Marine and Petroleum Geology 27 (2010) 794809

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Marine and Petroleum Geology

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Depositional processes across the Sinu Accretionary Prism, offshore Colombia

Jamie S. Vinnels a, *,1, Robert W.H. Butler b, William D. McCaffrey a, Douglas A. Paton a
a
b

School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK

School of Geosciences, Meston Building, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, AB24 3UE, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 17 April 2009
Received in revised form
13 November 2009
Accepted 10 December 2009
Available online 4 January 2010

The Pliocene to Recent of the Sinu Accretionary Prism, offshore Colombia, features gravity current
dominated basins characterised primarily by channel- and sheet-like architectures and those with
dominantly hemipelagic lls. The prism is fed by rivers that drain from uplifted older basins and volcanic
Andean terranes to the south and east which source large volumes of sediment to the Colombian Shelf
into the Colombian Basin. Some basin lls show evidence of both localised fold-induced sediment failure
and regional-scale shelf collapse, both related to the generation and destruction of oversteepened slopes.
Large scale collapses can create new sediment routing pathways and/or local depocentres into which
sediment subsequently accumulates. In the Colombian Basin, even relatively distal basins show evidence
of channel activity related primarily to the creation of new sediment distribution pathways through
breaches in the substrate barriers between basins. These channels are often orientated parallel to the
regional drainage trend, suggesting that regional sediment transport trends can assert themselves
relatively early in a basin lling history regardless of the local bathymetric grain. While, at a regional
scale, sediment dispersal fairways reect drainage from the continental shelf to the basin oor, intraslope
basins form local bathymetric obstructions that can drive local spatial variations in sediment distribution.
Thus, both local and regional length scales of bathymetric control are evident within the intraslope
basins of the Sinu Accretionary Prism. Although regional dispersal patterns generally become more
important in time, individual intraslope basins exhibit more complex lling histories because events
such as sill or shelf collapse may serve to disrupt established distribution pathways, initiating repeated
episodes of adjustment.
2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Turbidites
Slope
Canyons
Channels
Colombia
Deep-water

1. Introduction
The bathymetric conguration of many turbidite basins allows
for only partial connement of sediments, leading to complex
spatial and temporal variations in both sediment facies and architecture within and across connected basins (Felletti, 2002; Hooper
et al., 2002; Smith, 2004; Adeogba et al., 2005; Hadler-Jacobsen
et al., 2005; Fugelli and Olsen, 2007; Jackson et al., 2008). Inferring
the length scales of bathymetric control on turbidite deposits from
spatially-limited data (e.g., outcrops or well data) is a key challenge
to understanding the upstream or downstream transitions within
the larger turbidite system to which these belong (Kneller, 1995,
2003; McCaffrey and Kneller, 2004).
In modern deep-water settings it is not always possible to make
architectural or facies observations on the scale of those seen in

* Corresponding author. Tel: 44 0203 204 3293.

E-mail address: jamv@statoil.com (J.S. Vinnels).
1
Present address: Statoil (UK) Ltd, 1 Kingdom Street, London, W2 6BD, UK.
0264-8172/$ see front matter 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2009.12.008

outcrop, i.e., bed scale, but instead long-distance routing systems

and basin scale architectures can be resolved, and, perhaps more
importantly, the spatial relationships of the depositional elements
are preserved. McCaffrey and Kneller (2004) attributed the array of
geometrical styles seen within turbidite systems to varying scales
of turbidity current non-uniformity related to changes in slope or
the degree of connement, which, at basin scales, are reected by
the presence of the sedimentary deposits themselves, and at ow
and sub-ow scales reect spatial variations in erosion and deposition; e.g., the development of channel- or sheet-like architectures.
The use of plan (map) and section (2D seismic) views allows
a better understanding of how modern depositional elements
relate to geomorphological features seen within the seismic data
(e.g., Beaubouef and Friedmann, 2000; Demyttenaere et al., 2000;
Posamentier and Kolla, 2003; Adeogba et al., 2004; Fowler et al.,
2004; Posamentier, 2004; Steffens et al., 2004; Posamentier et al.,
2007; Smme et al., 2009).
This study examines a combination of commercial 2D seismic
reection proles and bathymetric data to categorise depositional
processes across the Sinu Accretionary Prism. Our aim is to assess

J.S. Vinnels et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 27 (2010) 794809

the role of both regional sediment distribution pathways and local

substrate interaction on controlling sediment routing from the
shelf, through the prism slope, to the Colombian Basin oor, and
gauge how this inuences the sedimentation within the intraslope
basins.
2. Regional context
2.1. Structure and stratigraphy
The Cenozoic Sinu-San Jacinto Accretionary Prism extends from
the Gulf of Uraba, which separates Colombia from Panama, to
Venezuela in the northeast, and represents the boundary between
the Caribbean and South American plates (Fig. 1). Convergence
between the Caribbean oceanic lithosphere and the South American continent has formed the northern Andean Cordillera and
a subduction-accretion complex related to the closure of the
Central American Isthmus from the Cretaceous onwards (DuqueCaro, 1984; Cediel et al., 2003; Flinch, 2003). The San Jacinto
Terrane forms the onshore part of the accretionary wedge and is
formed primarily of Cretaceous to Paleocene volcaniclastic and

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siliciclastic shallow marine to deepwater strata (Flinch, 2003). The

system continues offshore to form the Sinu Accretionary Prism. In
common with other systems, the more oceanward part of the
system is inferred to be the youngest (i.e., Paleocene and younger).
However, at the time of writing, there have been no well-penetrations in the Sinu belt beyond eight exploration wells on the
continental shelf. The Sinu-San Jacinto Accretionary Prism is a west
to northwest verging imbricate stack of sedimentary rocks largely
derived from subducted and obducted Andean Terranes and lies
west of the Romeral Fault, with its leading edge bounded to
the west by the Uramita Fault (Flinch, 2003; Corredor et al.,
2005; Fig. 1).
From the Pliocene onwards, deep-water sedimentation in the
Sinu Accretionary Prism occurred in piggy-back basins formed from
older Miocene sediments and is dominated by input from uvial
systems fed from the Andean Cordillera (Restrepo and Kjerfve,
2000; Flinch, 2003). Andean tectonic events are thought to be
responsible for altering the Cenozoic palaeodrainage of the South
American plate, which in turn inuenced sediment supply characteristics to the Colombian Basin until the present day (Hoorn
et al., 1995; Potter, 1997; Villamil, 1999).

Fig. 1. Satellite and multibeam bathymetry maps covering Northwest South America, illustrating the position of major rivers, basins, tectonic elements, and faults. The dashed line
box highlights the area of multibeam data shown in Fig. 3. Inset map shows the tectonic framework of northern South America and the Caribbean. The study area is indicated by the
black rectangle. Adapted from French and Schenk (2004).

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2.2. Oceanographic and riverine context

Closure of the Central American Isthmus from Late Middle
Miocene times is responsible for the deection and containment of
the circum-Caribbean current, which established the PanamaColombian Gyre of the Colombian Basin, and may have had an
affect on North Atlantic Deep Water Flow and sediment supply
characteristics along the Colombian Continental Shelf (Duque-Caro,
1990; Burton et al., 1997; Richardson, 2005). Discharge data from
Restrepo and Kjerfve (2000) suggest that there is strong source area
control on the type and volume of sediment supplied to the modern
Colombian Basin, and that the majority of present day depositional
systems in the Sinu Accretionary Prism are fed by the River Sinu,
with some inuence from the River Atrato, River Mulatos and River
Magdalena (Fig. 1). Pujos and Javelaud (1991) suggest that, during
the wet season, River Magdalena sediment is deected northeast,
and, during the dry season, southwest-directed trade winds
disperse material along the shelf, which partially overprints local
discharge currents from the River Sinu. There is strong source area
and seasonal control on modern sediment supplied from the
Colombian Continental Shelf to the Colombian Basin (Pujos and
Javelaud, 1991; Restrepo and Kjerfve, 2000).

2.3. Database and methods

This study integrates a variety of datasets made available by BHP
Billiton and partner Ecopetrol along with vintage data from the
Agencia Nacional de Hidrocarburos (Colombia). The dataset consisted of merged multibeam echosounder bathymetry surveys (BHP
Billiton and Ecopetrol, 2006; Total, 2001), along with several 2D
seismic reection surveys lodged with Ecopetrel and made available to their partners, BHP Billiton (Figs. 13). The bathymetry data
were converted from depth to sea bed dip using the default dip
attribute surface operation function within Schlumbergers Petrel
software, which allowed for a better appreciation of geomorphological features than using a simple depth/colour display (Hart and
Sagan, 2007).
Exact determination of the lithology and age of the sedimentary
deposits within the Sinu Accretionary Prism was inferred based on
proprietary exploration (onshore and nearshore) borehole data
provided by BHP Billiton. Within the study area, covered by the

bathymetry data, the strata are Upper Pliocene and younger in age
and chiey inferred to be deep-water clastic deposits. These
deposits were chosen for study as they remain in the shallow
seismic section, <500 ms TWT below the mudline, equivalent to
<500 m below the sea bed assuming a 2 km/s velocity, and are
relatively undeformed or otherwise truncated (Fig. 2). In addition,
the shallow seismic section was free of diffractions, bottom simulating reectors (BSRs) and multiples, which are seen in deeper
sections, and is inferred to be of higher frequency than deeper
sections which suffer from attenuation of the seismic energy.
Although in places shallow stratal reections are occluded by BSRs
(inferred to represent gas hydrate deposits), we have avoided these
regions where possible. Onlap of recent sediment within the
intraslope basins was dened by tracking reection terminations
onto intra- and inter-basinal bathymetry using interpolation
between the 2D seismic reection lines and the bathymetry, which
allowed the areal extent of deposition within the intraslope basins
to be dened (Fig. 3). Slope proles and basin lling histories are
described using the terminology of Kneller (2003) and McCaffrey
and Kneller (2004), while onlap styles, basin topography and
accommodation space trends are described using the terminology
of Smith (2004), Hadler-Jacobsen et al. (2005) and Gardiner (2006).

3. Sediment dispersal pathways from the Colombian

Continental Shelf to the Colombian Basin oor
3.1. Gross slope characteristics
The modern day Sinu Accretionary Prism is an arcuate submarine feature that spans the shelf-slope break to the basin oor of the
Colombian Basin to depths of greater than 3500 m (Figs. 13). The
Sinu Accretionary Prism is dominated by thrust and fold features
related to accretion of the prism (Flinch, 2003; Fig. 3). These fold
features are locally disrupted by slumps, and play an important role
in inuencing sediment dispersal pathways and partitioning across
a series of intraslope basins.
Within the study area, the Colombian Continental Shelf varies in
width from 25 to 80 km (Fig. 3). A pronounced shelf-slope break at
around 250 m water depth is evident from the bathymetry, and is
incised into by a series of tributary gully and canyon networks that
connect to the upper slope (Fig. 3). The upper slope is of low relief

Fig. 2. Example of regional 2D seismic line combined with bathymetry from the central portion of the Sinu Accretionary Prism. This study restricts itself to the shallow seismic
section, which is inferred to be Upper Pliocene and younger based on proprietary borehole data, and which occurs as a series of intra-slope basin lls and bypass dominated intraslope sills. The arrow in the bottom right corner points toward the north.

J.S. Vinnels et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 27 (2010) 794809

797

Fig. 3. Interpretation of bathymetry with onlap traces and fold hinges indicated along with the distributary routes mapped (DR). Onlap was dened by tracking reection
terminations onto intra- and inter-basinal bathymetry using 2D seismic reection lines and interpolation using the bathymetry data. Shelf dispersal data suggests that the majority
of sediment fed to the Sinu Accretionary Prism derives from uvial input from the River Sinu. Coloured boxes indicate the position of the dip maps shown in subsequent gures.

and is characterised by the development of over-lled basins from

which the majority of sediment is eroded or bypassed down-slope.
The middle to lower slope is dominated by a series of thrust faultcored periclinal folds which are locally or entirely dissected by

pronounced fold failure scarps, through which upper slope

conduits cut (Fig. 3). The axes of these fold hinges are approximately parallel to the shelf margin, and can be traced along strike
for up to 60 km, with fold crests thus variably orientated from

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north-south to northeast-southwest. The middle to lower slope has

high relief, and is characterised by under-lled basins, when
compared to the low relief, over-lled, basins of the upper slope.
The lowermost portion of the slope is characterised by steep (>30 )
scarp features locally incised into by lower slope canyons and
gullies similar in aspect ratio to those seen at the shelf-slope break.
In addition, newly emergent fold features are seen on the basin
oor, which exert some inuence on the position of localised basin
oor fans (Fig. 3). The northern margin of the Sinu Accretionary
Prism is bordered by a channel-levee system fed directly from the
shelf-slope break onto the basin oor (Fig. 3). This channel-levee
system is attached to the Magdalena Delta (Fig. 1). The southern
margin of the Sinu Accretionary Prism is fringed by a low relief
submarine fan which feeds from the Atrato Delta directly across the
shelf-slope break onto the basin oor (Figs. 1 and 3). Both the
northern and southern depositional systems lack the inuence of
pronounced sea-oor deformation seen within the Sinu Accretionary Prism.

3.2. Distributary route proles

Distributary routes within the study area were subdivided on
the basis of whether they pass across a structured substrate and
where the route terminates. The routes were mapped based upon
tracing obvious sediment conduits and pathways; e.g., canyons or
gullies, or were inferred to ow downslope in areas lacking obvious
conduit features (Fig. 3). In addition, it was assumed that the

majority of gravity ows were not able to surmount the bathymetry

of the intra-slope sills, as the evidence of extensive onlap and lack
of sill incision suggests that these sills were sufcient to contain the
majority of sediment shed into the basins. Based on this rationale,
the distributary routes in the study area are divided into four
categories: (1) those routes which do not pass across a structured
substrate, (2) routes that pass directly through the Sinu Accretionary Prism to the Colombian Basin, (3) those that pass through
the Sinu Accretionary Prism, but do not reach the Colombian Basin
(i.e. they terminate within the prism), and (4) those that traverse
indirectly through the Sinu Accretionary Prism, but pass over
a structured substrate on their way to the Colombian Basin oor
(Figs. 3 and 4).
Distributary routes 1 and 11 do not pass across a structured
substrate (Fig. 3). The prole of distributary route 1 is 30 km long,
ranging in depth from 300 m to 1900 m below sea-level with an
average gradient of 3 , and is fed with sediment from both the River
Atrato and the River Mulatos (Fig. 4a). The prole of distributary
route 11 is 100 km long and ranges in depth from 1100 m to 2800 m
below sea-level, with an average gradient of 1.5 . Both distributary
route 1 and 11 exhibit a concave prole across the study area
(Fig. 4a). The terminal parts of both distributary routes 1 and 11 are
not seen in the study area, but are inferred to lie in more distal parts
of the Colombian Basin. Distributary route 11 traverses across the
Magdalena Fan and represents the southern-most inuence of the
River Magdalena on the modern day Sinu Accretionary Prism (Kolla
and Bufer, 1984; Kolla et al., 1984; Ercilla et al., 2002; Flinch, 2003;
Estrada et al., 2005).

Fig. 4. Proles of the distributary routes (DR) dened on Fig. 3. The routes are divided into four categories: (A) those routes which do not pass across a structured sea oor,
(B) routes that pass directly through the Sinu Accretionary Prism to the Colombian Basin, (C) those that pass through the Sinu Accretionary Prism, but do not reach the Colombian
Basin, and (D) those that traverse indirectly through the Sinu Accretionary Prism, but encounter some structure on the Colombian Basin oor.

J.S. Vinnels et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 27 (2010) 794809

Distributary routes 24 pass through the Sinu Accretionary

Prism into the Colombian Basin and are fed primarily from the River
Sinu (Fig. 3). The prole of all three distributary routes is characterised by a concave section 30 km long spanning the 200 m to
1450 m depth range with an average gradient of 2.5 , followed by
a marked inection at 1450 m below sea-level running out a further
20 km to 2500 m below sea level, with an average gradient of 5
(Fig. 4b). This pronounced inection is associated with the steep
frontal scarp features (Fig. 3). As such the overall prole has
a sigmoidal morphology.
Distributary routes 5, 9, and 10 pass through the Sinu Accretionary Prism, but do not reach the Colombian Basin; i.e., are
composed of depositional systems that feed across the shelf-slope
break into intraslope basins, but do not connect to deeper bathymetric levels (Fig. 3). The upper part of the prole of these
distributary routes is 25 km long and has an average dip of 2 and
range in depth from 200 m to 1300 m below sea level (Fig. 4c).
Beyond this point the prole gradient lowers, with an average dip
of <0.5 up to a further 45 km and a maximum depth of 1750 m
below sea level. The prole of these distributary routes has
a concave curvature.
Distributary routes 68 traverse through the Sinu Accretionary
Prism, but pass over a structured substrate on their way to the
Colombian Basin oor (Fig. 3). The upper part of the prole for
these distributary routes has an average dip of 3 , has a concave
curvature, and spans a depth range from 200 m to 1000 m below
sea level up to 20 km along the prole (Fig. 4d). Below this the
distributary route proles are stepped and descend to a depth of
2500 m below sea level over a distance of 30 km with a marked
distal inection associated with an increase in average gradient to
5 . The overall curvature of these distributary routes is sigmoidal
and, as with distributary routes 24, the inection points are
associated with a steep frontal scarp feature (Fig. 3).
4. Basin-scale architecture and seismic facies
The integrated use of dip attribute bathymetry and 2D seismic
data has allowed the recognition of distinct basin lling styles: (1)
those related to the passage of gravity currents; i.e., turbidites, and
which are dominated by conduit and fan features, (2) those characterised by extended periods of hemipelagic deposition, and (3)
those dominated by slumping of pre-existing deposits (Figs. 510).
Each lling style relates to the local expression of the larger
turbidite system to which it belongs in terms of whether the system
is bypassing, depositing, or simply not active in that part of the
slope for a signicant period of time (Fig. 3). Using the discussion
above, the Sinu Accretionary Prism can be divided into a series of
different basin types. The seismic facies in each of the basin types
are discussed in turn below.
4.1. Gravity current dominated basins: canyons and distributary
channels
The principle routing system for sediment from the Colombian
Continental Shelf to Colombian Basin oor is via a series of
conduits. A range of conduit styles is evident from the bathymetry
and 2D seismic data. Gully systems have an axial gradient of up to
5 , and are up to 500 m wide, 100 m deep, and 10 km long, and are
evident across much of the upper slopes of each of the distributary
systems in the study area (Figs. 3 and 5). These gullies are regularly
spaced at intervals of w1 km, and commonly disperse perpendicular to the shelf-slope break, between west and north, and coalesce
with upper slope canyons downstream (Fig. 5a). In cross section
these gullies have a U-shaped and terraced prole and are evident
in the subsurface as variable amplitude, low continuity, chaotic

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seismic facies, with no obvious evidence of thalweg aggradation,

suggesting that they are short lived amalgamation-prone features
(Fig. 5b).
While the upper slope drainage patterns are complex, there is
commonly a single dominant upper slope canyon into which the
gullies feed and through which sediment is distributed further
down the slope (Figs. 3 and 5ad). This is particularly evident in
distributary route 4 (Figs. 3, 4b, and 5). The upper slope canyons are
500-1500 m wide; around 100 m deep, have an axial gradient of 5 ,
locally up to 20 , and often have a leveed overbank area suggesting
that they are weakly aggradational features (Fig. 5c). The seismic
character of the upper slope canyons is a broad V-shaped prole,
with no evidence of slumping off canyon walls suggesting that
these features either have relatively stable margins, or that failed
material is regularly ushed from the canyons downstream. The
upper slope canyons feed into down dip distributary channel
networks.
Within the middle region of the slope are a series of canyons
which are seen to incise directly into the fold-related sill structures.
These canyons are found in the mid-reaches of the slope, and are
seen to erode through sills that exhibit fold degradation scarps,
effectively bypassing and incising into sediment from intraslope
basins upstream of the sill (Figs. 3 and 5a). Lower slope canyons are
also evident on the bathymetry of distributary routes 3, 4, 6, and 7,
and are associated with steep frontal scarp features (Figs. 3, 4B, 4D
and 5E). These canyons have a V-shaped prole, are approximately
100 m deep, 100 m wide, and up to 15 km long, are entirely incisional in nature, and commonly have sediment wave elds in their
head regions in the slope.
Intraslope channels are evident from the bathymetry (e.g.,
distributary route 3) and occur where there are local reductions in
gradient to <2.5 (Figs. 3, 4b, and 5). Both the upper slope canyons
and channels commonly exhibit variable amplitude, moderately
continuous, parallel to chaotic seismic facies, suggesting that these
form amalgamation-prone systems, although it is difcult to gauge
how long these conduits are individually active for because there is
only local evidence of canyon thalweg aggradation, suggested by
the development of levees, which indicates a temporal transition to
backlling, perhaps associated with the current sea-level highstand
(Fig. 5be). The fact that the canyon conduits form substantial
erosive features suggests that they are likely to have acted as
dominant conduits for longer periods of time, compared to the
gully networks described previously.
4.2. Gravity current dominated basins: channel-levee systems
Channel-levee systems fed from the Magdalena Delta onlap
directly onto the northern anks of the Sinu Accretionary Prism
(Figs. 3 and 6). These represent the southern-most inuence of the
River Magdalena on the modern day Sinu Accretionary Prism (Kolla
and Bufer, 1984; Kolla et al., 1984; Ercilla et al., 2002; Flinch, 2003;
Estrada et al., 2005). Distributary route 11 is characterised by the
presence of several channel systems inferred to have been active
recently. In our view, the most recently active channel has an
asymmetrical prole, with a steeper outer bank (Figs. 3, 4a, and 6).
The levees of these features are around 50 m above the channel
axis, with a levee to levee separation of up to 2 km (Fig. 6). The
channel systems are at least several tens of kilometres long. The full
length of these features is not determined because the bathymetric
survey used in this study does not extend far enough into the
Colombian Basin. Using regional, low-resolution data, Kolla and
Bufer (1984) suggest that this part of the Magdalena Fan has
a radius of w300 km. These channel-levee systems exhibit a characteristic stacked gull-wing morphology, and are internally
complex with chaotic, variable amplitude, low continuity seismic

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Fig. 5. Dip map and 2D seismic intersections (See Fig. 3 for the location of the dip map). (A) Dip map of the sea bed showing the range of conduit features extending from the shelf
to the basin. (B) Upper-slope gullies. (C) Upper-slope canyon. (D) Upper-slope canyons. (E) Lower-slope canyon.

J.S. Vinnels et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 27 (2010) 794809

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Fig. 6. Channel levee systems. (A) Sea bed dip map showing a recent (active?) channel-levee system. Note that the while the outer levee may be steeper, this can in part be related to
the inherited bathymetric template. (B) 2D seismic intersection. Note the presence of strong high amplitude reections (HARPs), possibly associated with periods of channel
avulsion. See Fig. 3 for the location of the dip map. The active channel is elevated above the local low, which may have resulted from ows avulsed to the south from a previous
channel; i.e., the avulsing ows were captured between the channel and the prism.

facies within the channel ll region. High amplitude reection

packages (HARPs) are evident across the area, and are suggestive of
periods of sand input into overbank areas (sensu Posamentier and
Kolla, 2003). Parallel, variable amplitude, continuous seismic facies
are interpreted as levee packages (Fig. 6b).
The channel-levee systems of the Magdalena Fan appear to pass
over a substrate devoid of the pronounced deformation seen in the
adjacent Sinu Accretionary Prism. However, it is likely that some
sediment from the Magdalena system was incorporated into the
Sinu Accretionary Prism as it deforms the Colombian Basin oor
and has in some way had an inuence on how the substrate in the
prism deforms and degrades.

hemipelagic shale (Fig. 7B and C). The hemipelagic materials onlap,

but more commonly drape, intraslope basin sills, and often extend
for tens of kilometres across the slope. Localised highly variable
amplitude, discontinuous chaotic seismic facies are evident close to
the shelf-slope break, which are themselves up to 50 ms TWT
(w50 m) thick and several kilometres wide, and are inferred to
form as a result of ephemeral periods of channelisation or debris
ow/slumping activity, or may suggest the input of lower frequency
of gravity current events (Fig. 7c). The channelised sections within
these hemipelagic dominated intervals may represent short
(seasonal) periods when gravity ows are captured in this area,
rather than by the large canyon-dominated distributary routes that
lie to the south (Figs. 3, 5, and 7b).

4.3. Hemipelagic dominated basin lls

4.4. Slump features
The northern section of the Sinu Accretionary Prism between
the Sinu and Magdalena rivers is characterised by large areas
apparently devoid of persistent gravity current derived sediment
(Figs. 3 and 7a). The sea bed along distributary route 10 is characteristically (depositionally) smooth, with only local evidence of
recent erosion in the form of slope gullies (Figs. 3, 4d, and 7).
Moderate to low variable amplitude, continuous, parallel seismic
facies suggest that these areas are dominated by the deposition of

The sea bed is sculptured by crescent-shaped scarps with blocky,

high-relief terrains at the feet, interpreted as headwall slump scars
and disordered mass wasting deposits down the slope. Slump
features are seen across the Sinu Accretionary Prism, in particular
along distributary route 9 (Figs. 3, 4c, and 8). The largest of these
Mass Transport Complexes (MTCs) represent two modes of mass
wasting. Towards the northern part of the Sinu Accretionary Prism

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Fig. 7. (A) Dip map and 2D seismic intersections (See Fig. 3 for the location of the dip map). (B) Intraslope basin composed entirely of hemipelagic material. (C) Intraslope basin
immediately below the shelf-slope break dominated by hemipelagic deposition, but with ephemeral channelisation.

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Fig. 8. Dip map and 2D seismic intersections (See Fig. 3 for the location of the dip map). (A) Dip map of the sea bed illustrating the variety of mass wasting features seen in the study
area. (B) Distal segment of a regional scale MTC fed from the shelf-slope break. Note the presence of small-scale local slumps which still remain on the slope. (C) Localised mass
wasting feature associated with fold degradation and overstepening of cohesive sediment.

is a regional scale MTC up to 15 km wide, 60 km long, and 200 ms

TWT (w200 m) thick inferred to relate to a period of shelf collapse
(Fig. 8a and b). This MTC has chaotic, variable amplitude, low
continuity seismic facies, with a recently buried mounded deposit
top evident from the bathymetry. Recent material is seen to onlap
the mounded bathymetry related to the underlying MTC (Fig. 8b).
Similar irregular reections overlain by locally onlapping sections
are recognised in the subsurface, which may suggest that more
than one shelf collapse event occurred (Fig. 8b).
Slump features are especially prominent in the lower part of
the slope, with much of the frontal part of the Sinu Accretionary
Prism represented by steep frontal scarp features (Figs. 3 and 8b).
Individual fold degradation features are typically up to 10 km
wide, up to 30 km in axial extent, and are up to 500 ms TWT
(w500 m) thick. These MTCs may be partially frontally and
laterally conned (sensu Frey-Martinez et al., 2006), and have
chaotic, variable amplitude, low continuity seismic facies, with an
irregular basal surface and form the dominant ll of lower slope
basins (Fig. 8). These features have arcuate asymmetrical to
symmetrical headwall scarps which, in most cases, dip towards
the Colombian Basin (between the west and north), and run in
a shelf-parallel direction for up to 70 km. Shelfward retreat of the
headwall scarp has led to the capture of sediment routing pathways from up depositional dip (east or southeast), leading to the
upstream incision of tributary pathways into more proximal
basins. Localised slump features are evident on some headwall
scarps (Fig. 8b). The fold disruption scarps in the northern part of
the Sinu Accretionary Prism are surrounded by distinct lobate
failures that may relate to how the inherited substrate is
deforming, and could relate to the pre-existing mechanical stratigraphy of the basin oor; i.e., primary variations in sand/shale
architecture associated with channel-levee meander belts and
overbank areas.

4.5. Basin ll characteristics and intra-basinal spatial variations in

reection character
Within intraslope basins devoid of pronounced intra-basinal
ow impediments, submarine fans develop that have common
localised shallow (<0.5 ms w50 m deep) incisional features,
which are inferred to be amalgamated channel and sheet
complexes (Fig. 9c). These relatively unconned fans are up to
15 km wide, and commonly have axial gradients of less than 5 ,
with local draping and onlapping reections onto steeper sections,
which thicken away from the onlap slope. Subtle substrate deformation is evident in some sections, with draping, off-lapping, and
simple onlap onto intra-basinal sills (Fig. 9c). Overlled intraslope
basins in the upper slope commonly exhibit incision by tributary
conduit networks, which allow the redistribution of sediment into
the lower slope region. The channel and sheet complexes in this
region commonly show onlap and ofap onto subtle intra-basinal
bathymetry (Figs. 9 and 10).
Where the intraslope basins have pronounced ow impediments, the local depositional elements are, in most cases, deected
around these structures. This behaviour is most often documented
in lower slope basins where the basin ll state is commonly underlled. Within the Sinu Accretionary Prism, this interaction has two
modes of expression. Where a signicant intraslope basin sill is
encountered; e.g., the sill immediately north of prole CD in
Fig. 9a, submarine fan deection occurs, with partial incision of the
fan in proximal regions of the sill. Subtle intra-basinal drainage
divides are also evident within lower slope basins, which are
thought to relate to recently buried intra-basinal sills which still
exert some control on surface drainage patterns (Figs. 10ac).
Intraslope basins across the study area record a variety of lling
styles. Upper slope basins are typically over-lled, while lower
slope basins are generally under-lled with respect to the locally

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J.S. Vinnels et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 27 (2010) 794809

Fig. 9. Dip map and 2D seismic intersections (See Fig. 3 for the location of the dip map). (A) Dip map of the sea bed showing a range of intraslope basin ll styles. (B) Unconned fan,
spilling over a buried sill. (C) Intraslope fan stacked on top of a sill. (D) Intraslope basins. The basins appear to be progressively less full or bypass prone towards the Colombian Basin
(west northwest). (E) Intraslope basins. The downstream basin (northwest) appears to be almost devoid of recent sediment. (F) Intraslope basin conned by a sill. Note from the dip
map that the upstream (southeast) of the sill is an area of channelisation related to deection around the obstacle.

J.S. Vinnels et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 27 (2010) 794809

805

Fig. 10. Dip map and 2D seismic intersections (See Fig. 3 for the location of the dip map). (A) Dip map of the sea bed showing the contrasting ll styles between the upper- and
lower-intraslope basins. (B) An intraslope basin. Note that the sill onto which the sediment onlaps has a steeper lower section onto which sediment onlaps abruptly, and a less steep
upper section onto which sediment thins over a distance of several kilometres. (C) Intraslope basin showing subtle axial onlap and thinning along the basin (northeast-southwest).
(D) Intraslope basin with simple onlap onto local sill.

available accommodation space; i.e., the space between the intraslope basin oor and the breach point of the basin (Figs. 3 and 9).
Individual intraslope basins are 1.55 km in width and 1060 km in
length (parallel to strike). The intraslope basin sediments
commonly dip up to or less than 5 , and tend to onlap or ofap
slopes steeper than 5 . These intraslope basins are typically
composed of laterally-variable, parallel to chaotic, variable amplitude seismic facies, which are thought to represent amalgamated
sheet and channel complexes that are distinct from, but often
incised into by, the major conduit features described previously
(Figs. 3, 5, 9, and 10). There is no recurrent or sequential depositional motif evident within the channel and sheet complexes.
Parallel, low amplitude sheet-form seismic facies are inferred to
represent hemipelagic shale intervals. These drape both intraslope
basin lls and sills, and may blanket several intraslope basins. As
such, these facies are used as correlative intervals across the slope,
as deposition is likely to have extended across several basins at
once (Figs. 3 and 9d and e).
An examination of the seismic facies and amplitude character of
single reection events can yield important information of the

lateral and vertical impedance variability of the body of sediment

through which seismic energy is passing (Gao, 2007). While this
approach lends itself well to 3D seismic surveys, where individual
reection events can be followed to the full extent of their termination (within the survey), with the 2D seismic data used in this
study such an approach was not possible. With this in mind, careful
selection of 2D seismic proles that span a range of intraslope basin
lling styles allows some insight into the lateral variability of
individual reection events.
Within hemipelagic intervals marked lateral variation in
reection amplitude is seen within the ephemeral channelised or
debris ow intervals, while within the hemipelagic intervals no
amplitude variation is seen with lateral offset (e.g., Fig. 7c). Sections
deeper than 120 ms TWT (w120 m) below the sea oor, show
apparently hemipelagic sheet-form intervals that vary in amplitude
over a lateral scale of 500 m, and which onlap and drape onto and
over intraslope basin sills. The lateral amplitude variability and
divergence of these seismic reection events could be associated
with periods of syn-sedimentary deformation of the sea bed on
shorter timescales than the hemipelagic sequences aggrade,

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J.S. Vinnels et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 27 (2010) 794809

causing local compensational stacking of sediment, or may reect

short-lived periods of gravity current inux. An alternative interpretation is that these are sediment wave features (Fig. 9a).
Hemipelagic deposits can be used as reference datums to
correlate contemporaneous periods of deposition across intraslope
basin sills (e.g., Fig. 9). Amalgamated sheet- and channel-like
intervals show marked lateral and vertical variation in reections
amplitude, and are separated by continuous amplitude reections
inferred to represent hemipelagic intervals (Fig. 9a, df). These
hemipelagic intervals subdivide the intraslope basin ll, allowing
the recognition of two sheet- and channel-form intervals in the
Upper Pliocene to Recent section that can be found in both the overand under-lled basins (Figs. 3 and 9). This motif suggests that
although the seismic sections through these basins span 40 km
along depositional strike, it is possible that the hemipelagic intervals separate time equivalent sections of turbidite system activity,
punctuated by periods of turbidite system shutdown (for example
associated with either highstand conditions, or bypass of sediment
elsewhere in the prism), although precise dating and correlation
constraints are not yet available.
5. Discussion: regional sediment distribution pathways and
local substrate interactions
Across the Sinu Accretionary Prism are a range of basin ll styles
that owe their character to the regional-scale organisation of the
major sediment distribution fairways (Figs. 3 and 11). However, on
more local scales (i.e., intraslope basin scale), the conguration of
the local substrate dominates the architectural expression of the
basin ll. As mentioned previously, McCaffrey and Kneller (2004)

attributed the array of geometrical styles seen within turbidite

systems to varying scales of turbidity current non-uniformity
related to changes in slope or the degree of connement, which, at
basin scales, are reected by the presence of the sedimentary
deposits themselves, and at ow and sub-ow scales reect spatial
variations in erosion and deposition; e.g., the development of
channel- or sheet-like architectures. Steffens et al. (2003) noted
that mud based systems were more prone to bypass in the upper
and middle sections of the slope, and that overall mud-based
systems are likely to be above grade across the entire slope,
particularly where those systems are inuenced by active tectonics
(e.g., Northwest Borneo). Saller et al. (2004) and Smme et al.
(2009) suggest that shelf width and the availability of sediment
from deltaic sources exerts a strong regional control on the architectural expression of submarine slopes. Within this context, it is
possible to characterise the architecture of the turbidite complexes
that span the Sinu Accretionary Prism in terms of understanding
the non-uniformity regime of the ows that generated them, and
the extent to which other inuences may overprint this.
The length scale and sediment supply characteristics of the
Andean hinterlands that feed the Colombian Continental Shelf
exert a strong control on the availability of sediment to the
distributary routes of the Sinu Accretionary Prism and adjacent
areas (Fig. 3). Sediment supply to the sea is strongly inuenced by
tectonically complex routing pathways and the character of the
ood plain, which is currently swampy. Distributary routes 1 and 11
feed across shelf areas less than 25 km wide, while distributary
routes 210 feed across a shelf region 2580 km wide. Distributary
route 1 is fed by the Rivers Atrato and Mulatos, which drain directly
from steep Andean terranes, shedding immature volcaniclastic

Fig. 11. Summary of observations made in this study which illustrate the range in turbidite system expression in and around the Sinu Accretionary Prism.

J.S. Vinnels et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 27 (2010) 794809

sediment into the basin, while distributary route 11 is fed from the
River Magdalena, which drains remote Andean hinterland from
where sediment is likely to have remained in residence on the
400 km long ood plain for a period of time, and is likely to have
been subjected to chemical weathering; e.g., weathering of feldspars to clays. The River Sinu, which feed into distributary routes
210, is an intermediate case, whereby steep hinterland Andean
terranes shed sediment onto a ood plane 150 km long. In addition,
distributary routes 1 and 11 do not encounter pronounced sea bed
deformation from the shelf to the basin oor, while distributary
routes 210 pass through or terminate within the Sinu Accretionary
Prism.
In the case of distributary route 1, a steep unconned fan system
is generated, which is likely to have been inuenced by the relatively coarse calibre of sediment delivered almost directly from
the land to the submarine fan system (Figs. 3 and 9b). Distributary
route 11 is a mud-rich turbidite system, across which the development of channel-levees across the fan surface is evident. These
are only locally deformed by the Sinu Accretionary Prism (Figs. 3
and 6). In the presence of bathymetrically simple drainage pathways, distributary routes 1 and 11 are dominated by aggradational
processes, which generate channel- and sheet-form architectures
that extend for several tens of kilometres across the slope directly
onto the basin oor. In this case, the regional sediment supply
characteristics and lack of pronounced sea-oor deformation are
responsible for the formation of relatively simple turbidite fan
systems which inll below grade accommodation space and which
represent basin-scale non-uniformities. The spatial variation in
architecture across the fan system of distributary route 1 is inuenced by depletive ow scale non-uniformity related to the radial
expansion of ows across the fan surface, while the channel-levee
systems of distributary route 11 reect ow scale non-uniformity
whereby ows are focused in avulsion-prone conduits.
Distributary routes 210 are fed with sediment that is likely to
have remained in residence on the Colombian Continental Shelf for
some time, and are both likely to be strongly controlled by the
location of the River Sinu (Figs. 3, 5, 9, 10, and 11). Distributary
routes 3, 4, 6, and 7 have canyon systems along part of their
dispersal pathyways, which reect portions of the slope where the
regional gradient of the system is capable of overprinting local
gradients; i.e., the slope is above grade, and bypasses sediment
directly across the slope and onto basin oor fans. This draw-down
of sediment may in part be responsible for the relative sediment
starvation of other parts of the system; e.g., distributary routes
5 and 10 (Figs. 3, 7, 8, and 9). An additional factor in controlling the
location and evolution of sediment dispersal fairways is the availability of downstream bathymetric levels to which ows can
connect, as some intraslope basins appear to form effective zones of
ponded accommodation; e.g., distributary route 9.
The primary control on sediment routing across the intraslope
basins is the availability and connectivity of bathymetric lows
across intraslope basin sills. Many of the distributary routes run
perpendicular to the structural grain of the prism, and are seen to
dissect through pronounced sills. This routing is likely to have
evolved through the local degradation of intrabasinal sills by mass
wasting processes allowing the upstream capture of dispersal
fairways, and which themselves create localised depocentres
(Figs. 3, 8, 9, and 10). Such processes are thought to exert a strong
control on sediment routing in turbidite systems in bathymetrically
complex areas (McAdoo et al., 1997; McGilvery and Cook, 2003;
Shaw, 2004; Frey-Martinez et al., 2005; Frey-Martinez et al., 2006;
Heinio and Davies, 2006; Moscardelli et al., 2006). Flows that initial
incise through a fold degradation breach are likely to encounter
a signicant bathymetric low, and will incise rapidly through the
breach, effectively capturing large volumes of sediment from

807

upstream portions of the slope into the newly available accommodation space. Further downstream, sediment bypass may occur
once the accommodation space has been lled to the level of the
top of the downstream sill, or if a failure occurs on this sill; e.g., the
perched intraslope basin of distributary route 7 (Figs. 3 and 9).
Sediment distribution and architecture within the intraslope
basins is observed to be strongly controlled by the presence of local
bathymetry. Onlap of sediment onto and/or over sills is seen across
the Sinu Accretionary Prism and records the incisive, deective or
accumulative behaviour of ows with respect to local substrate
interactions (Figs. 3, 8, and 9). Local (i.e., ow scale), non-uniformity can be generated by the interaction of ows with the slopes of
the receiving basin, which in turn drives marked variation in
sediment architecture and facies. This is evident in some intraslope
basins by lateral variations in seismic reection character which are
interpreted to record spatial transitions from sheet- to channel-like
architectures (Fig. 8f). Within relatively small (<5 km) length
scales, marked variations in turbidite system expression are
evident (Figs. 3, 8, and 9). Localised incision of bathymetric highs
and the presence of deep erosive conduits can occur in relative
close proximity and do not necessarily represent temporally
separated periods of turbidite system activity, and often ultimately
drain to the same (regional) bathymetric level. Such turbidite
system expression is commonly seen in those which form on
mobile mud substrates (e.g., offshore West Africa and Northwest
Borneo), and are characterised by intraslope basins that form
connected corridors rather than the discreet bowl-like closures
seen in basins oored by mobile salt substrates (Steffens et al.,
2003, 2004; Fowler et al., 2004; Smith, 2004; Adedayo et al., 2005).
Sediment thickness and facies distributions may also reveal the
extent to which the substrate was deforming, commonly with
marked compensational stacking of sediment bodies within localised depocentres, accompanied by draping or onlap of sediment
onto the substrate (Haughton, 1994, 2000, 2001; Hooper et al.,
2002; Grecula et al., 2003; Shultz and Hubbard, 2005).
Localised slump features play a role in the creation of localised
depocentres into which subsequent sedimentation may occur
(Shultz et al., 2005; Fig. 8). Across the Sinu Accretionary Prism,
sediment failure features are seen to dominate the architectural
expression of some intraslope basins (Fig. 3). These slump features
relate to the disruption of fold structures mentioned above, and, as
such, represent localised bathymetric features that are thought to
inuence ow non-uniformity as they effectively act as smaller
scale intraslope basins, forming local depocentres (Fig. 9). Local
failure-related breaches in the fold features serves to capture
sediment routing networks from upstream basins, and thus plays
an important role in the development of slope drainage systems
and the delivery of sediment to more distal features. McGilvery and
Cook (2003) describe similar drainage capture features on the
slopes of offshore Brunei, and relate this to the inuence of localised gradients.
Lateral architectural variations in channelisation are often
spatially and temporally complex within turbidite slope successions, as suggested by the upper slope tributary networks of the
Sinu Accretionary Prism (Figs. 3, 4, and 6c). The intraslope basin
channel systems are primarily erosive, and lack the well developed
levees of the Magdalena Fan channel-levee system (Fig. 5). These
channels serve to supply sediment around intraslope basin sills and
are commonly located immediately adjacent to the sill (Figs. 5, 9,
and 10). The upper slope canyon systems have weakly developed
levees, suggesting that at some stage these canyons were aggradational or acted as conduits for ows which were for the most part
bypassing downstream, but which had some component of overbank deposition. Straub and Mohrig (2009) suggest that the
slope canyons of offshore Brunei developed through progressive

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J.S. Vinnels et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 27 (2010) 794809

(agrradational) connement, and thus that canyon systems are not

always entirely erosive features.
On the modern sea-oor of the Sinu Accretionary Prism, the
fringes of turbidite basins show evidence of the introduction of
slump/slide material from the local slope or localised slope parallel
incision related to the deection of ows oblique to inter- or intrabasinal sills. Within shallow seismic sections, spatial variations in
seismic reection character approaching onlap slopes suggest some
degree of architectural variation, and feature sheet-like drapes of
hemipelagic material that may extend several kilometres into the
basin, which serve as useful tools to correlate contemporaneous
basin lls, or may pass laterally into chaotic or channelised intervals, which may represent the demise of hemipelagic deposition.
Distributary systems that do not pass across bathymetrically
complex slopes produce relatively simple architectural geometries,
such as unconned fans, that extend from the shelf to the basin
oor, across which slopes autocyclic and regional inuences
predominate (e.g., Fig. 9a and b). The inuence of regional dispersal
fairways is often represented by the presence of canyon or erosive
channel networks that are seen to incise through local bathymetric
features; e.g., thrust inuenced folds, and which route sediment
directly from the upper slope to the basin oor (e.g., Figs. 3, 4a, 9,
and 11). Thus these features respond more to the regional scale
slope, and are insensitive to the inuence of local, perhaps counter-regional, bathymetric congurations. An additional mode of
regional turbidite system expression develops as local depocenters
are lled, with subsequent ows entering a bathymetrically
smoothed basin in which few ow impediments exist, therefore
allowing ows to traverse the basin unhindered, such as producing
massive sandstones through steady depletion of sediment from
turbidity currents.

6. Conclusions
1. The Sinu Accretionary Prism and adjacent areas are fed from
rivers that drain from Andean Terranes which shed large
volumes of sediment across the Colombian Shelf into the
Colombian Basin.
2. Sediment distribution around the Colombian Continental Shelf
and the Colombian Basin is strongly controlled by seasonal
variations in river discharge and basin oceanography.
3. Sediment is routed through and around the Sinu Accretionary
Prism by eleven distinct distributary routes classied on the
basis of whether they pass directly or indirectly through, or
terminate within the prism. The proles of these distributary
routes are broadly similar, and show a concave slope prole,
with small steps where routes pass through structures related
to prism deformation.
4. Distributary routes that do not pass through the Sinu Accretionary Prism are dominated by unconned submarine fan
systems which represent basin to ow scale depletive and
uniform ow vector non-uniformities.
5. Distributary routes that pass through the Sinu Accretionary
Prism are dominated by large canyon and intraslope basin
systems which represent major sediment conduits and basin to
local scale ow vector non-uniformities.
6. Radically different depositional styles may be recognised over
short (sub-basin) length scales, with complex sand routing
options (not in-prole ll-and-spill).
7. Mass wasting processes dominate across the prism, and are
also responsible for the creation of steep slopes.
8. Several basin lling styles can be recognised, with gravity
current-dominated basins characterised by channel- and
sheet-like architectures, slump and hemiplegic dominated lls.

9. Slump dominated basin lls show evidence of localised fold

degradation and more regional scale shelf collapse, which play
an important role in the creation of local depocentres into
which sediment subsequently accumulates.
10. Local, i.e., ow scale, non-uniformity, may be recognised by the
presence of onlap slopes and spatial transitions in depositional
style. These are evident in both plan (map) view and section
(2D seismic) view.
11. The combination of local inuences to some extent overprints
those of the regional sediment distribution systems. While
the distributary routes are important for delivering sediment
from the shelf to the basin oor, local inuences are
responsible for the partitioning of sediment across the slope
and for the initiation of routing systems between intraslope
basins.
12. A variety of different scale ow vector non-uniformities are
evident with the Sinu Accretionary Prism and other modern
systems, which suggest that both scales of non-uniformity can
occur either in isolation, or overprint each other within a single
part of a submarine slope system.
Acknowledgements
BHP Billiton Petroleum, Ecopetrol, Agencia Nacional de Hidrocarburos, and GX Technology are thanked for allowing permission
to use and publish the data in this study. Schlumberger are thanked
for the donation of Petrel academic licences to the University of
Leeds. This work formed part of the lead authors PhD research
which was jointly funded by BHP Billiton and the Turbidites
Research Group at the University of Leeds. This study also forms
part of a larger project funded (to Robert Butler) by BHP Billiton
Petroleum on Submarine Thrust Belts. The review comments of
Makoto Ito from the Marine and Petroleum Geology Editorial staff,
as well as those from two anonymous reviewers, were extremely
helpful in shaping the focus of this manuscript.
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