement. Completion of this module
will allow students to demonstrate mastery of knowledge and skill objectives by completing a
series of tasks using calibration/test equipment, pressure indicating, and pressure transmitting
devices.
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References
This document includes knowledge and skill sections with objectives, information, and examples
of how pressure measurement could be taught in a vocational or industry setting. This document
has been developed by Idaho State Universitys College of Technology. Reference material used
includes information from:
1. American Technical Publication Instrumentation, Fourth Edition, by Franklyn W. Kirk,
Thomas A Weedon, and Philip Kirk, ISBN 979-0-8269-3423-9 Chapter 3
2. Department of Energy Fundamentals Handbook, Instrumentation and Control, DOEHDBK-1013/1-92 JUNE 1992, Re-Distributed by http://www.tpub.com
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STEP ONE
Pressure Measurement Course Knowledge Objectives
Knowledge Terminal Objective (KTO)
KTO 2.
Given examples, EVALUATE pressure measurement fundamentals as they apply to

measuring positive and negative process pressure variables to determine advantages
and disadvantages associated with different types of devices used to indicate,
measure, and transmit pressure.
Knowledge Enabling Objectives (KEO)

KEO 2. 1
DEFINE Pressure
KEO 2. 2
DEFINE Fluid/Liquid Pressure
KEO 2. 3
DEFINE Atmospheric Pressure
KEO 2. 4
DEFINE Head Pressure
KEO 2. 5
DEFINE Hydrostatic Pressure
KEO 2. 6
DEFINE Mechanical Pressure
KEO 2. 7
DEFINE Pascals Law
KEO 2. 8
DESCRIBE four common pressure scales:

a.
b.
c.
d.
Absolute
Gauge
Vacuum
Differential
KEO 2. 9
CONVERT Pressure Equivalents
KEO 2. 10
EXPLAIN how manometers are used to measure pressure
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KEO 2. 11
DESCRIBE four types of manometers

a.
b.
c.
d.
U-Tube
Inclined
Well
Barometer
KEO 2. 12
EXPLAIN how a mechanical pressure diaphragm device detects and measures

pressure.
KEO 2. 13
EXPLAIN how a mechanical pressure capsule device detects and measures

pressure.
KEO 2. 14
EXPLAIN how a mechanical pressure spring device detects and measures

pressure.
KEO 2. 15
EXPLAIN how a mechanical pressure bellows device detects and measures

pressure.
KEO 2. 16
EXPLAIN how a mechanical pressure double-ended piston device detects and

measures pressure
KEO 2. 17
EXPLAIN how an electrical transducer works
KEO 2. 18
EXPLAIN how a resistance pressure strain gauge transducer works.
KEO 2. 19
EXPLAIN how a capacitance pressure transducer works.
KEO 2. 20
EXPLAIN how a reluctance pressure transducer works.
KEO 2. 21
EXPLAIN how a piezoelectric pressure transducer works.
KEO 2. 22
EXPLAIN how a differential pressure (d/p) cell transducer works.
KEO 2. 23
EXPLAIN how to correctly use manometers to measure pressure dealing with:

a. Moisture Condensation
b. Measuring Liquids
c. Using Valve Manifolds
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KEO 2. 24
EXPLAIN methods used to protect pressure gauges and sensors from:

a. Over Pressure
b. Over Temperature
c. Corrosion or Contamination
KEO 2. 25
DESCRIBE what a Deadweight Tester is and how it is used to calibrate pressure

sensors.
KEO 2. 26
EXPLAIN how manometers are used to calibrate pressure sensors and the
limitations associated with using manometers.
KEO 2. 27
EXPLAIN how to connect a FLUKE model 744 Electronic Calibrator to calibrate

a 4-20 mA pressure transmitter.
KEO 2. 28

a Current to Pneumatic (I/P) transducer.
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PRESSURE MEASURMENT
KEO 2. 1
Define Pressure
The measurement of Pressure is one of the major process measurements used for process
control. The pressure of almost any liquid or gas that is stored or moved must be known to
ensure safe and reliable operations. Pressure is defined as force divided by the area over which
that force is applied. Force is anything that changes or tends to change the state of rest or motion
of a body. Area is the number of unit squares equal to the surface of an object.
Figure 3-1 (top half) page 89

Formulas:
Pressure
Force
Area
=
=
=
Force Area
Pressure Area
Force Pressure
(P=FA)
(F=PA)
(A=FP)
As a comparison, the formula for Ohms law is:

Voltage
=
Current Resistance (V=IR)
Resistance
=
Voltage Current
(R=VI)
Current
=
Voltage Resistance (I=VR)
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KEO 2. 2
DEFINE Fluid/Liquid Pressure
Fluid/Liquid Pressure is any material that flows and takes the shape of its container. Gasses
and liquids are both fluids. Fluid pressure may be due to the weight of a fluid column, or due to
applied mechanical energy. Mechanical energy is provided by such devices as a pump or blower
and stored in the form of a fluid under pressure, at an elevated height, or both.
For comparison, remember that a gas will completely fill a container and a liquid (solid) will
retain its shape regardless of the container. Liquids are fairly dense materials and the effect of
gravity on liquids is substantial.
KEO 2. 3
DEFINE Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric Pressure is the pressure due to the weight of the atmosphere above the point
where it is measured. Atmospheric pressure is depicted below:
Figure 3-2 page 90

Atmospheric pressure changes at different elevations because at higher elevations there is less
weight of air above that elevation than at lower elevations. Atmospheric pressure also changes
with from day to day with changes in the weather.
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KEO 2. 4
DEFINE Head Pressure
Head Pressure is the actual height of a column of liquid. A container or vessel can be any
shape; but the head is only determined by the height of the liquid. For example, the head of
water in water towers of a different shape depends only on the height of the water as depicted
below:
Figure 3-3 page 90

Head is expressed in units of length such as inches or feet, and includes a statement of which
liquid is being measured. Head may be expressed as inches or feet of water or inches of
mercury.
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KEO 2. 5
DEFINE Hydrostatic Pressure
Hydrostatic Pressure is the pressure due to the head of a liquid column and is frequently
referred to as head pressure. The difference is that not only is pressure dependent height, but
also on the properties of the liquid. For example mercury is heavier than water with different
densities. Where mercury is much denser than water, a shorter column of mercury produces a
hydrostatic pressure equivalent to a much taller column of water. The formula for determining
pressure is: Pressure = Density times the Height (P = DH) as depicted below:
Figure 3-4 page 91

KEO 2. 6
DEFINE Mechanical Pressure
Mechanical Pressure may also be mechanical energy in the form of a fluid under pressure such
as pneumatic or hydraulic pressure. Pneumatic pressure is air or another gas that is compressed
and hydraulic pressure is pressure in a confined hydraulic liquid that has been subjected to the
action of a pump. Pneumatic pressure is used to send a signal in a pneumatic control system and
Hydraulic pressure is used to move objects or do other work.
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KEO 2. 7
DEFINE Pascals Law
Pascals Law states that pressure applied to a confined static fluid is transmitted with equal
intensity throughout the fluid. The Hydraulic Press Operation below depicts how a force is
amplified through the application of Pascals Law:
Figure 3-5 page 92

The hydraulic press operations depicted above is the principle used for dead weight testers used
to calibrate pressure sensing devices.
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Depicted below is a Dead Weight Tester:
Figure 3-37 page 121

KEO 2. 8
DESCRIBE four common pressure scales:

a.
b.
c.
d.
Absolute
Gauge
Vacuum
Differential
There are many ways to report pressure, depending on the application. Pressure is reported in
many units as well as on different scales. The four common pressure scales are absolute, gauge,
vacuum and differential pressure. Common units of pressure are atmospheres, psi, and inches of
water.
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KEO 2.8.a
Absolute Pressure is pressure measured with a perfect vacuum as the zero point
of the scale. When measuring absolute pressure, the units increase as the pressure increases.
Absolute pressure cannot be less than zero and is unaffected by changes in atmospheric pressure.
Absolute Zero Pressure is a perfect vacuum as depicted below:
Figure 3-6 page 93

When measuring pressure using a gauge to show anything above absolute pressure, the gauge to
indicate both pressure greater than atmospheric pressure and the actual atmospheric pressure is
called a PSIA gauge. The PSIA gauge is a pound-per square-inch gauge that will also measure
the pressure less than the atmospheric pressure.
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A 30 PSIA and a 30 PSI gauge are depicted below (notice the PSIA gauge on the top is not
connected to a pressure source and that it is indicating the atmospheric pressure of 13.7, where
the PSI gauge on the bottom is not connected to a source and it reads zero PSI):
PSIA Gauge Reading Atmospheric Pressure
PSI Gauge Reading Zero

Note: A common mistake is to see a PSIA guage reading atmospheric pressure and someone has
reset the pointer to zero because it is not connected to a pressure source and they believe it to a
reading error.
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KEO 2.8.b Gauge Pressure is pressure measued with atmospheric pressure as the zero point
on the scale. When measuring gauge pressure, the units increase as the pressure increases.
Negative Gauge Pressure is gauge pressure less than zero. Negative gauge pressure indicates the
presence of a partial vacuum. The only difference between absolute pressure and gauge pressure
is the zero point on the scale. A gauge that indicates the difference between absolute pressure
and gauge pressure is depicted below:
Pressure Vacuum Gauge
Note: If a vessel is kept at a constant absolute pressure, the gauge pressue can vary when the
atmospheric pressure varies. This may be significant if very accruate pressure measurements are
needed of the measurements are made at different locations or elevations. For example, if a
process requies a particular absolute pressure, the gauge pressure reading will b different if the
process is in Denver that if the process is at sea level.
KEO 2.8.c
Vacuum gauge pressure is pressure measured with atmospheric pressue as the
zero point on the scale as indicated on the Pressure Vacuum Gauge above. When measuring
vacuum, the units will decrease below the zero indicaton of the gauge into the vacuum range
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reading. Vacuum pressrue measurement is used when a prcess measruement is used when a
process is maintained at less than atmosperic pressure. For example, a vacuum pressure gauge
may be installed on the suction side of a pump to check for a clogged suction line, a dirty
strainer, or a closed suction valve.
KEO 2.8.d Differential Pressure is the difference between two measuement points in a
process. Differential pressue is an important process variable measurement in that is can be used
to do more than just measure pressure. For example, it can be used to measure positive and
negative pressure, flow, liquid level, and liquid density. These other process measurements will
be discussed in their respective process variable modules.
The actual pressure at the different points may not be known and there is no reference pressure
used when measuring differential pressure. Pressure Drop is a pressure decrease that occurs due
to friction or obstructions as an enclosed fluid flows from one point in a process to another . A
pressure drop measurement can significantly improve the measurement resolutoion when
compared to using two gauges or absolute pressure measurement. For example, when air is
filtered in an HVAC system, the air pressure before a filter is higher than the air pressure after a
filter as depicted below:
Figure 3-7 page 95

The pressure drop is very small compared to the absolute pressue, so the pressure drop is
monitored to determine when a filter needs to be cleaned or replaced.
An other application for differential pressure is for a facility needing to maintain the air pressure
to either a positive or negative pressure to control, or to prevent a release of contaminates from
or into the facility. Differential pressure is used to set off an alarm or to close doors to control
the desired necessary facility pressure as required.
KEO 2. 9
CONVERT Pressure Equivalents
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Being able to Convert Pressure from one equivalent to another is required of an Instrumentation
and Control Technician. There are some conversions that should be memorized and others need
only be referenced and know where to be found. Today with the ease of access to the internet,
conversion tables and calculators are readily available. Below is a conversion table with the
basic conversions dealing with pressure equivalents:
Figure 3-8 page 96

Based on the Pressure Equivalents Table, there are three pressure equivalents that need to be
understood as common units and conversions and are used often. They are as follows:
1. 1 PSI = 27.7 Inches of Water
2. 1PSI = 2.036 Inches of Mercury
3. 1 Inch of Mercury = 13.61 Inches of Water
Understanding and knowing these three pressure conversions are essential to many process
control measurements used in industry. Memorizing these units will ensure you have the
necessary knowledge to make correct choices in selecting test equipment to perform critical
calibration tasks associated with measuring and controlling pressure process variables.
KEO 2. 10
EXPLAIN how manometers are used to measure pressure
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Manometers are used to provide a visible pressure measurement and to perform accurate
pressure measurement of pressure sensing devices. Manometers are used as an indicating device
connected to pressure sensing devices with actual pressure being applied to both the pressure
sensing device and the manometer to verify accurate sensing capabilities to the device being
calibrated.
An example of how a typical connection may look is when a manometer is used to check the
calibration of a pressure device is depicted below:
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Manometers are used to measure positive or negative pressure, and differential pressures. They
are used in a process control environment to provide a variety of process measurement functions
such as, pressure, level, and density. Operations personnel use them as a visual indication for
recording and documenting specific process conditions as depicted below (this example indicates
an applied pressure to the solution in a glass tube providing a level reading of the solution being
monitored):
Manometers are indicating devices and cannot be remotely transmitted; however the pressure
being applied to the solution can be detected and transmitted. This concept will be addressed
later on when pressure transmitting devices are discussed.
Manometer Note: When reading manometers, if the solution is mercury the accurate
reading is taken from the top of the mercury (meniscus) as pressure pushes mercury up to
form an upward bubble. When reading other solutions like water the pressure pushes up
the sides of the solution leaving a depression and to get an accurate reading, it needs to be
read from the bottom of that depression (meniscus) on the manometer scale.
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KEO 2. 11
DESCRIBE four types of manometers

a.
b.
c.
d.
U-Tube
Inclined
Well
Barometer
KEO 2.11.a U-Tube Manometer is a glass tube bent into the shape of elongated letter U.
Liquid, usually water, alcohol, or mercury is poured into the tube until the level in both columns
is at mid scale, or zero. The scale is adjustable to accommodate an accurate zero reading with no
signal applied to the manometer tube.
In operation, a pressure is applied to one of the columns and the other side is left open to
atmospheric pressure. The level in the higher-pressure side decreases and the level in the lowerpressure side increases. The difference in height of the two liquid columns is represents the
applied pressure (for example, a 2 inch reading would represent a pressure of 4 inches).
Manometer manufactures offer manometer fluids with a choice of densities. Densities are
expressed as specific gravity and are the ratio of the density of a fluid to the density of a
reference fluid. Water is the usual reference fluid for manometers; however other fluids that may
be used in manometers to measure pressures other than inches of water include mercury or
organic chemicals immiscible with water. The Specific gravity fluids available include: 0.826,
1.000, 1.750, 2.950, and mercury at 13.6. Some manometers use water with a dye instead of
using the special manometer fluid having a specific gravity of 1.000.
A picture of a U-Tube manometer used in a calibration of a pressure sensor is depicted below:
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The picture below depicts how U-Tube manometers are connected and read:
Figure 3-9 page 97

KEO 2.11.b Inclined Manometer is a manometer with a reservoir serving as one end and the
measuring column at an angle to the horizontal to reduce the vertical height. The fill liquid is
usually water and may have a die to improve readability. Like the U-Tube manometer, the
reservoir may also be filled with manufactured liquids having a specific gravity of: 0.826, 1.000,
1.750, 2.950, and mercury at 13.6.
Inclined manometers need to me mounted level to the ground and use a bubble level to level
the manometer. The purpose of the angled tube is to lengthen the scale for easier reading. This
type of manometer is used for low-pressure applications because it is difficult to accurately read
low pressures in a vertical tube. For example, an HVAC system may only have a static pressure
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drop of 0.1 inches of water to 0.2 inches of water. Under these circumstances, it is easier to get
an accurate reading with an inclined-tube manometer over an U-Tube manometer.
Below is a picture of an Inclined Tube Manometer depicting where pressure is applied and a
leveling device to ensure accurate indications of pressure. Notice the scale of the inclined
manometer is a negative .10 inches of water to a positive 1.0 inches of water reading.
Figure 3-10 page 98

The following picture depicts a calibration of a pressure sensor using an incline-tube manometer:
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One problem with inclined-tube manometers is even the smallest collection of condensed water
in an inclined-tube manometer can generate very significant measurement errors. If this
happens, it can be corrected by either changing the zero point, or by applying an additional head
to the reservoir and changing the differential pressure measurement.
When dealing with manometers at this small of a scale, it is important to verify the zero setting
prior to its use to ensure the manometer is level and with no signal applied, the scale is adjusted
to read zero.
KEO 2.11.c A Well-Type Manometer is a manometer with a vertical glass tube connected to
a metal well, with the measuring liquid in the well at the same level as the zero point on the tube
scale. The well-type manometer is the most common type of manometer used. With three of
them mounted on a cart on wheels, they can be set up with different solutions like a an organic
solution of 0.826 specific gravity, a solution of 1.000 specific gravity, and mercury with a 13.6
specific gravity. A typical Well-Type manometer is depicted below:
Figure 3-11 page 98
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The picture below depicts a well-type manometer with a fluid specific gravity of 1.000 (colored
blue water) used in the calibration of a pressure sensor.
Using Mercury in any manometer increases the range of measurement over using just water.
Mercury is 13.6 times heaver than water and a manometer 60 inches tall with water can only
measure 60 inches of water (2 PSI). Whereas manometers using mercury that is 60 inches tall,
can measure up to 816 inches of water or a pressure of up to 30 PSI.
The disadvantage with using mercury is the environmental hazard of mercury vapor if a mercury
spill were to occur.
KEO 2.11.d Barometer is a manometer used to measure atmospheric pressure. Barometric

Pressure is a pressure reading made with a barometer. The earliest barometer was a long vertical
glass tube that had been sealed at the bottom and filled with mercury. The open end was then
turned upside down into a container of mercury without allowing any air into the tube. The
mercury in the tube falls to a level where the head of the mercury is equal to the atmospheric
pressure.
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As atmospheric pressure changes, the level of the mercury changes as well. The following
picture depicts the earliest barometer and a pressure equivalent table:
Figure 3-12 page 99

Currently mechanical instruments that sense atmospheric pressure with electronic circuitry that
can produce digital readouts for remote readings have replaced the earlier mercury barometer
and are called Aneroid Barometers.
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KEO 2. 12
EXPLAIN how a mechanical pressure diaphragm device detects and measures

pressure.
Mechanical Pressure sensors use diaphragms to detect and measure pressure. The diaphragm
flexes in response to an applied pressure. This flexing motion moves a pointer on a scale. The
following picture depicts a typical diaphragm device with a cut away view of its internal
components:
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A more common diaphragm mechanical device is a Standard Magnehelic Gauge as depicted
below:
A Magnehelic gauge consists of two pressure tight compartments separated by a molded flexible
diaphragm. The interior of the case serves as the High pressure and a sealed chamber behind
the diaphragm serves and the Low pressure compartment. Differences in pressure cause the
diaphragm to assume a balanced position between the two pressures. The front of the interior
diaphragm is linked to a leaf spring to detect motion. The motion is detected through an
exclusive magnetic linkage to the indicator pointer. Mechanical pressure devices can activate
alarms and provide signals that can be transmitted for remote operation and control of process
pressures.
KEO 2. 13
EXPLAIN how a mechanical pressure capsule device detects and measures

pressure.
A Mechanical Pressure Capsule device is a mechanical pressure sensor consisting of two

convoluted metal diaphragms with their outer edges welded, brazed, or soldered to provide an
empty chamber. One of the diaphragms is connected at its center to metal tubing to admit fluid to
the chamber. The other diaphragm is fitted with a mechanical connection to the indicator or
fitted with a transducer to transmit the pressure signal.
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A pressure capsule device is depicted below:
KEO 2. 14
EXPLAIN how a mechanical pressure spring device detects and measures

pressure.
A Mechanical Pressure Spring device is hollow tube formed in to a helical, spiral, or C shape.
The bourdon tube is the original pressure C shaped spring that is flattened into an elliptical cross
section. All of the pressure spring devices move with pressure applied and this movement is
captured by a pointing device, switch, or transducer providing a local or remote indication.
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Below are pictures of typical pressure spring sensing elements that indicate or transmit a pressure
reading:
Sprial-Shape
C-Shape Bourden Tube
Helical-Shape
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Below are two more examples of bourdon tube devices:

KEO 2. 15
EXPLAIN how a mechanical pressure bellows device detects and measures

pressure.
Bellows-Pressure sensing devices are elastic deformation elements, that flex (twist or expand)
with changes in pressure. The movement is transferred via linkage to indicate or to transmit a
pressure signal remotely. Below are three pictures of typical bellows pressure sensors:

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KEO 2. 16
EXPLAIN how a mechanical pressure double-ended piston device detects and

measures pressure.
A Double Ended Piston is a mechanical pressure sensor consisting of a differential pressure

sensor gauge with a piston that admits pressurized fluid at each end. The piston motion that
results from the in-equality of the pressures is opposed by an internal spring that establishes the
range of the meter. The piston is magnetically coupled to a pointer assembly.
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A double-ended piston is used to measure pressure by balancing the force from the pressure on
the piston with the force needed to compress a spring. A double-ended piston is depicted below:
KEO 2. 17
EXPLAIN how an electrical transducer works
Electrical Transducers are devices that convert an input electrical (40-20 mA-DC) energy into
a different mechanical energy such as pneumatic. An example would be a current to pneumatic
(I/P) transducer. A 4-20 mA electrical input allows a 3-15 PSI pneumatic output to leave the
transducer for indication or control of pneumatic devices.
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Below is a typical I/P transducer:
Pneumatic-Side View
Electronic-Side View
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Cautionary Note: Transducers that are current to pneumatic receive a 4-20 mA-AC signal input
to convert to a 3-15 PSI output. A common mistake is to apply a 24VAC power supply to the
input instead of a 4-20 mA-AC signal. When this is done, damage occurs to the transducer.
Be sure not to apply a power supply to the transducer. Some test equipment can supply
either a mA signal or a voltage source and caution needs to be taken to prevent this damage via
test equipment.
A pressure transmitter is also called a pressure transducer that receives a physical pressure input
and provides an electronic output, such as a 4-20 mA output signal. Pressure transmitters
generally require a 24 VAC power source. Below is a Rosemont pressure transmitter:
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KEO 2. 18
EXPLAIN how a resistance pressure strain gauge transducer works.
A Resistance Pressure Transducer is a diaphragm sensor with a strain gauge as the electrical
output element. Resistance pressure transducers are the most widely used electrical pressure
transducers. A strain gauge is an electrical transducer that measures the deformation, or strain,
of a rigid body as a result of the force applied to the body. The picture below depicts a typical
Strain Gauge:

A strain gauge uses a bridge circuit with a variable resistor that measures the deformation or
strain on the sensor providing a pressure measurement to be transmitted.
KEO 2. 19
EXPLAIN how a capacitance pressure transducer works.
A Capacitance Pressure Transducer/transmitter is a diaphragm sensor with a capacitor as the

electrical element. When pressure distorts the diaphragm it alters the distance between the
plates, the capacitance of the sensor changes.
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Below is a picture depicting the functionality of a capacitance pressure transducer:
A common capacitive pressure transducer/transmitter is the Rosemount Differential Pressure

Transmitter.
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The following picture is of a typical Rosemount DP Transmitter being calibrated and powered
by an external AC power supply with the DVM placed in series with the power supply to
measure the 4-20 mA current output:
Below are pictures of the capacitance pressure diaphragm used with the Rosemount DP
Transmitter:
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KEO 2. 20
EXPLAIN how a reluctance pressure transducer works
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A Reluctance Pressure Transducer is a diaphragm pressure sensor with a metal diaphragm
mounted between two stainless steel blocks. Reluctance is the property of an electric circuit that
opposes a magnetic flux. Embedded in each block is a magnetic core and coil assembly with a
gap between the diaphragm and the core.
The blocks have pressure ports and passages for the fluid media to exert pressure against the
diaphragm. The movement of the diaphragm increases the gap on one side of the diaphragm and
decreases the gap on the other side to vary the magnetic reluctance. This variation is
proportional to the change in applied pressure and produces a signal used in a bridge circuit.
The following picture is of a Reluctance Pressure Transducer showing its mechanical structure
and bridge circuit:
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Reluctance transducers have a relatively high output for a small change in pressure. The input
voltage is 5 VAC with a frequency of approximately 5 kHz and a change in range can be
accomplished by changing the diaphragm.
KEO 2. 21
EXPLAIN how a piezoelectric pressure transducer works
A Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer is a diaphragm sensor combined with a crystalline

material that is sensitive to mechanical stress in the form of pressure. This type of transducer
produces an electrical output proportional to the pressure on the diaphragm. This transducer
does not need an external power source. As the crystal is compressed, a small electric
potential is developed across the crystal.
This potential produced by the crustal is then amplified and conditioned to be proportional to the
applied pressure. Temperature compensation is often included as part of the circuitry. The
following picture shows the mechanical structure of the Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer:

Piezoelectric Pressure Transducers are not appropriate for measuring static pressures because the
signal decays rapidly. They are used to measure rapidly changing pressure that results from
explosions, pressure pulsations, or others sources of shock, vibration, or sudden pressure change.
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KEO 2. 22
EXPLAIN how a differential pressure (d/p) cell transmitter/transducer works.
Differential Pressure (d/p) Cell Transmitter/Transducers convert a differential pressure to an

output signal. It is a device that sends the output to another location where the signal is used for
recording, indicating, or control. Two types of d/p Cell Transducers are Pneumatic and
Electronic. Pneumatic operate with a compressed plant supply and provides an output signal of
3-15 PSI. Electronic d/p Cell Transducers operate with an input power supply of 24 VAC and
provide an output signal of 4-20 mA or 10-50 mV. The earlier versions of these types of devices
used a force balance bar attached to a metallic diaphragm to generate the output signal. Below
are examples of both a pneumatic and an electronic force balance d/p cell transducers:
Pneumatic Transmitter
Electronic Transmitter
These transmitters are still in service in process plants world-wide. With the advancement of
technology, transmitters are now smaller and the only moving device is the diaphragm, which
changes electronic properties to supply the output of a 4-20 mA signal when pressure is applied
to one side or the other.
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Examples of older pneumatic d/p cell devices are shown below:
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Example of a more modern electronic d/p cell transmitter is shown below:
The Rosemont transmitter uses a capacitance cell to generate its 4-20 mA output signal:
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Below is an expanded view of the Rosemont d/p Cell Transmitter:
Like any of todays D/P Cell Transmitters, they are all capable of measuring differential pressure
or both positive and negative pressures the same as the earlier version of the force-balanced
pneumatic and electronic devices. The value and benefit to todays transmitters are the stability
and freedom of moving parts and is the reason the pneumatic transmitters are being replaced
with the more modern and stable transmitters. There are, however many facilities still using older
devices that are still functional.
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Differential pressure devices have two ports: 1) Low Pressure and, 2) High Pressure. The
following examples show how Differential Pressure transmitters are connected to measure
positive and negative pressures (Pressure and Vacuum):
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KEO 2. 23
EXPLAIN how to correctly use manometers to measure pressure dealing with:

a. Moisture Condensation
b. Measuring Liquids
c. Using Valve Manifolds
KEO 2.23.a Moisture Condensation can result in a collection of water in the manometer fluid
and increase the volume of fluid. If the fluid in the manometer is water, this increase in fluid
will change the manometer zero setting and will have to be reset or fluid will have to be removed
from the manometer to maintain an accurate reading.
If the fluid is a fluid heavier than water, the condensed on top of the manometer fluid causing an
error in the reading. A correct reading can be obtained by measuring differential of the
manometer fluid only, converting this to inches of water, and then subtracting this from the
reading.
The below picture shows how you can deal with correction of condensation in a U-Tube
Manometer:

If there is a possibility of condensed water collecting in a manometer, the connecting piping or
tubing should include a condensate collection pot to intercept the condensed water before it
reaches the manometer.
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KEO 2.23.b Measuring Liquids requires the process side of the manometer and the
connecting piping or tubing to be filled with the process fluid to provide a consistent liquid head
pressure at all times.
The following picture depicts how to compensate for a wet leg of water to the manometer when
using mercury as the manometer fluid show that using water in one leg must have a pressure
adjustment made:
KEO 2.23.c Using Valve Manifolds is critical in maintaining the manometer fluid. A
procedure of cutting in the manometer is essential and if not done properly, the manometer fluid
can be removed from the manometer and forced into the process being measured.
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The following picture depicts how a manometer can be cut in using a valve manifold system:

Cutting out a manometer is the exactly the opposite of cutting in by reversing the steps above.
KEO 2. 24
EXPLAIN methods used to protect pressure gauges and sensors from:

a. Over Pressure
b. Over Temperature
c. Corrosion or Contamination
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KEO 2.24.a Over-Pressure Protection is required to protect sensing equipment from the
starting and stopping of pumps, opening and closing of valves, vibrations in piping, and
unexpected increase or decrease in pressures. Pressure limiting valves are available to protect
equipment. Pulsation dampers (snubbers) are also available to install in inlet lines to protect
against pulsation damage. Examples of devices to protect against over pressure are shown
below:
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KEO 2.24.b Over-Temperature can damage pressure sensors. Adding enough inlet tubing
allowing the process fluid to cool before entering the sensor is standard installation practice. A
siphon system is also used to protect equipment. The below picture shows how siphons can be
used to protect sensors from over temperature:
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KEO 2.24.c Corrosion or Contamination protection is essential as dealing with processes
that are corrosive or contaminated is more of a reality than a norm. There are sealing systems
that keep the process isolated from the sensor. The photo below shows a typical sealing system
that is used:
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Air and water are more often used to isolate the sensor from the corrosive or contaminated
processes. The photos below depict how this is done:

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KEO 2. 25
DESCRIBE what a Deadweight Tester is and how it is used to calibrate pressure

sensors
Dead Weight Testers are devices using hydraulic fluid to develop a pressure to a set of
calibrated weights. When the weights lift and rotate freely, that pressure is equal to the weights
and the pressure is applied to a pressure sensor to verify calibration. Below are pictures of both a
high pressure (HP) and low pressure (LP) dead weight pressure testers set up calibrating pressure
gauges:
HP Tester
LP Tester
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KEO 2. 26
EXPLAIN how manometers are used to calibrate pressure sensors and the
limitations associated with using manometers.
Manometers are used as an indicating device in the calibration process. A pressure source is
connected to both the manometer and the pressure sensor. Pressure is then applied to both the
manometer and the device to complete the calibration process. Limitations to using manometers
are availability, maintaining fluid levels, cutting them in and out and dealing with mercury as a
hazard. The pictures below show calibration tasks being performed with manometers:
Inclined-Tube Manometer used to calibrate a Magnehelic Pressure Gauge. A hand

held pump or a pressure regulated air supply is used at a Tee fitting to supply the
pressure source to the Magnehelic gauge and the inclined manometer.
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U-Tube Manometer used to calibrate a Magnehelic Pressure Gauge. A hand held

pump or a pressure regulated air supply is used at a Tee fitting to supply the
pressure source.
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Below is an example of a more modern method using a pneumatic calibration box called a
Wallace and Tiernan Calibration Box (Notice this calibration box is equipped with a valve
manifold to cut in or out pressure):
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KEO 2. 27

a 4-20 mA pressure transmitter
The FLUKE 744 calibrator is a high end device that can provide both a pressure input signal and
a mA output signal. This is accomplished via a source pressure display function that requires the
use of an external pressure hand pump and an external Pressure Module. What the FLUKE
calibrator and similar calibrators can do is to provide the option of seeing both the source signal
and the signal from the output of the pressure transmitter/transducer. Connecting the Pressure
Module and setting up the FLUKE 744 calibrator is depicted below:
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The steps for setting up the FLUKE 744 calibrator to use the Sourcing Pressure functionality are
as follows:
Pressure Module
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Below are pictures of a calibration set up to show dual output signal and input pressure source
applied to transmitter and the FLUKE 744 Calibrator;
FLUKE 744 Calibration With Pressure Module
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FLUKE 744 Calibration With Pressure Module (Close-Up)
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KEO 2. 28

a Current to Pneumatic (I/P) transducer.
I/P Transducers can be damaged if connected improperly. Applying a 24 VDC power source to
an I/P transducer will damage it. When connecting an I/P Transducer for calibration, be sure to
connect it to a device that will supply a 4-20 mADC signal and place this source in series with
the I/P Transducer. The below picture shows a typical calibration of and I/P Transducer using a
FLULE 744 calibrator as its 4-20 mADC source (Notice the 24 VDC power source in the back
ground above the transducer is not connected to the instrument being calibrated):
Pressure Module
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STEP TWO
Pressure Measurement Course

Skill/Performance Objectives
Skill Knowledge Introduction:

Below are the skill knowledge objectives. How these objectives are performed depend on
equipment and laboratory resources available. With each skill objective it is assumed that a set
of standard test equipment and tools be provided.
For example, to be able to perform pressure calibration tasks, the following tools and equipment
will be required:
1. A pressure source such as a regulator, pneumatic calibration box, hand pump, etc.
2. A calibration standard to measure the applied pressure like a manometer, gauge or meter
3. Equipment capable of measuring pressure such as a gauge, transducer, transmitter,
switch, etc.
4. A measuring device capable of measuring / indicating the output signal such as pressure,
voltage, and current
5. An appropriate power supply to power the equipment being calibrated
Skill Terminal Objective (STO)
STO 2.
Given a Pressure Measurement Task Checklist, under the direction of an instructor,

complete a series of tasks using calibration equipment, pressure indicating devices,
and pressure transmitting devices to demonstrate mastery of both knowledge and skill
objectives associated with the measurement of pressure.
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Skill Enabling Objectives (SEO)
SEO 2. 1. Calibrate a pressure sensor using a Pneumatic Pressure Calibrator (Wallace &
Tiernan Box)
SEO 2. 2.
Calibrate a pressure sensor using a Low Pressure Dead Weight Tester
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SEO 2. 3.
Calibrate a pressure sensor using a High Pressure Dead Weight Tester
SEO 2. 4.
Calibrate a pressure sensor using a Hand Pump Pressure Source
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SEO 2. 5. Calibrate a pressure sensor using a Ralston or Rosemount 0-200 PSI Hand Pressure
Source
SEO 2. 6. Calibrate a pressure sensor using a Calibration Gauge with regulator and building air
supply
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Page 64

SEO 2. 7.
Calibrate a pressure sensor using a U-Tube Manometer
SEO 2. 8.
Calibrate a pressure sensor using an Incline Manometer
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SEO 2. 9.
Calibrate a pressure sensor using a Well-Type Manometer
SEO 2. 10.
Calibrate a pressure sensor using a Fluke Pressure PV350 Calibrator
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SEO 2. 11.
Calibrate a pressure sensor using a Transformation & Manometer
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Page 67
SEO 2. 12.
Calibrate a pressure sensor using a Crystal Calibrator
SEO 2. 13.
Calibrate a pressure sensor using a Marsh Calibrator
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SEO 2. 14.
Calibrate Three different Pressure Switches
SEO 2. 15.
Calibrate Three Pressure Gauges
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Pressure Module
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SEO 2. 16.
Calibrate a Foxboro 13 or 15 Pneumatic Transmitter
SEO 2. 17.
Calibrate a Rosemont 1151 Transmitter
SEO 2. 18.
Calibrate a Capacity Tank Circuit
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SEO 2. 19.
Disassemble and Reassemble a pressure regulator
SEO 2. 20.
Calibrate a pressure sensor using a Foxboro Current Source (Black or Green Box)
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Pressure Module
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SEO 2. 21.
Calibrate a pressure sensor using a Fluke Multi Processor Function Calibrator
SEO 2. 22.
Calibrate a pressure sensor using a Thermo Electric Current Source
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Page 74
SEO 2. 23.
Calibrate a Rosemount I/P Transducer
SEO 2. 24.
Calibrate a Moore I/P Transducer
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Page 75
SEO 2. 25.
Calibrate a Fisher I/P Transducer
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Pressure Module
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Module 8 Pressure Measurement

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Energy Systems Engineering Technology

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Knowledge Terminal Objective (KTO)

Given examples, EVALUATE pressure measurement fundamentals as they apply to

Knowledge Enabling Objectives (KEO)

DEFINE Fluid/Liquid Pressure

DEFINE Atmospheric Pressure

DEFINE Head Pressure

DEFINE Hydrostatic Pressure

DEFINE Mechanical Pressure

DEFINE Pascals Law

DESCRIBE four common pressure scales:

CONVERT Pressure Equivalents

EXPLAIN how manometers are used to measure pressure

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DESCRIBE four types of manometers

EXPLAIN how a mechanical pressure diaphragm device detects and measures

EXPLAIN how a mechanical pressure capsule device detects and measures

EXPLAIN how a mechanical pressure spring device detects and measures

EXPLAIN how a mechanical pressure bellows device detects and measures

EXPLAIN how a mechanical pressure double-ended piston device detects and

EXPLAIN how an electrical transducer works

EXPLAIN how a resistance pressure strain gauge transducer works.

EXPLAIN how a capacitance pressure transducer works.

EXPLAIN how a reluctance pressure transducer works.

EXPLAIN how a piezoelectric pressure transducer works.

EXPLAIN how a differential pressure (d/p) cell transducer works.

EXPLAIN how to correctly use manometers to measure pressure dealing with:

Energy Systems Engineering Technology

EXPLAIN methods used to protect pressure gauges and sensors from:

DESCRIBE what a Deadweight Tester is and how it is used to calibrate pressure

EXPLAIN how to connect a FLUKE model 744 Electronic Calibrator to calibrate

EXPLAIN how to connect a FLUKE model 744 Electronic Calibrator to calibrate

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Figure 3-1 (top half) page 89

As a comparison, the formula for Ohms law is:

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DEFINE Fluid/Liquid Pressure

DEFINE Atmospheric Pressure

Figure 3-2 page 90

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DEFINE Head Pressure

Figure 3-3 page 90

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DEFINE Hydrostatic Pressure

Figure 3-4 page 91

DEFINE Mechanical Pressure

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DEFINE Pascals Law

Figure 3-5 page 92

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Figure 3-37 page 121

DESCRIBE four common pressure scales:

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Figure 3-6 page 93

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PSIA Gauge Reading Atmospheric Pressure

PSI Gauge Reading Zero

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Pressure Vacuum Gauge

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Figure 3-7 page 95

CONVERT Pressure Equivalents