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Electronics from
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GWA-Dummer
Gordon
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http://archive.org/details/electronicinvent14gwad
Electronic Inventions
Electronics from
its
and Discoveries
earliest beginnings
to the present
day
W A Dummer
MBE, CEng,
FIEE, FIEEE,
US Medal
of Freedom
Institute of
Bristol
Physics Publishing
and Philadelphia
UK)
G W A Dummer
1997
No
may
be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval
system
Agency under
is
permitted
the terms of
in
accordance
its
agreement
First edition
title
ISBN
ISBN
is
Data
US
owned by The
Institute
of Physics, London
Printed in the
UK
by
W Arrowsmith Ltd,
PA
19106,
Bristol.
UK
USA
Contents
Preface
vii
Acknowledgments
viii
1.
The Beginning of
Electronics
2.
The Expansion of
Electronics
3.
The Development
of
4.
18
5.
23
6.
7.
40
8.
44
9.
Electronics
by Subject
10.
List of Inventions
11.
12.
Electronics
13.
List of
Books on Inventions
269
14.
List of
Books on Inventors
273
Index
58
73
259
276
Histories on a Page
Components
Date Chart
1:
Passive
Date Chart
2:
17
Date Chart
3:
22
Date Chart
4:
30
Date Chart
5:
Radar
37
Date Chart
6:
Television
43
Date Chart
7:
Computers
47
16
Preface
As
in previous editions,
it is
not intended that this book should be a learned treatise on a particular aspect of
wide summary of
first
field,
acknowledgment
is
i.e.
many
is
knowledgeable
USA
welcomes
little
whom
etc, to
in their fields.
text.
The author
is
known
be important.
In this edition, an attempt has
up
As
knows,
components, tubes,
transistors,
it is
The book
integrated circuits,
the only
book
in the
its
earliest
beginnings
radio,
communication,
avionics, radar, sonar, television, computers, robotics, mechatronics and information technology, in addition
to industrial,
How
book
first
made on
'first
One can
first
consider the
prototype, the
first
'first
it
is
In this
Throughout the book, the author has used the American term
USA made
cross-fertilization of ideas.
new
industries.
term 'valve'.
fields
working
transistor,
Looking back
page
5.
They
are
at the history
to
are:
first,
shown by
the chart on
fields
Laboratories transistor, because the modern 'chip', in fact, consists of multiple transistors.
reasonable cost:
the
printed circuit
as enabling devices to be
mass produced
to
how deep
the
become
is
modern
life
whilst
the
in
now changing
which we
the world in
live.
W A Dummer
Malvern Wells
UK
Acknowledgments
In this
in
book
chapter
Chapter
been
1,
1
that
made
Full
acknowledgment
is
made
Where
'source'
in
is
from Science at
War
Acknowledgment
is
each case
their publications
is
made
to
is
many
all
are
due
many
to the
to 10 whilst,
title
page.
Institute
of Electrical
Extracts
Acknowledgment
New
Scientist.
Also
to
is
Van
York, for the use of data from one of their published books.
Museum, London,
Compagne DOUZE,
New
authors.
indebted to
Nostrand/Rheinhold,
Science
to
chapters
that
Thanks
d'Estaing, published by
made
New
in
also
from
development of electronics
the
summarize
in
particular Dr B P Bowers,
K E Geddes
this
following for their advice and assistance on the development of electronics in the various
Baxendall,
TA
Everist,
fields:
Hilsum.
Amos.
Jones.
to
John
given to him by Eryl Davies, acting as a consultant on the contents of the book;
for help
Burns for help on the chapter on radar; to Mark Williams for data on
semiconductor data;
proofreading the
It is
hoped
Charles P
Dr P R Morris
for help
on
Sandbank for help on the chapter on television; and to Robert Winton for
development from
Geoffrey
to
satellites; to
to Professor Russell
its
earliest
W A Dummer
book
will be
Chapter
The Beginning of
remained unexplained
known
Electronics
to exist:
static electricity
and magnetism.
commenced on both
These
electrostatics
and magnetism. By the early 1800s, work by Galvani, Oersted and Faraday on galvanism, electromagnetism
and electromagnetic induction opened up a new
field
way
to
present-day electronics.
Electrostatics
1.1
Static electricity
had been known for many centuries as some substances, when rubbed together, produced
static
charges which could generate sparks and, in other cases, could attract small pieces of paper and other materials.
for
on amber material by
that friction
word
we know
fur
gave
was not
'electron'
really
many
positive
In
when
apart
a charge
Thomson
J J
was applied
to
When
it.
moved
1897 when
until after
today.
it
was
used
method of measurement of
a rod of ebonite
static electricity
strips
ebonite would have a negative charge and the fur a positive charge. Glass rubbed with silk exhibited a similar
The Kelvin
the
this
static
replenisher
was developed
static
Many
first
capacitor
the
Leyden
in
jar
in his early
made
attempts were
static electricity
to collect
invented
in
1.1).
1745.
charges and calculated the potential voltages available (these could be quite high
The
Having
Wimshurst
machines were used for working x-ray tubes), measurement was now becoming important and electrometers
of various types based on the earlier gold-leaf electroscope were developed, resulting
now
Electrostatics could
voltmeters.
1.2
also been
known
for centuries.
the material
that
when
In this
first
magnetism.
Magnetism
Magnetism has
in
be generated and stored for short periods, but could not be further used
was suspended by
its
It
It
was exhibited
way
it
became
in lodestone,
found
in the vicinity
itself
silk,
it
a knitting needle
of Magnetia
when
It
a bar
of
was found
magnetised
compass.
Figure
1.1.
The problem of
was
storage
electricity
in frogs,
the frogs
Italy
&
still
unsolved.
paper discs,
to consist of
was now
tin
the
one
first
side,
manganese dioxide on
the
lumbar nerves of
electric battery.
The
pile
was
later
"Volta's
improved
if
electrical charges.
1803 by Ritter
in
in
in
This
discovery of electromagnetism and led him to develop the Galvanometer, allowing accurate measurements of
currents and voltages to be made, and from this our present range of
In 1831, the
two
one connected
galvanometer.
On
the battery, a reading was obtained on the galvanometer, although there was no direct connection. The
was
magnetic
to rotate in a
The
coil.
field
The generation of
is
electric
commutator
possible.
An
to reverse
electric
it
motor
to rotate.
similar in construction,
The
early 1800s
in
was
1808, Dalton
first
so as to cut the lines of magnetic force, an 'induced' current was produced in the
dynamo. By causing
new
all
Work on
fields together
and
formulated his equations from which he predicted electromagnetic radiation on purely theoretical grounds.
He
predicted
succeeded
He
also
first
It
a finite velocity,
first
to consider
which he showed
added
a loop of wire
in
and increased the distance over which sparks could be transmitted, becoming the
radio communication.
It
would be
in the
75 years
Magnetism
between 1800 and 1875, culminating
and loudspeakers. Towards the end of the century, wireless telegraphy, magnetic recording and the cathode-ray
oscillograph were
all
developed.
a nucleus of protons
and neutrons,
about which electrons rotated in orbits. In 1913, Bohr proposed that various stable orbits corresponded to various
permissible energy levels
The
way
The advent of
field
saw
the beginnings of
to radio broadcasting
the
of applications.
many
'electronics'
New
for
new
circuits
were developed
war, radio astronomy, xerography, early radar, and computer techniques, were
during the
in electronics research,
MASERS, LASERS,
silicon.
The
stage
was now
(known
as the 'chip')
set
was born.
many
The
three-electrode
transistors to
all
now covered
communications and
all
wider
up large
after the
laboratories.
to a great increase
From
these
came
major advance
in electronics
the transistor,
The
planar
Chapter 2
The Expansion
The
heavy machinery,
etc.
of Electronics
of electronic inventions
now
in decline
steel,
light industries
based on
New
up
employing large numbers of people, as instanced by the world's semiconductor industry, now accounting for
4%
of the world economy and already larger than any other manufacturing industry.
many of
Whilst
saw
made
in the last
figure
the greatest expansion of electronics technology, and the integrated circuit, together
with the computer, laid the foundation for the present-day world-wide expansion of electronic applications,
are:
world-wide communications,
microwave ovens,
and
educational electronics, industrial electronics, electronic cameras, medical electronics, robotics and
Two examples
virtual
TV,
many
others.
By
using electronics techniques and merely passing a bar-coded object over a detection device, a detailed
bill
in a
matter of seconds.
till
The number of
throughout the world, flying to different destinations, must run into millions, yet any particular seat in any
particular aeroplane
office,
due
to electronics
to
machine
tool
control,
airline
booking
filing
(in
in
hospitals,
these applications,
The
list
making integrated
of applications
is
is
very large.
circuits,
hybrids and
many
specialised devices.
in aircraft,
such
home and
business
are
life,
with interactive and television presentations, combined with data-processing systems, becoming more and more
widely adopted.
brief
summary of
the possible effect of the 'brain drain' after the 1939/45 war.
is
given
in figure 2.1,
1975
1971
computer developments
invented
INTERNET
started
1961
TAPE CASSETTE
1958
1952
1950
MODEM
1957
1953
developed
>.
20th Century
>
19th Century
>-
18th Century
developed
First
TRANSISTOR
1929
First
COMPUTER
Colour Television
RADAR
First cable
TV
invented
1919 Electronic
1914 Asdic
started;
magnetic recording
First
1876
TELEPHONE
Glow
Lamp
discovered
1843
FAX
machine invented
1800
First
Dry Battery
745
1730
Electricity stored;
Two
The Leyden
jar
Figure
2.1.
The growth of
electronics.
European
American
2000
1990
1980
19/0 =====
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^~
1960
1950
1940
1980
WX)
^^=
1910
1900
1890
1880
1870
1860
1850
1840
1830
1820
1810
1800
1790
1780
1770
1760
1750
1740
1730
1720
i>
Number of
Figure
2.2.
brief
summary of
the
USA
Number
inventions
of inventions
effect of the
Chapter 3
All electronic
equipment
is
composed of components
etc.
electronic techniques,
components had
all
to
is
electrical industry
the
Leyden
The
new
invention in
earliest
components
wave
in quantity.
when
19th century
was invented
1906
in
continuous oscillation and amplification of radio frequencies became possible. Special tubes, transmitters and
receivers were designed and built with the designer of the equipment constructing
all
the necessary
component
parts.
marked impetus
in quantity,
to the
components such
as resistors
roughly as
initially
lit
many an
is
shown
in figure 3.1.
remember
some of
by
electric
lamp manufacturers
as the techniques
seemed
to disappear.
room
and,
when
the pungent smell of ebonite drilled at too high a speed although, with the introduction of the screen-
The
shown
in figure 3.2.
It
this
1920s) saw the birth of the components industry. Resistors were produced in large quantities and used as grid
leaks,
and
anode loads,
etc,
and consisted of carbon compositions of many kinds compressed into tubular containers
fitted
cardboard tubes, with bitumen or similar material sealing the ends. Bakelite enclosed stacked-mica capacitors,
fitted
with screw terminals and with the bottom of the case sealed with bitumen, were also in
common
use.
Rectangular metal-cased and plastic-cased types were also used. Electrolytic capacitors were mainly wet types
in tubular
in quantity in the
Germany
in
United Kingdom.
Figure 3.3 shows a front and rear view of the tuner and detector-amplifier circuits of a four-tube receiver
built in 1923.
all
to
at
were sometimes
way
home
for
component manufacture
As
the standard to
a?S3gEWT -~~|"S-T
Figure
BREADBOARD
EARLY
-1
^- ->
kJP^ b^l
0^)r
r -w
w-'
\1
V
V
V--
I
1
METAL CHASSIS
COMPLETE SCREENING
breadboard
to metal chassis.
Figure
made were
made wide
military,
&
Bumdept
Ltd).
equipment had
to be
The spread of
the
in
meant
that
operate in arctic conditions, and the North African desert war exposed equipment to excessive heat and rapid
at
sea and
was the
due
to the
component
parts.
Particularly
damaging
of plastics, grew fungus and swelled some moving parts, making them useless.
Directly due to
to
Standardization
Miniaturization
too
and
component
needed,
quick
replacement
by
Transport hazards
shocks and rough handling
Reliability
failures
Maintainability
costly
disastrous
often
transport
unskilled personnel
radios, etc
to
produce equipment
impact of
parachute
tanks and
components
equipment,
Storage long periods before
Low temperature use
conditions
conditions
High temperature use
Humidity use
conditions
High
landing, etc
shells,
ships affecting
in aircraft,
use,
particularly missiles
all
in arctic
in desert
in tropical
altitude
etc
radio
to
radiation resistance
to
major improvements
to
directly to the
Waxed
1939^5
war, resulted
developed. Improved control of the temperature coefficient of ceramic-dielectric capacitors was introduced by
manufacturers and
new
types were
made
Many
Work on
and sealed
in
metal cans,
sets.
in
reliability
of
commercial components.
After the war, around 1946, the printed circuit was beginning to be used in conjunction with sub-miniature
many experimental
tubes and
The
circuits
The physics of
in the 1940s,
modern
transistor,
when
it
was used
for
many
crystal detectors
was discovered
years until
until
some
such as germanium and silicon, contained mobile electrons and 'holes', so that a so-called p-n layer in the
crystal
were used
In
in the
1950s as
in
in the
rectifiers.
was termed
means of
Bell Labs
later
a third
then produced the diffused junction type of transistor, also in germanium, which replaced the point contact
transistor.
much
in that
is
the standard
material today.
Field effect transistors were introduced in
were known as
MOSTs
and
(Metal Oxide Silicon Transistors), having a simpler construction and being considerably
smaller.
The
transistor
came
into very
its
first
used in
its
which had
its
extremely small
a limited life
due
size.
In addition,
its
reliability
They
introduced into deaf aids and then into portable radio receivers; then into computers and were widely
all
of transistors,
all
made
in
which
is in
effect a large
number
later.
In the early 1950s, glass-dielectric capacitors, metal-film resistors, castellated metallized paper capacitors
About
first
this
to
time subminiature components for use in transistor circuits were being developed.
150-300
For the
at
which
designed for very small power dissipation. This size reduction progressed to the point where handling
difficulties
However, about
components such as
this time,
was
it
volume was
components led
Machines
or encapsulation techniques.
and thin-film
In the case of a
total.
ceramic-dielectric capacitor fitted into a ceramic case only l/225th of the actual working
volume of
resistors
volume was
effective
Attempts
effective.
to
circuits.
in the
components
boards were developed. Axial lead tubular resistors and capacitors were loaded into special feed containers and
machine
in the
their leads
quantities
were rarely
make
sufficient to
up
made by
was
power
Washington,
made and
in
equipment
transistorized
also used for computer information storage and retrieval about this time.
its
dip-soldering.
10000 boards
to
use of them.
full
USA, on 6 May
components was
first
in a solid
it
idea of integrating
at
Components
'With the advent of the transistor and the work in semiconductors generally,
The
may
to
consist of layers of
connected directly by
This proposal followed several years work on miniaturization of components done by the author's Division
at the
It
author 'solid circuits'. Figure 3.4 (taken in 1957) showed for the
In spite of attempts
circuit.
by
models were made and demonstrated for possible assemblies, termed by the
it
was not
until
first
electronics revolution.
Initially, digital circuits
were developed
circuits
The development of
MOSFETs
MOSFETs
Although
maximum
was extremely
as 'chips'
transistors, they
known
as a flipflop,
An op-amp
less
power.
which contained
channels and buried layers which were forerunners of later chip developments, leading to the
amplifier in 1964.
rapid.
In
first
In
isolation
operational
could not only add and subtract incoming signals, but could also average,
them
to
systems.
In 1970, the
in
first
Random Access Memory (RAM) was produced by Fairchild (the 256-bit RAM), followed
RAM by the new company INTEL. Also produced in the same year by INTEL, was the
(the 8008). An Intel Pentium microprocessor of 1992 is illustrated in figure 3.5. Progress
first
microprocessor
in chip
About
In 1981,
RAM.
cm wide
this time,
IBM
in
and 0.5
first
1976, the
cm
4096-bit
first
RAM
in 1976, the
16 384-bit
RAM
long.
chips were being built into personal computers and, in 1977, the
In 1987, the
'PC
and, in 1984,
MS-DOS became
In 1978, the
IBM
APPLE
2 was introduced.
bit
CRAY Y-MP
Supercomputers,
Present methods of chip assembly include plastic and ceramic sealing and the chips are mounted on printed
circuit
in shape, e.g.
DIL
12
SOLID
INSULATOR
CIRCUITS
CONDUCTOR
DIELECTRIC
RESISTOR
BASE
The model
sjoci.ted
component, deposited on lu
,.
semi conductor
to
rail)
the
uU
fp6
Hs
Hhrwv
W> ]'
ACTUAL
imiC
An
Intel
Ti
f
J-rHh
'
Uo
SIZE
Figure
Figure 3.5.
The
20
30
model shown
40
SO
in 1957.
60
70
&
metal
MCMs
bumps
(Multi-chip Modules),
TAB
all
is
now
VHSIC
13
assemblies use
VLSI
whilst electron
beam
technologies are used to obtain the very high definition and accuracy required for these
assemblies.
Close packing brings problems of overheating of individual LSI chips and miniature fans are
sometimes necessary.
A cross-section
Aluminum
N-
shown
figure 3.7.
Si02 passivation
bonding pads
N+
is
is illustrated in
(emitter)
(base)
type substrate
(collector)
Over
the years
CMOS
technology, although
VHSICs, due
still
circuit
of 1991
technology has become the primary technology for fabricating ICs, whilst bipolar
used, has
become
ASICs (Application
can be used
MHz
at
much
like
RF
MHz
circuits
in
1995.
Digital
is
being reduced due to both the physical limitations of materials used to manufacture
ICs and the high levels of integration being achieved. The smaller geometries required for state-of-the-art ICs
(i.e.
storage 64
Gb DRAM)
require lower
power supply
and metallization thickness and the transistor breakdown characteristics. The portable personal computer and
cellular radios are driving the trend towards reduced operating voltage,
from 5
now,
14
and eventually to
However,
1.5
as the voltage
is
Adding
package
to the
become more
(or pins).
life
is
in pin
number of
shown
pin counts of
900
in figure 3.8.
Larger package sizes (measured by the number of leads) are required to accommodate large die
to
1000
will
is
in
is
in the pin
count illustrated
of application specific integrated circuits (ASICs) which are input/output (I/O) intensive (versus
sizes, especially
shown
be
The
size reduction of
DRAM
cells
over the
in figure 3.9.
MCM's
1500
1500
(multi-chip modules)
1200
1
900
Flat
600
200
900
pack
600
Pin grid
300
Circular
200
TQ5
'Si
-^
300
^A
1965
1960
1970
Figure
Generation
4M
1M
2000
1990
1980
1G
256M
64M
16M
0.13/ifTl
Cell Area
Vcc
3011m
35um
IQjim*
2
1
(Cell)
STC
II
(thick electrode)
FIN type
0.2ujt)
0.5(im^
3|im
3.3V
2.5V
J
planer
stacked-cap.
in
trench type
ED
Figure
3.9.
Trends of
DRAM
cells
number of
Over
the period
used to the
transistor,
full,
began
advances
in
to several millions.
up
Eiji
at their
peak
in the
Similarly, potted circuits and automatic assembly technologies had peak periods
We
are
now
microelectronic devices of
The
active
history of
components
at
all
the stage
where TV,
Internet,
of integrated circuits
in the
VHSIC
in the history
of electronics.
The growth of
It
is
estimated
that,
1995, world
in
semiconductor sales were of the order of 150 billion dollars, thus becoming one of the world's largest
manufacturing industries.
The
The
of microprocessors and minicomputers using VLSI are becoming wider and wider and
this will
home and business life for everyone in the 1990s and beyond.
A summary of developments in components is given in 'History on
and
'Passive
2, 'Tubes, Transistors,
a Page', charts
Circuits'.
2:
applications
affect both
Date Chart
1,
16
History on a page
Passive Components
1.
1740
Ins.
Polythene
ins.
CAPACITORS FIXED
(1933)
Leydenjar (1745)
PTFEins. (1938)
Mica
-1760
capacitors
Paper capacitors
874)
876)
904)
INDUCTORS
Iron dust
magnets (1772)
1780
Solenoid (1825)
Ferrites (1909)
Ferrocart (1932)
Ferroxcube (1955)
YIG
(1956)
1800
BATTERIES
Volta'spile (1800)
Accumulator (1803)
MAGNETIC TAPES
Mercury
Moving
(1954)
cell
Videotape (1958)
(1828)
Astatic (1828)
TRANSFORMERS
(1957)
Invention (1831)
Distribution (1885)
batts.
coil
Lithium
Electromag. (1820)
Nickel-cad (1900)
batt.
GALVOS
Nickel-iron (1900)
Solar
1820-
(1973)
Aluminium-air (1986)
-1840-
RELAYS
Power Tx (1885)
Telegraph (1837)
Pulse (1942)
Electrical (1840)
Strowger (1900)
PO 3000 type
RF single
Polarised (1910)
(1900)
RESISTORS
Thermistor (1850)
1860
Sealed (1940)
Ferreed (1950)
MICROPHONES
LOUD SPEAKERS
1880
Earphones (1877)
Electromagnetic (1877)
Moving
VARIOMETERS
Ayrton-Perry (1886)
SWITCHES
1900
WAVEGUIDES
Theory (1893)
(1877)
Stereo (1930's)
~~
coil
Electrostatic (1925)
Construction (1936)
I
CAPACITORS VARIABLE
Marconi (1906)
INSULATORS
-1920-
Trimmer (1920)
Gauged capacitor
METAL RECTIFIERS
(1920's)
orig.
Germanium (1952)
Silicon (1955)
817
History on a page
2.
and Integrated
Circuits
1900
TUBES
TRANSISTORS
Two electrode
u 1910
(1904)
MOS
Split
Pentode (1928)
Ge junction
transistor (1951)
-1920
Beam
Si junction transistor
Klystron (1939)
(1954)
tetrode (1936)
MESA transistor
Travelling-wave (1943)
JFET
(1956)
(1956)
Carcinotron (1952)
1930
MASER
New
(1953)
vistor (1956)
CATtriode (1974)
1940
DIODES
Junction diode (1941)
1950
LED
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
Thryistor (1965)
-I960
Patent (1959)
RTL
TTL
(1961)
VP epitaxy
(1961)
LP epitaxy
MOS
(1962)
(1968)
LSI (1970)
VMOS
HMOS
VHSIC
(1972)
(1977)
(1979)
VLSI (1980)
ASICs (1989)
ULSI (1994)
MCM's
(1994)
(1963)
IMPATTdiode (1964)
Concept (1952)
CMOS
(1960)
GUNN diode
(1960)
(1961)
Si on sapphire (1963)
Coll. diff. iso. (1969)
X-ray
litho (1970)
Electron-beam fab. (1974)
-1970
0.35U. (1994)
0.25u (1995)
0.1 u (Bell) (1996)
1980
-1990
TRAPATT diode
BARR ATT diode
LCD
(1971)
(1967)
(1968)
17
Chapter 4
basic electrical sound system needs a transducer (a microphone) to convert the sound into an electrical
waveform, a means
The
earliest
for transmission
microphones consisted of
a stretched flat
membrane
Later microphones
electric currents.
replaced the single loose metal contacts by carbon ones (Edison, 1877) and by carbon granules (Hunnings, 1878).
The
intelligible
first
in front
The microphone he
wound on
it,
thus
inducing an electric current which varied in sympathy with the voice sounds. This current was sent over a pair
other end.
at the
An
He wrapped
it,
making many
before
it
later,
About
first
'Mary had
shown
in figure 4.1.
little
diaphragm
On
lamb'.
first flat-disc
in contact with
shellac copies.
it
is
in 1877,
The
could be exploited.
electrostatic
it
was before
its
this
Germany
commercial acceptance.
In 1924, Chester
Rice and Edward Kellog, both of General Electric, registered a patent for a voice coil
known
as the Radiola
a built-in amplifier
in 1925.
field.
The speaker,
in 1925.
a very fine
aluminium ribbon
USA
out in the
in the
1920's.
about 1958.
in
to a
first
was opened
first
in
New
Haven, Connecticut,
in pairs, the
in
In
first
other telephone and, in 1919, the improved crossbar selector system was developed in Sweden.
first
made by
Bell
In 1952, the
fully
automatic
the world
there are
million telephones in
service.
In
found
past
that
it,
the wire
was magnetized
revived
when tube
to twist
18
Denmark
tape broke
in
magnetic recording.
He
by feeding the current from a microphone through an electromagnet and drawing a piano wire rapidly
it
was
amplifiers
became
fiat
difficult to join,
available and spools of thinner wire were used; but thin wire
was inclined
and
Farben and
AEG
in
when
the
A Concise
Figure
An
4.1.
Science
Museum/ Science
in the
&
Cassettes,
a lacquer.
much improved
19
form of
56 cm/s (22
at
at
1.875
in./s.
to the use of
which are now much more popular than open-reel tapes because of
due
their
at
etc.,).
mostly for dictation purposes rather than music. Video recorder tapes can record up to 18 octaves of frequency
for colour television, as against 9 octaves for
Berliner's shellac
rpm
the 78
The
gramophone
first
sound recording
was reduced
to
accompany
was produced
disc-recording machine called Vitaphone was synchronized to the film and the
in
at
in
first
this
system by
using a sound-on-film system in which the synchronism was automatic, using a variable-intensity light source
to record the
the early
In
in
the
in
modern cinemas.
of
EMI
in
Britain,
developed stereophonic disc recording systems quite independently. These gave directional and much improved
special
war.
a
effects,
Surprisingly, the
first
He
installed pairs of
microphones
in the Paris
20
by telephone
lines to pairs of
in the
when
was reproduced
in
of stereophonic
hi-fi.
Washington with
more
known
units of different
band
each
into
cone
size, the
network to
filter
unit.
It is
i.e.
of loudspeakers and the relationship between the loudspeaker and the acoustics of the listening room.
improvements
in
With
significance.
and electronic musical instruments have been evolved over a period of many decades. The major
Electrical
been devoted to the electronic organ, but other instruments, such as electronic
development
in this field
in the creation
is
the synthesizer.
with regard to harmonic content, envelope shape, repetition rate and random noise characteristics. Musical and
other sound sequences can be built up and controlled from a small keyboard.
The
BBC
Radiophonic Workshop
uses synthesizers and other techniques, and a well-known example of radiophonic music created by them
is
the
Who'.
'Dr.
Electronic organs consist of a series of electrical tone generators controlled by keyboard(s) and stops fed to
amplifiers and loudspeakers.
and marketed
An
early
Hammond
in 1935.
many
The
best
of these simulate remarkably well the subtle sounds of a good traditional pipe organ, but the largest sales are of
smaller instruments aimed mainly
tonalities, often
'rhythm box'
popular music
at the
As
field.
of cinema-organ character, these organs usually also provide various percussive effects, and
is
at
skill.
In
it
from an
3.6
by a
bits/s
to
to
converter which
This
is
required.
at
is
As
this
done by
modern computer
cannot be
MODEM
a
modem
VOCODERS
Green,
H C
machine
aware of the assumptions made. This produces the Dalek-like speech which
speech-analysis devices and speaking machines,
is
A Kopp
and
is
in turn leads to
Speech synthesis
first
MODEM
Is.
is
by making assumptions about the speech waveform, speech, synthesis. This can be converted back
just recognizable.
far
bandwidth
less
converter
0s and
INTERNET.
form
in binary
is
bits/s
to recognise ten
numbers was
built
in
is
synthetic speech.
i.e.
Potter,
by Bell Labs
is
in the
used
in
USA. Speech
synthesis,
which possesses
games.
An
early application
was
the
Army
10
multichannel transmitter and receiver which used digital techniques and was designed in 1942 and introduced
in
1944.
In the
was not
and
TV
doing
this is called
waveform by
Is,
D/A
converter.
the
BBC's
'Pulse
BBC
centre
bits,
i.e.
at
0s and
frequent intervals,
Is.
The apparatus
large
was
is
bandwidth
far
is
lower than
Is is
A Concise
example, programmes can be sent from London
quality.
to
These techniques are now being used for sound recording, the
digital bits
21
in
tape recorder or on video discs. There are several disc systems, the latest one using a laser spot focused on a
reflective track,
disc.
Digital
Compact
and background noise level than could be achieved by analogue methods. In addition, the sound reproduced
unaffected by dust, scratches and fingerprints on the record.
Diameter,
20
system
50
15
mm
mm
is
in figure 4.2.
-33 mm-*'
Lead-In
2
signal,
mm
Lead-out
__
signal. 0.5
Signal
surface
Clamping
area, 3.5
mm
tzsmrt^
beam
shown
Signal area
protective
Laser
is
mm
Plastic
film
CD
The
mm
Transparent
layer
Grating plate
Polarization beamsplitter
Spot lens
Detector
CD
(compact disc) system (courtesy IEEE Spectrum, March 1984, and Senri Miyooka, Sony
Corporation).
Conventional digital audio, as used for instance on compact discs, requires a large bandwidth for transmission
Over
in
in the
source signal.
reproduction
is
now
the digital
A summary
CD
in
improved and
1983.
In addition to
of audio development
is
3.
home
use, a
22
History on a page
Audio and Sound Reproduction
3.
1760
1780
Speech synthesis
Kratzenstein (1779)
1800
Magnetic recording
-1820
1830
Videotape (1958)
Cassette tape (1963)
-1840
1850
1860
-1870
Telephone (1876)
1880 Electomagnetic
loud speaker (1877)
LS (1877)
1890 Electrostatic LS (1925)
Moving
coil
LS (1957)
1900
Telephone exchange
878)
( 1
892
Metering (1923)
Vocoder (1936)
Pulse code mod. (1937)
MODEM
1910
(1950's)
ASDIC
1920
(1915)
SONAR
Hammond organ
Moog synthesizer
(1915)
(1935)
( 1964)
STD(UK)
PCM
(1958)
digital
audio (1967)
1930
1940
Hi-Fi (1950's)
Quadraphonic sound
Sound-on-film (1927)
(
97
1950
Transistorized hearing aid (1951
-1960
DOLBY
-1980
Compact
disc (1978)
WORM
(1980)
Digital
DVD
CD
H970
(1982)
(1980)
-1990
(1995)
2000
DAB
(digital
Chapter 5
At the end of the nineteenth century, the electron had been discovered and a great deal of experimental work
transfer of
Many
man-made
electrical
for this
fields together to
velocity,
which he showed
waves experimentally
the distance over
in
to
be the velocity of
light.
instance of the
first
to consider
In
finite
He
filled
first
with metal
filings,
It
who
Leyden
theories
tube
with a spark gap were found to be reproduced in nearby metal objects. This was the
fitted
to transmit telegraphy
It is
in the vicinity,
was
the
first
to
in Hertz's
in
He
induction coil and Branley coherer, and succeeded in sending telegraph messages over a short distance.
travelled to Britain in 1896 to exploit his discoveries with
Telegraph Service, and Marconi demonstrated his apparatus to the Post Office
officials
Government
metres.
until
Marconi patented
in
1897
to acquire
some
his invention in
set
first
this
receivers.
Other
this time,
Marconi continued
to
improve
his
He
in linking
in
and shore.
To explain why
radio
and Kenelly
in
was
in 1901
in the
earth,
Heaviside
in
England
layer.
Spark transmitters were almost universal for radio telegraphy, but they were improved when rotary discharger
sets
Kw
10
to give
KHz
more
transmitter
alternator,
power and
to radiate
in
experiments with
wireless telephony and in 1904, Alexanderson designed an alternator operating at a frequency of 100
KHz
(see
figure 5.1).
23
24
Figure
5.1.
The Alexanderson
&
Museum/ Science
Atmospherics were a great enemy. Larger and larger powers were introduced, such as
operating in 1911 and
summoned by
as,
Poldhu
in
Cornwall,
TITANIC
lost,
at
ships
wireless.
major change
in
electrode tube in quantity, which ultimately resulted in the ending of the spark transmitter era.
By
1919,
high-power transmitter tubes were being made and the Marconi Company spanned the Atlantic by telephony
in daylight.
The superheterodyne
was
field oscillator
in
Attempts
to
make
oscillators at
in the
United
Kingdom
in
in
much
Germany
1922.
higher
in
1919
Crystal control
of frequency was introduced and the screened grid tube and the pentode improved the performance of radio
receivers,
ammonia and
finally the
in the 1920s.
quartz crystal
itself,
intially
developed
in
1939.
The advent of
as the
R1155
National
HRO
the
for the
of the
FM
The
first
Post-war developments benefited from the research which had been done on
receivers and
interest
band 400
hi-fi
amplifiers
500
MHz
became
available.
in operation in 1951.
were found
to
communicate with
a radio
Figure
may
5.2.
Base Station
to other mobiles.
The
Museum/ Science
radio Base
is
&
25
Headquarters by land-line.
was developed
Cellular radio
to
provide access for mobiles into and out of the public network by direct
number of 'mobile'
sites.
transmit and receive Base Station sites, each covering a small area or
large
group of
cells as a
honeycomb). The
cell sites
'cell',
(usually
drawn
as a
hexagon and
to the Public
Switched
Kingdom,
in
1985
with two rival licenced organisations, which adopted the names Vodafone and Cellnet.
pan-European, 900
known
as the 'Global
MHz
System
cellular
for
is
technical problems experienced with current cellular systems and offer other advantages.
VLA
Hand
held
portable
Visitor location
register
Aerial
KAvr
MbO
BSC
Base-tranceiver
system
Subscriber-interface
/Telephony (PSTN)
Data & mobile
Networks
Base
station
controller
module
HLR
Mobile switching
mobile vechicle
Figure
5.3.
centre
GSM
Home
now
many of
location
register
the
26
power supplies
its
Regency
transistor set
Printed circuits were widely used with ferrite rod aerials in portable receivers.
introduced in America.
was
In
1957, the Russian Sputnik satellite was launched and carried a 1-watt transmitter, becoming the forerunner of
modern
satellite
USA
launched
communication
for 13 days.
and
TV
EXPLORER
TELSTAR-1
countries, enabling
Bird',
is
Figure
Hughes
shown
5.4.
first
was incorporated
in
high-performance microwave
satellite,
active repeater
communication
satellite
belt.
Also
sets.
COURIER- IB was
in 1962.
TV
The
signals to be achieved.
Intelstat
I,
known
many
as 'Early
in figure 5.4.
Intelstat
I,
known
Aircraft).
Inmarsat
is
worldwide coverage
for private
now
more
techniques and
great reliability.
now
in
It
being used in radio receivers, commencing in the early 1960s, with circuit
etc, are
ECHO-1 was
followed by
in
satellite
In 1960,
MASERS,
many
resistors
in
and capacitors.
modern radio
Improvements
in
circuit
LSI (Large Scale Integration), VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration), microprocessor devices,
used
in radio
systems.
27
Avionics
communication
Spread-spectrum
communications.
techniques
spread-spectrum system
increasingly
are
one
is
frequency band.
being
used,
particularly
in
e.g.
is
for
satellite
digital direct
hopping (which can also be 'time-hopping' or 'time-frequency hopping'), and chirp or frequency sweeping.
improved resistance
High-speed
by
fastest
may be
There
also
is
digital
now
microprocessor based control systems such as high-frequency video, radar signal processors,
The
is
to interference.
method
is
known
where
etc.
minimum
The use of
paths
is
digital data
systems
in
increasing rapidly, often because of the improved bandwidth/information rate that can be achieved
flexibility that
rate.
Digital
is
European
broadcasters and consumer electronics industries and their research institutes to provide a reliable, multi-service
digital
sound broadcasting system for reception by mobile, portable and fixed receivers, using
a simple rod
aerial.
strict
OCIR
governing the use of radio transmission from a few KHz. to tens of GHz. Developments
are
summarised
5.1
Avionics
The
first
in
Date Chart
use of avionics
4:
in aircraft
the
morse
letters 'A'
aircraft to fly
down
first
in radio
communication
'History on a Page'.
by selecting the
When
short
wave
radio
became
beam by keeping
the
by Marconi as
far
aerials right
and
left
of the
becoming
the
5.5.)
Aircraft track
Runway
Figure
5.5.
path.
During the 1939-45 war, interlocking morse signals using a series of dots and dashes was used as a beam
navigation system by Germany,
developed.
USA
known
known
as
GEE
to
350
miles.
The
developed a similar system under the name 'LORAN'. This was followed by a United Kingdom precision
navigation system
the ground
known
as
fitted in
on
a dots
aircraft,
known
as
the
UK
for accurate
A Concise
28
bombing
and Avionics
raids.
After the war, intercontinental flying increased considerably and more aircraft were needed.
were
built, the
need for
a control centre.
In addition to the
Measuring Equipment
to
112
5090.0
MHz,
MHz.
The
all
VHF
small airports,
whilst the
Ohni-range (VOR)
(DME)
As more
aircraft
is
in direct radio
all aircraft
communication with
to
the
movements.
in
a frequency
band of 5031.0
MHz
to
increase in aircraft production has been phenomenal and the variety of aircraft has expanded to cover
forms of
flying.
The use of
electronics has
control
main radar system a secondary surveillance radar (SSR) was also used
On
and
become
essential as the
modern aeroplane
all
controlled and
Figure
In addition,
now
navigation
is
5.6).
5.6.
Modern
new
field
of sophisticated
electronic systems, e.g. surveillance airborne radar, including sideways looking and synthetic aperature radars,
terrain
following radar,
fire
imaging systems, jamming countermeasures against heat-seeking or radar controlled missiles, electronic head-
up display
in
by microprocessors.
in a
modern warplane
An
is
in
shown
in figure 5.7.
and supporting
Avionics
29
OAT*
TRANSFER
SETS
12)
SENSOR
EOtMPMENT
L^l
MOOtFIED
Figure 5.7. Offensive and supporting elements of defensive avionics systems. (Reprinted with permission from
Jane's Avionics 1995/96, published by Jane's Information Group.)
A Concise
30
History on a page
4.
rl820
Telegraph (1823)
1830
SYSTEMS
1850
1860
Radiobroadcasting (1906)
Single sideband (1915)
Medium-wave
broadcasting (1920)
1870
-1890-
1900
First
army
use:
-1910
Direst digital
International
CIRCUITS
synthesiser (1980)
regulations
ELF radio
Neutrodyne
broadcasting (1922)
Autoplex (1925)
Diversity reception (1928)
Pulse code modulation (1930)
Troposcatter (1933)
Coherer (1890)
Frequency modulation (1933)
Electrolytic
detector (1903)
Microwave radio relay (1943)
Crystal detector (1906) Mobile radios (1950)
Waveguides (1936)
Radio paging (1956)
Optical fibres (1966)
Meteor scatter (1957)
Packet switching (1964)
(1912)
1920
Digital audio
Berlin (1906)
(1918)
Superregenerative circuit (1922)
Auto, volume control (1926)
Neg. feedback amplifier (1927)
Pulse circuits (1940)
Synch (1945)
Phase locked loops (1950)
Parametric amplifier (1950)
Bus control (1955)
Linear integrated circuits (1960)
broadcasting
1995)
circuit
FREQUENCY
-1930
STANDARDS
Quartz (1928)
Atomic (1934)
Caesium and
Nyquist
Sampling tech noise
levels
1928)
-1940
First
-1950
Frequency
Shannon (1948)
synthesiser (1943)
(Information theory)
MOSICs (1962)
C-MOSICs (1968)
-1960
Uncommitted
DS
(DSP)
-1970
1994)
SATELLITES
Sputnik
(1957)
Explorer
SCORE
Echo
CELLULAR SYSTEMS
1990
Rabbit (1989)
Courier IB (1960)
Transit IB (I960)
Telstar (1962)
Syncom3
(1964)
lntelstar
(1965)
known
Skynet
as Early Bird)
(1969)
Marecs
(1981)
Immarsat
(1981)
1
Eutelsat (1983)
LEO Satellites
(Low
(1997)
earth orbit)
Vodaphone (1984)
Mercury (1984)
Cellnet (1984)
-2000
(also
(1958)
(1960)
1980
(1958)
GSM
(1992)
(Global system for mobile
communications)
Orange (1992)
PCN
(1994)
(Personal communications
network)
Chapter 6
Between
were affected by
was noticed
it
when measuring
aircraft flying
the United
Kingdom
this effect,
although Briet and Tuve used a pulse technique for their measurements. During the following ten
work on
years, experimental
in
developed the
Kingdom.
1.5
Watson-Watt suggested
Sir Robert
first
summer of
for
more accurate
both noticed
a serious
of research
lines
1935.
some of which
USA,
in the
make
back by
reflected
is
was done
sea by radio
By measuring
in its path.
at
and of vessels
USA,
1924, and Briet and Tuve, in 1925, doing similar experiments in the
in
around
10
cm
time
for pencil
beams
first
practical radar
due
working
to the close
liaison
system
in the
in the
series of
6-15
band.
CH
The
750
kW
had a
DF
system
wooden
CH
towers.
to give
aircraft
mounted on metal
The
Home)
In
covered the East Coast and, by 1940, the whole of the East and South Coasts were covered against
flying at 15,000 feet out to a range of 120/140 miles.
was
radar
(Chain
kW
later
receiving aerials
approximate bearing. The complete co-operation between the scientists and the RAF,
ensured that fighter aircraft were able to be alerted with time to intercept enemy bombers, enabling the 'Battle
won
of Britain' to be
in 1940.
Low-flying enemy
was
set
Figure
up
6.
in 1939,
1
mines on these
aircraft
known
as
CHL
(Chain
m CH
Home
aerial
The
plots.
1.5
beam was
first
in the
directional and
Humber
tracked by
its
in 1940.
The
posing a problem, and directing the fighter towards a bomber became a possibility with
was known
as
GCI (Ground
long afterglow
CRT
In 1936, a start
fitted in
a fully
an
Anson
developed
Also
in
series of
AI
was used
ASV
1937, the
sets
then swept
GCI
station
night
this
bomber was
equipment. This
was able
fighter pilot
to see the
by radio.
aircraft
.5
Low).
in
Coastal
AI (Air Interception)
at a
1.5
m ASV
Command.
This was the
1.5
first
of a
C W,
by
Randall and
HAH
31
32
Figure
Boot
in 1940,
in radar
6.1.
both AI and
development.
Up
CHL
ASV
tracks of low-flying
later
became
to the discovery
enemy mine-laying
in the
Humber.
of high-frequency power. Using the same resonator principle, Randall and Boot developed the
to
in short pulses at a
first
magnetron
wavelength of
around 10 cm.
Figure
6.2.
The
With a small
pilot
original cavity
reflector, a pencil
&
enemy
aircraft.
Two methods
A Concise
and a
As an experiment,
spiral scan.
RAF's most
It
was
needed
to
Halifax
this, a
It
bombing
bomber was
the
fitted
planes.
a recognisable picture of
It
became
the
aid.
some form of
realized soon after the development of the early radar system that
avoid shooting
33
was
identification
identification Friend or
Foe', which automatically responded to small transmitted signals and returned a stronger coded signal on the
the invention of
GEE
By
The
one a master
GEE
map marked
fitted
Germany
in
for night
activate
two slave
on which the
in
The
first
GEE
navigation on 30
May
modified system (GEE/H) used two stations only and the aircraft transmitted to both. The signals were
aircraft to fly
far,
(shown
was recorded.
with the hyperbolic curve lines, the navigator could find his
transmitted back with different delay times according to the aircraft's position.
marker
which could
station
were
town
target
1942.
(Grid Navigation) by
so that following
along a
beam
was used
it
transmitter
that
was
If
heard.
their
to
were accurate
raids
from
to within
a height of
30 000
bombs.
It
6.3.
feet, at a
Grid pattern of
if
too
bomb aimer
exactly
when
to release the
150 yards.
Figure
still
bomb. Bombing
GEE
navigational system.
34
Many
bombing
a large
made by Germany
attempts were
jam or render
to
foil strips
raid.
scattered
This was
first
from
British.
dropped
in
was modified
set
to imitate the
One was
raids and,
'WINDOW
which
with the invasion of France in conjunction with a further deception device called
IFF
bombing
in turn,
It
'MOONSHINE',
aircraft, instead
in
in
1944
which an
were also many deceptions towards the end of the war as radar equipment became more sophisticated.
RAF, and
After the war surface-to-air guided missiles were developed such as 'Bloodhound' for the
Army and
such as
TV
carrying infra-red
USA,
the
UK, and
digital
Many
RAF, some
first
Video
integrators, displays
is
information collected by modern search radars. Digital computers are widely used and with an electronically
beam
scanning,
parts.
rapid
shaping, step scanning, so that radar aerials of this type can obtain multiple target capability
USA,
MMIC's
multichip
at
Ka band
band, have been developed and are being extended to millimetre wave
(35
GHz).
So
far the
parallel
in the
Army Radar
6.1
targets, the
AA
CD
the
first
radar set
GL1
The Army's
first
by information from
set
use of radar
1 )
1938/39 was
in
when
the target
which two
in
cabins were used, one containing the transmitter and one the receiver; the receiver cabin rotating to obtain the
bearing.
GL1
provided elevation by adding two more vertically displayed antennas and an extra display.
V2s under
the code
name BIG
BEN
(CMH Mark
was designed
1)
capability of a
although
tests
CH
was
on the early
all
and was
built-in
later
GL2
also used.
GL3
aircraft
beyond the
CHL.
(some mounted
directly
AA
first
The
guns.
Laboratory, MIT, in
on
to a
90
to
and,
VT
into a shell.
fit
when within
in the
UK,
in
ultimately shot
was proposed by
S Butement
in the
a certain range,
exploded the
shell.
The
shells
75%
down by
AA
guns using
VT
were manufactured
of the
German
in the
Vl's approaching
With
cm
a 3
same way
pencil
terrain.
in
which
out.
its
Another type of
beam could
search.
field
fitted
London were
fuses.
be carried
United Kingdom,
small radio transmitter and receiver inside the shell measured reflections from the target
army radar
set
In the
could locate
to differentiate
to
fire
correction to
be detected
in
any zone
Naval Radar
35
moving echoes.
After the war, target-tracking radars for
radar
was developed
AA
called 'Blue
AA
Mortar locators were developed about one year before D-day, the
a rapid
azimuth
Army
for the
AA
L70
guns. Other
and
fire
guns.
back
which produced
at a
search and tracking radars were developed and put into service with the
control of
For
in accuracy.
a 'Foster' scanner,
so that
it
first
could be attacked.
To
known
one-man
RAPIER was
fire-control
trailer that
could
6.2
Naval Radar
Before the advent of radar, the Navy had to rely on good weather and high-power telescopes to detect enemy
planes and ships. This gave reasonable co-ordinates, but range was difficult to estimate, errors of 1000 to 2000
yards being
common
at
were
and
aerials
allowed ranges up
to
HMS
King George
cruisers.
aircraft.
and
fitted in battleships
Type 284
pom-poms
attacks.
radar.
It
was added
radar
with a
fitted
For surface
was
fire
on the
fitted
By
50
cm
HMS
About
this time, a
10
cm
set
fitted in
to
guns
at night.
could provide tracking in bearing of ships and aircraft with an accuracy of about 1/2.
was used
in a
10
cm
co-ordinates before
Bofors guns.
it
set, a special
CVD
cm
to pick
first
up
was provided
Development)
SEACAT
and
by
in all three
it
and
in a
is
tubes manufactured
low-angle
SEASLUG
all
Portsmouth
at
to the
Navy
three services.
controlled manually or by
TV
radar.
silica
all
track
to provide
initially
(Committee
was developed
display
and the
was designed
gunnery
It
aircraft.
This technique
Conical scanning
6.3
Civil
its
own
POLARIS
inertial
first-stage
guidance system.
motor
fires
only as
it
It
is
'shot'
from
its
POLARIS
launch tube by a
Maritime Systems
GHz
range or in the 3
movement of
all
GHz
range with a
Harbour surveillance
is
CRT
also
A Concise
36
Civil Aviation
6.4
Since the war, development of radar systems had also been applied to
airfield control
(ACR),
civil aviation
movement
both long-range and terminal areas surveillance (TMA). Airborne cloud and collision-warning radars were also
developed.
In addition, the
SSR
as
is
connotation for the civil system. This enables each aircraft to be identified.
Navigational Aids
6.5
Radio aids to navigation have progressed from early direction finding (D/F) and goniometer systems
NAVSAT.
OBOE,
CW
but using
in
to satellite
Germany used
from
navigation depends on a stable platform and high-grade gyroscopes in order to measure acceleration
known
starting point.
From an
navigational system
The
first
in 1941,
The
The
DECCA
LORAN A system
LORAN C operated on
early
later
OMEGA
is
based on
positional system
LORAN
was
VLF
CW
in
1942.
The
GEE
first
on
invented
commercial
introduced in 1946.
MHz, and
late)
of each pulse. The system has recently been enlarged. Satellite navigation (Global Positioning Systems (GPS))
are
6.6
now
in use.
Meteorological Radar
of 7 miles by a 10
cm
first
when
a rain
to a distance
6.7
Angels
6.8
no obvious
at
wavelengths of 20
6.9
MHz
known
between 200
to
MHz
Radar Astronomy
Radars
Satellite Surveillance
cm
were present.
1946.
In
trails
were observed
in the early
at its
moon
from
Radar Astronomy
37
History on a page
5.
Radar
1920
Appleton
&
1925
Barnett
Briet
& Tuve
Pulse measurements
925)
1930
-r955I
GROUND RADARS
UK Air Force
CH (Chain home)
CHL (Chain home
UK
IFF (1935)
(1935)
low) (1939)
1940
-]
Radar
astronomy
Met. radar
UK Air Force
ASV
Window
UK Army
-1945
SLC
GL3
Moonshine
demonstrated
(1942) used
(1944)
cm
-1950
-1955
system) (1942)
BABS
1942)
(1942)
warning system
UK Navy
(
1967)
-I960
(1959)
Type 27
Type 273
Type 284
Type 262
1
ground environment)
1970
(Airborne radar)
1975
1980
1985
1990
1941
-1965
OBOE (Navigation
SLR
(1943)
system) (1941)
Cloud and
SAGE (Semi-automatic
GEE/H
(Beacon system)
USA
SCR 584 (Gun laying)
SCR 16 (Surveillance)
GEE (Navigation
REBECCA/EUREKA
(1942)
A Concise
38
Radar Imaging
6.10
Known now
it
is
waves
The technique
is
to
now
being used to penetrate ground to some depth to discover buried objects. Interferometric techniques are being
of early settlements.
It
is
used
in archaeological studies
has been used to detect buried metallic mines, as well as for measuring
radar images of the internal structure of materials, enabling a wider field of applications to be developed for
the future.
all,
developments
in radar
first
in
Sonar
6.11
Prior to the
first
world war, hydrophones were used for the detection of submarines. They consisted of normal
microphones insulated from the water. Because of ship noise, they were often towed behind the
ship.
SONAR
(Sound Navigation and Ranging) was originally known as Asdics (Anti-Submarine Detection) during the 1914/18
The word
war.
SONAR
In the period
was invented by F
was 14
later
to
26
in 1942.
between the two world wars, the Royal Navy had an operational asdic system with a quartz
KHz
to a
an
using a 15 inch quartz steel transducer. Initially the transducer was rotated manually, but
typical
World War
II
is
shown
in figure 6.4.
Opanton
Hul
Figure
in
Many
6.4. Typical
use
at the
technical
World War
II
Asdic
unit injujfflng
winch
installation.
11:
Sonar
(shown
i.e.
was
in figure 6.4)
the
first
attempt
at
39
in 5 steps.
1919 the average echo range was about 500 yards (457
War and
);
it
km)
defence placed on the sea bed and connected by cable to the receiving gear on the shore to give warning of
submarine attacks.
Willem Hackman, of the Museum of History and Science, Oxford University and
London, on whose book 'Seek and
HMSO
summary
Strike,
is
SONAR,
all
Museum,
Navy 1914/1954',
the Science
ability to hide in a
away
the
effective'.
Since the war Synthetic Aperture radar has been developed by the
floor with greatly
improved
detail.
The technique
US Navy
to
moving
the array
through the water and then combining the data from several snapshots taken from different positions. Whilst
still
experimental,
it
can pick out features measuring 90 cms from a range of up to 400 metres.
Chapter 7
The
heart of
up
are built
and
all
modern
in colour.
development
its
television receivers
It is
by Ferdinand Braun
into an oscilloscope
The
in
is
A A
Although
and reception,
it
was
in 1927.
was
By
Philip
by
William Crookes
Sir
camera tube
in 1919.
developed
first
was
established.
The
BBC
down
a practical
USA, under
name
the
EMI
regular high-definition (405 line) television service in 1936 using a system developed by
1878
in
in
it
first
(Electrical
was resumed,
&
in black
The
principle on
sweeps, whilst
at the
The beam
is
that a
beam of
it
when one
'frame' or
start the
next frame.
is
'field'
The
horizontal sweeps are slower than the corresponding fly-back strokes and are synchronized with the incoming
picture signals to produce light and dark shades and therefore build
are
made
invisible
625 horizontal
lines
and
in
up
a picture.
The
is
built
up with
order to save bandwidth, normally several Mhz, but give acceptably low flicker,
The
The
television receiver itself has signal circuits to amplify and detect the
aerial in order to
in the tube.
sound channel and synchronizing pulses for triggering the horizontal and
The
vertical directions is
provided by
time bases, triggered by the synchronizing pulses, which generate currents in the picture tube yoke coils to
deflect the
The
for
it
NTSC
to
beam of
first
electronics.
was transmitted
1951 in the
in
USA, and
it
was necessary
be compatible with black and white television. The colour system adopted was that specified by the
(National Television System Committee). In Europe, two systems were adopted in 1956; the
SECAM
(Sequential and
Memory). These
now used
PAL
(Phase
throughout the
An approximately
spectrum of
equal mixture of
in
is
terms of
known
its
red,
as chrominance.
required
all
The
Any
level of brightness
light.
saturation information
light
filters.
The
is
is
known
to be transmitted
information into two parts, a colour signal and a brightness signal. These are decoded in the television receiver
to give a colour display.
Television receivers are one to the greatest technological achievements of the age with their complexity of
circuitry, ingenious design, accurate
40
become one of
became
A
became more
TELETEXT
systems such as
CEEFAX
in
41
ORACLE
1972 and
in
1973.
The
first satellite
television pictures
by July 1963, sixteen European countries were exchanging television programmes with the USA.
the
first
of the internationally
shown
owned
satellites,
was launched
in figure 7.1.
in 1965,
programmes throughout
TV
and,
1,
of television and
a series
the world.
offers an increased
Intelstat
The family of
number of channels,
Intelstat
less
use
Figure
Hughes
7.1.
The family of
its
origin from
of encoding signals.
the Pulse
The production of
full
Consultant, and
Aircraft).
from analogue
circuits, the
of images from
The
ability to
digital stores,
draw
Digital television
to digital television.
due
to digital
technology was
a variety of axes.
in
directly
on
now
possible,
i.e.
gave more
artistic
the original
rotated about
freedom
to television
producers.
In
DBS
but
it
was passed
in rural areas.
However, improvements
in receiver sensitivity
made
it
now
In 1977,
being used
in
channels for
some systems.
power
A Concise
42
History of Television
Many DBS
PAL
or
NTSC
standards
Improvements
in
be introduced.
changes
that, whilst
in transmission are
sets,
means of encoding
the digital
signal using
TV
by
satellite,
latter half
TV
This led to
'set
new
top box'
receiver converting the signals into a form suitable for existing receivers.
The new
digital
16x9
(compared
to the existing
4x3
all
to
choose between
programmed
new format of
quantity or picture
quality.
Experimental work
substantial archives of
is
HDTV
built up.
It
is
have twice the vertical and twice the horizontal resolution of conventional
Whilst the
new
more
HDTV
are
still
make
should
16x9
format.
not available
at
consumer product
prices.
likely to use the standard or conventional definition, rather than the higher definition options
A summary
TV
(HDTV) and
HDTV
of television developments
is
given
in
Date Chart
6.
A Concise
History of Television
43
History on a page
6.
Television
-1895
1900
Campbell Swinton
TV
1910
theory
1909)
Longtailed pair
1920
TV (1919)
Farnsworth electronic TV (1927)
Bell Labs. exp. colour TV (1929)
EMI electronic TV (1935)
BBC TV broadcast (1936)
Zworykin electronic
TV camera (1923)
TV camera (1934)
Iconoscope
Baird (1925)
Emitron
mech. system
RadiovisorTVsetUSA (1929)
TV (1939)
TV Japan 1959)
Large-scale
Transistor
TV
(1977)
circuit (1916)
Time-base circuits (1919)
Transitron circuit (1926)
Scanning circuit (1932)
Linear Ic's (I960)
-1940
TV (1939)
TV (1964)
625 line TV (1969)
1250 line TV (1988)
445
line
605
line
1950
& SECAM
953)
system (1956)
1960
TV (1962)
TV (1965)
WESTAR satellite TV (1974)
TELSTAR
satellite
INTELSTAT
satellite
-1970
I
Prestel (1972)
(Teletext)
Oracle (1973)
-1980
Digital
Cable
TV
TV
(1984)
Analogue
HDTV
1990
1995
Digital
TV
Broadcast
TV
Services (1996)
Chapter 8
There
the
is
first
first
who was
long columns of figures in his father's tax office and he designed a mechanical device consisting of a series
of numbered wheels with gears for decimal reckoning, capable of adding and subtracting the long columns of
Thirty years
figures.
later, a
which could not only do subtraction and addition, but also multiplication and division.
principles
Almost
Babbage conceived
Sir Charles
the
first
automatic calculator. Again, a mechanical device using counting wheels, coping with 1000 words of 50 digits
each, but with one vital difference: he used punched cards similar to those used in a Jacquard
the
programme.
functions necessary in a
and an output
modern computer
an
own
its
in
years
Vannevar Bush
later,
in the
The
etc.,
Almost
machine similar
early analogue
(e.g.
computer
The
in
first
feet long
stores, to
each using
circuits,
8.1
developed up
and 8
in
Manchester University
ENIAC
feet high.
to this time.
punched cards
in
Another
in the
UK
forty
(1934)).
initially
IBM
and presented
same
to
Harvard
time.
in 1946.
It
in this
in
flip-flops
2300 microseconds,
this
i.e.
and
units
being the
magnetic cores, tapes, drums and discs. From the middle 1940s, a series of computers were
later electronic
built
Hollerith, in
built
Computer Systems
A modern
parts
Software
is
etc.
The software
all
its
components and
The hardware
peripherals.
is
the physical
44
bill.
truly electronic
fastest calculator
Babbage's was
first
CRT
the
to
by several universities
7 years
all
and the size of the cards were made the size of a dollar
USA, developed an
built
Sweden and
tables.
to control
unit.
were used
memory, an arithmetic
loom
Punched cards were also used as input and output devices. The machine contained
some form
CDs
or tapes.
or other
is
present in
all
Computer Systems
which
is
modern PCs,
The
numbers
may be
not inexpensive.
is
speeds.
45
at
incredibly high
device to hold temporary results until they are required (an accumulator), an arithmetic and logic unit to perform
calculations, a
memory
control unit
is
arithmetic and
memory
powers of
numbers
0-10
10.
inary
ecimal
It
Two numbers
x 10')
(6
(4
x 10 2 )
and
made up of
are
therefore
in the
known
processes.
hold data and program as required, and an output device to display or print data.
to
is
made up
60
400
in binary
to successive
469. Binary
successive powers of 2 and can be compared with their decimal equivalents as follows:
2'
32
16
64
The operations
carried out by
in figure 8.1.
Programming
binary
stream
>
Binary data
Input store
Calculators
(C.P.U.)
Figure
is
known
as a
8.1. Stages in
BIT (Binary
computer operation.
Groups of 8
Digit).
typically
is
known
bits are
between
The binary
as 'Bytes'.
computer.
The use of
two
the binary code greatly simplifies the design of electronic computers, for basic circuits having
states only:
and
Transistors have
release
i.e.
in binary code,
SUBTRACT;
Initial
They
programming language
FORTRAN (FORmula
for
is
TRANslation)
BASIC
computer
is
mnemonics such
in detail,
To make
but with
as
SUB
modern
COBOL (COmmon
When
is
known
all
easier.
switched on, a pulse generator produces a stream of millions of pulses per second
BITS of information
are operated
upon throughout
the
inhibit the passage of the pulses being distributed through the various stages
of calculations. In operation, instructions from a programmer are fed into the computer by means of compact
discs or floppy discs in conjunction with a keyboard.
in the
the intermediate answers and finally after processing decodes the binary digits
in
and feeds
to a printer or
VDU
in the
storage or
Compact
memory system
is
used
speed to
a pattern
number of
of indentations on
A Concise
46
Compact
Discs, invented in 1978 by Philips, are unaffected by dust, scratches and fingerprints
The
memory
integrated circuit
when
which
cell
In the case
ROM
the
ROM,
of the
dictates, the
In 1970, the
in
The chip
required.
chip consists of
is
many thousands
composed of
of transistors.
number of
cells,
first
bits),
cells
It is
ROM
RAM
whereas the
RAM
lines to tell
RAM
when
remember
requested.
patterns
(i.e.
remembers).
Random Access Memory (RAM) was produced by Fairchild (the 256 BIT RAM), followed
RAM by the new Company INTEL. Also produced in the same year by INTEL was
first
in 1976, the
16 384
BIT
RAM
in
1975, the
first
RAM
4096 BIT
one-board
About
In
1981,
million
Comprehensive, inexpensive operating systems such as Microsoft Disc Operating System (MS-DOS) became
Supercomputers, introduced
Y-MP
In
1978, the
CRAY
Types of Computer
8.2
At
in
the present
moment,
The Supercomputer.
not only
is
In the
first
computation done
in cost
and performance.
CRAY, where
and most expensive category are the 'super' computers such as the
at
many computation
hence
These computers are used for tasks where an extremely large number of mathematical equations need
to
be
solved numerically in a reasonably short time, often involving the simultaneous input of large volumes of data;
such a task
is
weather forecasting.
IBM
little
In the
and for
The Minicomputer.
reasonably
fast:
In these
scientific
In
for tasks of
to be
is
short, typically
in the
VAX
is
750,
to
GEC
4080 and
HP
management,
to
be solved.
steps.
still
accuracy of calculation
are also used for controlling large chemical plants, steel rolling mills and other
are
with
fast but
32
moderate complexity
tasks, factory
main
ICL 2900.
These machines are used for large payrolls and other accounting
parallelism.
financial planning
for
second category are the so-called 'main frame' computers; examples of these are
fields.
in the
They
1000.
as the PC). In the fourth category are the microcomputers, the central
usually on a single chip. These computers have a wide range of applications, and
today both computers and microprocessors are widely distributed throughout businesses. Microprocessors are
the heart of
tills
tracks.
example,
Computers
in
is
to a printed circuit
to analyse the
parameters of proposed
are used extensively in the design of integrated circuits and hence used to design themselves.
Types of Computer
47
History on a page
Computers
7.
1-1600
CALCULATORS
Mechanical calculating machine (1642)
1700
Wheel
1800
1910
Flip-flop circuit (1910)
1920
-1930
COMPUTERS*
Differential analyser (1931)
Mark
Bell
1940
Von Neumann
Computer theory (1945)
DISKS
Floppy disc (1950)
Compact
disc (1975)
CD
PROGRAM LANGUAGES*
Digital
FORTRAN (1957)
COBOL (1959)
ALGOL (1960)
CD ROM
(1982)
(1985)
Diskette (1991)
DVD
Internet (1969)
(1995)
Information
APL (1962)
PASCAL (1970)
MICROSOFT (1974)
BASIC
ADA
tech.
1970
(1975)
LISP (1981)
NETTALK
ANSI-C
(1986)
(1989)
VIRTUAL BASIC
DYLAN
ADA 95
(1991)
(1992)
(1995)
ANSIC++
RAM
1024 bit RAM
4096 bit RAM
16384 bit RAM
1000000 bit RAM
4000000 bit RAM
16000000 bit RAM
100000000 bit RAM
256
(1981)
(1996)
bit
Web
(1984)
Compact
MEMORIES
(1979)
MS-DOS
(1974)
World Wide
disc
video (1987)
(1970)
(1972)
Digital versatile
(1975)
disc (1995)
(1976)
(1984)
M980
(1987)
(1989)
(1996)
JAVA (1996)
JAKARTA
(1996)
KRAKATOA
*
As
there
is
(1996)
much
controversy on
1990
first
computers (1953)
Leprechaun computer (1956)
CDC 1604 computer (1960)
Honeywell 800 computer (1960)
UNIVAC 80/90 computer (1960)
ATLAS computer (1961)
IBM 360 computer (1964)
Microprocessor computer (1971)
UNIX computer (1972)
Cray computer (1976)
Cray IS computer (1979)
Personal computer (1981)
Cray X MP computer (1982)
Apple Lisa computer (1983)
IBM PC AT computer (1984)
CRAY-2 computer (1985)
Apple Mackintosh-ll
computer (1987)
A Concise
48
For mechanical design, computers are used as drafting aids and for mathematically representing solid
They can
also be used to
analyse stresses in components and assemblies; for example, bridges, aircraft components and structures. Solid
modelling techniques also allow real-looking computer pictures to be produced which can be used for marketing
activities before a prototype has
been produced.
is
to aid the
manufacturing process; for example, the automatic programming of numerically controlled machines, such as
mask production,
assembly,
drilling,
work plans
in
Programmes
lathes,
circuit manufacture,
etc.
for processes to be
performed manually.
('History on a Page') has been compiled as a useful quick reference on major developments
computers.
Robotics
8.3
it
is
and
used
US
in a
fiction for
many
book and
film
only recently that the microcomputer has enabled more sophisticated devices to be made.
is
now termed
The
in industrial processes.
first
general description
is
'a
programmed motions
in
microcomputer which
is
to
move
arm with
The
of 5 or 6 degrees of freedom
a total
is
controlled by a
is
shown
WAIST ROTATION
Servo
typical
in figure 8.2.
320'
SHOULDER ROTATION
200
ELBOW ROTATION
270
'?
^~
FLANGE
POTATION
270'
GRIPPER MOUNTING
Figure
its
The
own
is
8.2.
computer from
form of gripper.
a user-defined
robotics controller also has to be able to control the processes being performed by the robot,
programme.
i.e.
control
of welding current or paint flow. The arm power source for the larger robots, intended for the heavier tasks,
is
lighter tasks,
becoming
An
commonly
electrically
powered and
for
are rapidly
is
software consists of a suite of system programmes that enable the robot user to teach the required endeffector
49
Mechatronics
paths, operations
machines,
etc,
memory.
endeffector through these recorded paths, initiating endeffector and external equipment operations
the
required
at the
example, teaching the current generation of paint-spraying robots entails moving the robot arm through the
required spraying motions at the proper speed, the computer recording these
during operation.
On
movements
the other hand, pick and place robots are taught the positions
be played back
to
to
occur, usually with a few intermediate points to ensure collision free operation, leaving the robot to derive
the path
between these
move from
The more
points.
from point
the smaller
.25
mm
machines
and has a
of
a six-legged walker
leg
was designed
mm,
this
Ohio
1.5 kg,
machine being
is,
the
and
electrically
For example, a
fast pick
to 1.5
movements, but
at the
of the largest
at a
of course, required.
that
human
in
first
made
to
produce
State University
one-legged robot was built in 1983 by Carnegie-Mellon University to study the problem of balance.
as the
maximum
an exact simulation of
move
PUMA
end of the arm) varies considerably with the task they are designed
maximum
stairs.
total
Unimation
the
is
One
this robot
at the
to
is
(i.e.
The load-handling
robots
arm
point to point along pre-defined straight or curved paths, possibly with a change in attitude of the
will
company
will
flight robotic
workstations
They
will
be used
in the
Station.
Many
made
to reproduce a
In the main, industrial robots are used for such tasks as loading, unloading, inspecti.>n,
in
human
is
the use of
computers
There
is
human
soon, AI will
become commercially
The technological
Present
used by
revolution brought about by the increasing use of robots, brings the problem of increasing
factories
is
problem
Mechatronics
systems.
viable.
unemployment, when
8.4
how
to
mechanical
electrical engineering,
involves sensors, drive and actuation systems, control and measurement systems, behaviour analysis and
computer technology,
e.g.
microprocessors.
recent
in the
example
using automated
tools
A Concise
50
more
flexible
to
be incorporated
Information Technology
8.5
The
definition of Information
Technology (IT)
is
generally
assumed
to be: the
in the
form of
data, text,
image
or voice.
circuit or
since the
'chip'
applications using electronics has been phenomenal. The modern electronic computer can process data, graphics
and speech
In the
hand
games,
extremely
at
it
digital
fast rates.
The microprocessor
is at
the heart of
what
is
known
as the IT revolution.
video
now
life,
as
do
cars, fax
machines, aircraft
flight
missiles, battle
The
steel
effect of this
and cotton
manage
industries,
The
increasingly possible.
influence of the Multimedia
is
become
to
hardware manufacturing,
full
to digital television
occupy a small portion of the screen, moved around and rotated about a variety of axes. Combining drawings
Compact
all
give
artistic
The development of IT
with
its
freedom
to television producers.
social implications
in its various
and
it
named
sound and
in the
the IT revolution.
working
pictures.
lives of the population,
Chapter 9
Consumer and
Security
Electronics
Industrial Electronics
9.1
The
was
the hardening of steels and setting of glues, electroplating, resistance welding for the joining of metals and
ultrasonics for cleaning castings, crack testing in metals, drilling glass, etc. Photocells
variety of devices, e.g.
many
up.
transistor
and
obtained.
mechanism
use electronics
in
&
open and
is
usual to
Among
cement,
all
computers
to
is little
field
of control was
computer
Lyons modelled
the
human
clerk.
in controlling
production
the industrial applications are the metal industry, the mining, glass, pulp and paper,
to
tool,
first
Lyons
EDSAC. LEO
outputs.
to
feedback system
Large masses of data could be accommodated by the computer and assessments could be made of
years,
wide
in
opened
for a
cine, sorting
is
on film
others.
changes
a transducer to convert
colours, or levels into electrical voltages, a signal process or amplifier and a control
regulate the
were used
machine
in addition to aircraft
land and marine transport applications. Mini or microcomputers are used in automatic machines and systems
on the factory
many
different processes.
spraying, spot welding, handling dangerous and difficult material such as hot glass and
processes, fettling, etc.
Computers
components coming
position of a fault.
making cores
equipment which
to isolate
for casting
9.2
The
(NC) machines
in the
at a
form of
machines controlled by
52
computer
to
control are
NC
lathes
Some
of the
NC
velocities of each
of course,
Electronics
tell
this
the
type of
axes and automatic printed circuit drilling and routing machines which are three-axis devices. Numerically
five
controlled machines
The
come
machine
itself
many
in
control sequence or
programme
for these
a variety of
NC
can be used to create the programme sequence by moving the cutter to the required positions,
recording these and the type of interpolation to be used between this and the next point; (b) the sequence
can be programmed off-line by a production planner, using a human readable form of programme which
translated by the computer
later
computer-aided design
(CAD)
system.
is
switching high-power devices, such as insulated gate bi-polar transistors, and metal oxide semiconductor
fastfield-
effect transistors.
in
made
to
is
apply neural networks to such tasks as pattern recognition and the control of
is still
Image processing
now
which there
is
in today's
circuits, for
component on
now
pixel).
in billions
Automobile Electronics
9.3
The
first
was
was
first
mass-produced by Motorola
computer
in
1930,
Microprocessors, in conjunction with specialized sensors, today control automatic gear shifting, monitor fuel
consumption, ignition timing and duration, instrumentation, warning devices, airconditioning, anti-lock braking
(
ABS), suspension
modern
characteristics, air
all
electronics.
In the
USA,
many of
which control
ride, handling,
transmission and air conditioning, in addition to engine management and control to meet stringent emission
requirements.
window
lift.
now
lighting,
include facia liquid crystal displays of fuel level, water temperature, battery voltage,
oil
Using navigational
in service
combusion
satellites,
such as the
GPS
is
it
now
his destination
account current
conditions and guides the driver with verbal instructions over the car's sound system and through the
The Irradium
satellite
in
1997
as standard
will
comprise a network of 66
in Japan.
satellites to
give
There
is
volts
AC;
systems
Matching the
electrical
it
350
may
give
may
volts
to the car's
activators at
42
volts
way
to other voltages to
at 5 volts
DC;
lighting at 6
DC.
development
in
which
electric
fuel cells
which generate
Medical Electronics
by combining hydrogen with oxygen from the
electricity
fleet will
are,
air.
It
is
5%
estimated that
53
of California's vehicle
to
The trends
automotive
in
electronics
are
illustrated
in
figure
reproduced
9.1,
by
permission
of
>r Or MANUrACTVU
Figure
Trends
9.1.
in
automotive electronics.
Medical Electronics
9.4
waveforms.
Devices can
now
sense
when
many
years,
in their use.
first
beat.
e.g.
the heart's
by
(ECG) operating
in 1947.
The
ECG
made
detects and
records the tiny electrical signals that co-ordinate the heart's beats and which can indicate the heart's disorders.
The
ECG
pacemakers used
1962
is
in
Defibrillators,
shown
ECGs
One
of the
first
implantable
in figure 9.3.
providing natural counter shocks to the heart and electrocardiographs observing blood
to the skin.
TV
retinal
ultrasonic echo analysis and hearing aids. Fibre optics are used to illustrate areas
photocoagulators, radio
pills,
normally inaccessible.
Pressure-sensitive radio pills are used for measuring conditions in the gastrointestinal
tract.
ultrasonic,
is
MRI
using nuclear,
medical imaging
is
field to distinguish
between various
types of soft tissue. Computerized axial tomography can provide 'slices' of patients anatomy and yield valuable
diagnosis, enabling physicians to visualize anatomic structures of live patients.
in
this
trials
at
first
to
Atkinson
Telemedicine systems are used for transmitting data from one hospital
Spare parts of the
human anatomy
limbs are
now
possible.
to
are increasingly being used with implants, such as cardiac valves, balloon
Virtual reality
humans with
real
is
many
others.
Computerized
electrically driven
humans
in
virtual
The
telemedicine shared
54
Figure
9.2.
Figure
9.3.
An
Consumer and
Museum/ Science
Museum/ Science
&
&
Security Electronics
Educational Electronics
Figure
9.4.
The
Museum/ Science
first
&
55
Society Picture
Library).
uses ocular implants for certain types of blindness, leading to all-silicon electrode arrays implanted directly into
the brain for the profoundly blind.
USA,
a software
Government records
by electronics
9.5
The
way
into
The
is
human
in its
now be
knowledge
in the
Computerized
may
lead to
computer systems
brain.
Educational Electronics
electronic calculator
may be considered
to
as an experiment,
computer
it
was
the introduction of
In the United
Kingdom today
acquired.
now
now
there
is
one
information Technology'
Programmed
taught. Experience
is
gained by assembling
is
kits
available.
of parts or modules to
it.
initially
in secondaries.
Basic programmes were taught and electronic games were not discouraged,
as a subject is
There was
on electronics of A-level standard, but very few teachers were capable of teaching
is
base.
make up
More complex
kits
a complete oscilloscope,
lasers, etc.
some form of
in
56
The
ability to
draw
pictures
on Graphic
TV
Electronics
many
textbooks. Mathematics can be presented pictorially as algebraic equations or as large numerical calculations.
written to cover
all
Office
9.6
Internet.
now
used.
point the
all
The
returned with
is
way
typist starts
retrieval,
updating and
filing.
Data
visual
Telex systems with data printers, facsimile document transmission and time-sharing
displays or printout.
word processors
and
is
VDU
CD-ROM. When
all its
now
has only to type in the corrections or additions. The original copy on the disc,
automatically, at 175 words per minute, a perfect copy of the document.
documents,
made, the
typist
used
to type
logical
corrected,
is
decisions such as automatically deleting, respacing and repositioning words and sentences, inserting hyphens,
The modern
now
can
office
Spreadsheets are used for record keeping, etc, whilst graphics and desktop publishing are
in
an electronically assisted
facilities
now
available
office.
banknote counting and dispensing machines deal with both notes and cash, computers deal with
In banking,
cheque transactions, mortgages, loans, and dividend payments, credit-card systemization, security and customer
recognition safeguards,
all
CD-ROMs.
spot scanning of characters from a cathode-ray tube and a group of photocells picked up reflections and output
them
network
to a decision
to
make
and
reject those
cards
9.7
is
which are
visual
and print
increasing.
Consumer
Electronics
The microcomputer
is
being built into more and more customer products. They range from the very simplest
more complex
dozen chips.
programme
is
stored in an
RCM
which
is
programmed when
is
the electronic
the chip
is
tunes can be played, the tune depending an which door the chime was initiated from and on the tune selected.
Other applications are controllers for central-heating systems which may be programmed with different on/off
cycles,
teaching aids
are used in
good example
is
mundane devices
The change
high definition
as
Micros now
find their
way
into such
to digital
TV now
audio radio
(DAR)
in
1996
will affect
being developed will mean more changes for consumers. Compact discs have replaced
most other forms of recording data and music and high density compact discs (DVDs) offer wider applications,
including movies.
For the
home
user,
camcorders are
now
DVDs replacing CD-ROMs for games, many new improved games will be available,
Home automation, using modern communication techniques to close the curtains or
some being
interactive.
Security Electronics
9.8
and Surveillance
57
Intruder alarms
now
use sound detectors, magnetic switches on doors, light beams, laser beams, pressure mats
and hoses, infra-red detection, microwave radar, surveillance scanners, security pass systems and
TV
coverage.
For surveillance, millimetre wave cameras can penetrate walls to see subjects from a distance. Digital video
in buildings,
Conversations
in a
even hidden
in a
water
to
lodge
(or
BUGS)
beam
off a glass
picking up the sound waves. Surveillance satellites can watch over large areas of the world. There
can be
in taps or drains.
window
is little
now
Chapter 10
by Subject
List of Inventions
1.
2.
Circuitry
3.
Communications
4.
Components
5.
Computers
6.
Industrial
7.
Microelectronics
and Medical
8.
Physics
9.
Radar
10.
Sound Reproduction
11.
Television
12.
13.
Assembly Techniques
1.
1940
1943
Printed wiring
1945
Potted circuits
1947
Automatic
1949
&
Packaging
(Centralab)
circuits
(Eisler)
circuit
(Various)
making equipment
(Sargrove)
(Danco
circuits
&
Abramson)
(Anderson
1951
1953
1953
1956
1958
(US Army)
1960
(Photocircuits)
1962
(Tao)
1964
DIP or DIL
(Rogers)
1964
(Autonetics)
1964
Beam
(Lepselter)
1966
'Flip-chip'
1971
Ceramic chip
1973
950
58
lead connections
bonding technique
carrier
et al
(Mallina et al
etc,
(General Mills et al
(Wiessenstern et al
(3
Co.)
(Mitsubishi)
List
2.
1826
1
843
of Inventions by Subject
Circuitry
Ohm's law
(Ohm)
Wheatstone bridge
(Wheatstone)
1848
Boolean algebra
(Boole)
1945
Kirchhoff s laws
(Kirchhoff)
1912
Regenerative circuit
(de Forest et al
1912
Heterodyne
1915
Filter
1918
Neutrodyne
1918
(Schottky)
1918
Multivibrator circuit
(Abraham
1918
Dynatron
circuit
(Hull)
1919
Retarded
field
1919
Flip-flop circuit
(Eccles, Jordan)
&
superheterodyne circuits
(Fessenden, Armstrong)
(Campbell, Wagner)
networks
circuit
(Hazeltine)
microwave
&
(Barkhausen
oscillator
Bloch)
&
Kurtz)
1919
(Miller)
1921
(Cady)
1922
(Gill,
1922
Super regeneration
(Armstrong)
1923
Squegger
(Appleton, Herd et al
1924
(Anson)
1925
Johnson noise
(Johnson)
1926
Transitron oscillator
1926
circuit
Morrell)
(Wheeler)
circuit
1927
1932
1933
1935
Constant
1936
Long
1939
Radio altimeter
(Bell Labs)
1942
(Blumlein)
1942
Phantastron circuit
(Williams
1942
Sanatron circuit
(Williams
1943
Magnetic amplifier
(A.S.E.A)
1947
1952
(Darlington)
1952
Digital voltmeter
(Kay)
1952
(Baxandall)
1960
Neuristor circuit
(Crane)
1960s
Logic
(Various)
1960s
(Various)
1967
(Chua)
1968
Mutator
network
(Chua)
1969
1979
Satellite
1980
RC
(Black)
(Blumlein)
circuit
(Puckle)
circuit
(Blumlein)
stand-off circuit
circuits:
circuit
(Blumlein)
Moody)
Moody)
(Williamson)
circuit
microelectronics
echo cancelling
&
&
circuit
3.
(Saito et al
Communications
1832
(Schilling and
1837
(Morse)
860
Microphone
(Reis)
865
(Maxwell)
Cooke)
59
60
1866
1
876
879
List
of Inventions by Subject
(T. C.
Telephone
(Bell)
&
M. Co.)
Diode detector
(Hughes)
Aerial
(Hertz)
Coherer
(Branley)
Waveguide: theory
(Thomson)
Wireless telegraphy
(Marconi)
1901
(Heaviside/Kenelly)
1906
Radio broadcasting
(Fessenden)
1906
Crystal detector
(Dunwoody)
1907
(Pickard)
1912
Ionospheric propagation
(Eccles)
1915
(Carson)
1916
Telex
(Markrum Co.)
1918
Alexanderson alternator
(Alexanderson)
1918
(Watson)
1921
Short
1921
1925
Short
1925
Ionosphere layer
(Appleton)
1926
Yagi aerial
(Yagi)
1928
Diversity reception
(Beverage
1928
(Horton, Morrison)
1929
Microwave communication
Meteor scatter (burst) systems
(Clavier)
1930s
1933
Radio astronomy
(Jansky)
1933
Frequency modulation
(Armstrong)
1934
(Cleeton, Williams)
1887
1
890
1893
1
896
wave
radio (amateur)
wave
radio (commercial)
(Amateurs)
(Cady)
(van Boetzelean)
(Shanker
et al
et al
Waveguides
(Southworth
1937
(Reeves)
1939
(Rabi)
1945
Satellite
1948
Information theory
(Shannon)
1950s
MODEM
1950s
(Getting)
(Regency)
1956
(Various)
1956
Radio paging
(Multitone
1957
SPUTNIK
1958
EXPLORER
1958
VANGUARD
1958
PIONEER
1958
SCORE
1959
(USSR)
1959
LUNIK satellite
DISCOVERER satellite
1960
TIROS
(USA)
1960
ECHO
1960
COURIER satellite
TRANSIT satellite
VENUS satellite
936
954
1960
1961
communication theory
satellite
(USA)
satellite
I
satellite
(USA)
(USA)
(USSR)
1962
TELSTAR
(USSR)
satellite
(USA)
(USA)
satellite
1961
1961
(USA)
(USA)
satellite
VOSTOK satellite
MERCURY-ATLAS
OSCAR satellite
1961
(USA)
satellite
(Clarke)
(USSR)
satellite
satellite
el al
(USA)
(USA)
(USA)
List of Inventions
1962
MERCURY-ATLAS 6
OSO satellite
RELAY satellite
MARINER satellite
1962
MARS
satellite
(USSR)
1962
ARIEL
satellite
(UK)
1963
SYNCOM
1964
NIMBUS
1964
VOKSHOD
1964
Packet-switching
(Baron)
1965
PEGASUS
(USA)
1965
INTELSTAT
1965
1966
PROTON satellite
SURVEYOR satellite
1966
ESSA
1966
LUNAR ORBITER
1962
1962
1962
(USA)
satellite
(USA)
(USA)
(USA)
(USA)
satellite
(USA)
satellite
(USSR)
satellite
satellite
I
(International)
satellite
(USA)
(USA)
by Subject
(USA)
satellite
I
(USA)
satellite
1966
ATS
1966
(Kao, Hockham)
1967
SOYUZ
(USSR)
1968
IRIS
1969
Internet
(Arpanet)
1969
(Gordon)
1969
(UK)
1970
SKYNET A satellite
AZUR satellite
TUNG-FANG-HUNG
NATO satellite
1971
DSCS
1971
1973
SALYUT
LANDSAT
SKYLAB
1974
Information technology
(Various)
1974
WESTAR
(USA)
1974
1975
PRESTEL
VIKING
satellite
1975
RADUGA
1976
MARISAT
1976
Spread-spectrum techniques
(Dixon
1978
Integrated optoelectronics
(Yariv et al
1978
(Philips)
1988
1995
Lasercom
1995
Inter-satelite
1969
1970
1972
(USA)
satellite
satellite
(ESRO
(USA)
I) satellite
(Germany)
(China)
satellite
(NATO)
(USA)
satellite
(USSR)
satellite
(USA)
satellite
(USA)
satellite
satellite
system
(Fedida)
(USA)
satellite
(USSR)
satellite
(USA)
et al
(Thermotrex, Motorola)
communications
4.
Components
1800
Volta's pile
(Volta)
1803
Accumulator
(Ritter)
1839
Magnetohydrodynamic generation
(Faraday)
1839
Fuel cell
(Grove)
1860
Lead-acid
1868
Dry
1870
Clark standard
(Plante)
cell
cell
(Leclanche)
cell
(Clark)
61
62
of Inventions by Subject
List
1884
Zinc mercuric-oxide
1891
Weston standard
1900
Nickel-iron cell
1900
Nickel-cadmium
1954
Solar battery
cell
cell
(Clark)
(Weston)
(Edison)
cell
(Chapin, Fuller et al
CAPACITORS
1745
Leyden
1874
Mica capacitors
(Bauer
1876
(Fitzgerald)
1900
Ceramic capacitors
(Lombardi)
1904
(Moscicki)
1956
1956
(Giacoletto et al
(von KJeist
jar
et al
et al
FILTERS
1915
electromagnetic
Filters,
GALVANOMETERS
1820
Electromagnetism (galvanometer)
(Oersted)
1828
Moving
(Schweigger)
1828
Astatic
coil
(Nobilli)
GONIOMETERS
1907
(Artom)
Goniometer
INDUCTORS
1772
(Knight)
1909
Ferrites
(Hilpert,
1956
1977
(Matsuschita Elec.)
Snoek)
MOTORS
1837
(Davenport)
motor
Electric
1888
Induction motor
(Tesla)
1902
(Danielson)
RECTIFIERS
1926
Copper oxide
RELAYS
1837
1950s
Telegraph
bell
and signal
(Cooke, Davy
et al
(Bell Labs)
Ferreeds
RHEOTOME
1868
Waveform
(Lenz)
plotter
RESISTORS
1850
Thermistor
(Faraday)
1885
(Bradley)
1897
Carbon
(Gambrell
1913
(Swann)
1919
(Kruger)
1925
Cracked carbon
1926
(Loewe)
1931
Oxide
(Littleton)
1957
Nickel-chromium
film
film
film
tAlderton
et al
et al
1958
(Bell Labs)
1959
Tantalum film
(Bell Labs)
SWITCHES
1884
Quick break
(Holmes)
1887
(Holmes)
1950s
Ferreed switch
(Bell Labs)
List
of Inventions by Subject
63
TRANSFORMERS
1831
Transformer
(Faraday)
1885
Distribution
(Deri)
1885
Power
(Zipernowski
et al
WAVEGUIDES
1893
Theory
(Thomson)
1936
Waveguides
(Southworth
et al
et al
Wire conductor
(Gray)
1812
Cable insulation
(Sommering
1845
Metallic sheathing
(Wheatstone)
1847
(Siemens)
1905
(Betts)
1933
Polythylene insulation
(ICI)
1949
Microwire
(Ulitovsky)
1965
Wiegand wire
(Wiegand)
1965
(Olsen
5.
et al
Computers
1642
Calculating machine
(Pascal)
1672
Calculating machine
(Leibniz)
1833
Calculating machine
(Babbage)
1848
Boolean algebra
(Boole)
1854
Calculating machine
(Scheutz)
1889
Tabulating machine
(Hollerith)
1931
Differential analyser
(Bush)
1938
Information theory
(Shannon)
1939
Bell Labs
1939
Digital
1942
'Velodyne' analyser
(Williams
1943
COLOSSUS
(Newman, Turing
1943
ENIAC
(Moore School)
1945
Whirlwind
Computer theory
(MIT)
(Williams)
1948
CRT storage
ACE
EDVAC
UNIVAC
SEAC
EDSAC
1950
Computer graphics
(Burnett)
1950
(IBM)
1950s
IBM 650
IBM 701
Hamming code
APL language
1951
Microprogramming
(Wilkes)
1952
SAGE
(IBM, MIT)
1953
IBM
(IBM)
1956
Transistorised computer
(Bell Labs)
1957
(Gianole)
1960
Honeywell 800
(Honeywell)
1960
UNIVAC
(IBM)
1945
1946
1946
1947
1947
1948
1950
1950
complex computer
computer
computer
(Stibitz et al
(Aitken)
&
Uttley)
et al
(von Neuman)
(Turing)
(Penn. University)
(Eckert,
Maunchly)
(NBS)
(Wilkes)
(IBM)
(Hamming)
(Iverson)
64
List
of Inventions by Subject
1960
CD
1961
Minicomputer
(Englebert)
1965
The mouse
1969
(Agusta
1969
(Bobeck
1970
(Boyle, Smith)
1970
Floppy-disc recorder
(IBM)
1970
UNIX
1971
Microprocessor
(Hoff)
1604
et al
et al
1972
1024
1973
Logic-state analyser
(House)
1973
Logic-timing analyser
(Moore)
1974
(National)
1975
4096
1975
16 384
1976
1976
1977
CCD
1978
Integrated optoelectronics
(Yariv et al
1978
(Intel
1980
256
K dynamic RAM
MS-DOS
(NEC, Toshiba
1981
1984
(ATG)
1985
(PLUS Dev.
1985
(SONY)
1985
CD-ROM
(Philips)
1985
Windows
(MICROSOFT)
1985
Tactile screen
(Zenith)
1991
Photonic crystals
1995
Biological
1996
Superfast switch
bit
(Intel)
RAM
bit RAM
(Fairchild)
bit
(Intel)
(Intel)
RAM
(Mostek)
(GE
analog-to-digital converter
memory
Corporation)
&
Texas)
et al
(Eli
Corp.)
Yabionovitch)
chip
(Argonne N. Lab)
Industrial
6.
and Medical
1839
Microfilming
(Dancer)
1843
Facsimile reproduction
(Bain)
Electrocardiograph
(A
1908
Geiger counter
(Geiger, Rutherford)
1912
Tungar
1913
Reliability standards
887
Waller)
(Langmuir)
rectifier
(ASDIC,
(AIEE)
SONAR)
(Langevin)
1914
Ultrasonics
1914
Thyratrons
1916
Reliability, control
1918
Induction heating
(Northrup)
1920
Ultra-micrometer
(Whiddington)
1926
Copper oxide
(Grondahl
1926
Electron microscope
(H Bosch)
1931
CRO
(Rijant)
1931
Reliability
1933
Ignitron
(Westinghouse)
1937
Xerography
(Carlson)
940
Cybernetics
1943
(Langmuir)
system
rectifier
cardiograph
Reliability
(Gates)
(Bell/Western Elec.)
Geiger)
(Shewhart)
(R Weiner)
sequential analysis
&
(Wald)
List
of Inventions by Subject
(ASIA)
1943
Magnetic amplifier
1944
Reliability
1950s
Ultrasound imaging
(Donald
1951
(Juran)
1958
Pacemaker
Computer aided design
(A Senning)
1960
1961
Electronic clock
(Vogel et Cie)
1962
Electronic watch
1962
Duane
1963
(Sweet)
1963
Electronic calculator
(Bell
1964
Telemedicine
(Various)
1964
Word
processor
(IBM)
1965
Electronic typewriter
(IBM)
1967
Ion
1971
1972
Video games
(Magnavox)
Bar codes
(Dawson)
974
sampling inspection
reliability
beam
1975
LASER
1977
MRI
65
tables
&
(Doge
(USA
Romig)
et al
Military)
(Vogel et Cie)
growth theory
(Duane)
Punch Co.)
&
(Chopra
coating
Randlett)
(IBM)
printer
(G Houndsfield)
(Hosiden Elec)
1978
1979
(Siemens)
1982
Bubble-jet printing
(CANON)
1986
(IBM)
1991
Plastic electronics
(Philips)
1995
Glass laser
7.
(See also
12. Transistors
Microelectronics
1852
(Grove)
1913
(Swan)
1940
Thick film
(Centralab)
1949/50
Ion implantation
1952
Semiconductor integrated
1952
(Pfann)
1957
(Alderton, Ashworth)
1959
Semiconductor integrated
(Kilby)
1959
Tantalum
1959
Planar process
(Hoeni)
1960
(Loor
1960
(Various)
1961
(Nelson)
1961
Minicomputer
1962
MOS
(Hofstein
1963
(Rowen
1967
(Various)
1967
Ion
1968
C-MOS
1968
Aluminium
1969
circuits
(Ohl
circuit
concept
circuit patent
integrated circuit
beam
coating
integrated circuit
metallisation of ICs
&
Shockley)
(Dummer)
(Bell Labs)
et al
&
&
Helman)
Sittig)
(Noyce)
(Bell Labs, Ferranti)
66
List
of Inventions by Subject
1970
X-ray lithography
(Feder et al
1971
FAMOS
integrated circuit
(Frohman-Bentchowsky)
1971
Bumped
1971
(Keen)
1972
Microcomputer
(Intel)
1972
1024
1972
1972
Two-layer
1972
V-MOS
1972
(Hart
1973
(Mitsubishi)
1974
(National)
1974
Electron
1975
Thin film
1975
LOCMOS
bit
(Intel)
(Grier)
(Bell Labs)
technique
resist
(Rodgers)
technique
beam
&
Slob)
(Bell Labs)
lithography
direct
(Burgess
et al
(Philips)
integrated circuit
(Reinhart, Logan)
1975
1975
4096
1975
Silicon anodisation
(Cook)
1976
(Philips)
1976
One board
(Intel)
1976
16 384 bit
(Intel)
1977
1977
H-MOS
TRIMOS
1977
CCD
1978
(Texas Instruments)
1978
(Philips)
1981
Hydrogenated amorphous
1995
(Harvard, NI of Standards)
(NEC
bit
(Fairchild)
(Intel)
(Stanford University)
device
(G E Corporation)
analog/digital converter
1996
Atomic holography
1996
Electron
1996
Surface
1996
beam
flat
(Grasso
silicon films
projection System
et al
Japan)
(Bell Labs)
(IBM)
chips
(Mikroelektronik Centre)
8.
Physics
1780
Galvanic action
(Galvani)
1800
Infra-red radiation
(Herschel)
1807
Ultra-violet radiation
(Ritter)
1808
Atomic theory
(Dalton)
1820
Electro-magnetism
(Oersted)
1821
Thermloelectricity
(Seebeck)
1826
Ohm's law
(Ohm)
1828
Fourier analysis
(Fourier)
1831
Electromagnetic induction
(Faraday)
1832
Self-induction
(Henry)
1834
Electrolysis
(Faraday)
1839
Photovoltaic effect
(Becquerel)
1840
Thermography
(Herschel)
1847
Magnetostriction
(Joule)
1851
(Kelvin)
1858
Glow
(Plucker)
1878
Cathode rays
(Crookes)
1879
Hall effect
(Hall)
discharges
List
Piezo electricity
(Curies)
1882
Wimshurst machine
(Wimshurst)
1895
X-rays
(Rontgen)
1897
Electron
(Thomson)
1897
(Braun)
1900
Quantum
(Planck)
1902
(Rutherford
1905
Theory of relativity
(Einstein)
1911
Superconductivity
(Onnes)
1911
Atomic theory
(Rutherford)
1912
Cloud chamber
(Wilson)
1915
Atomic
(Bohr)
1918
Atomic transmutation
(Rutherford)
1921
Ferroelectricity
(Vasalek)
1929
Cyclotron
(Laurence)
1930
High
880
theory
orbit theory
field
superconductivity
&
&
(de Haas
Soddy)
Voogd)
(van de Graaf)
1932
Neutron
(Chadwick)
1932
(Knoll, Ruska)
1932
Cockroft-Walton accelerator
(Cockroft
1934
Liquid crystals
(Dreyer)
1934
Trans-uranian atoms
(Fermi)
1934
(Knott et al
1935
Superconducting switching
(Casimir-Jonker
1937
Xerography
(Carlson)
930
1938
Nuclear fission
(Fritsch
1941
Betatron
(Kerst)
&
&
Walton)
et al
1947
(Sosnowski
Holography
(Gabor)
1953
MASER
1955
Infra-red emission
1955
Cryotron
1956
YIG magnetic
1958
LASER
1958
Mossbauer
1959
Intrinsic 10/1
1960
(Putley)
1961
(Ridley, Watkins)
1961
(Hilsum)
1962
Semiconductor laser
(Hall et al
1962
Josephson effect
(Josephson)
1962
LED
(Holonyak)
1963
Ion plating
1963
Gunn diode
1963
(Rowen
1964
'IMPATT' diode
(Johnston
1970
X-ray lithography
(Feder
1972
X-ray scanner
(EMI)
1972
(Bardsley
1972
Deep
(Dymeut
et al
&
(Townes
Meitner)
1948
from GaSb
67
of Inventions by Subject
Weber)
(Braunstein)
(Buck)
materials
(Bertaut, Forrat)
(Schalow, Townes)
effect
photoconductor
(Mossbauer)
(Lawson
et al
also Nathan
&
Lasher)
(Mattox)
oscillator
proton-isolated laser
(Gunn)
&
et al
et al
(Quate)
1975
GYROTRON
(Gapanov)
1977
FLAD
(Inst.
1978
Light bubbles
(IBM)
de Loach)
)
et al
1973
display system
Sittig)
&
68
of Inventions by Subject
List
1978
OMIST
1979
1979
Amorphous
1981
(Hitachi)
1982
(AERE)
thyratron
silicon
(Nassibian et al
LCD
9.
1924
Radar systems
1937
Radar aiming
(IBM)
Univ.)
Radar
(Appleton, Briet et al
anti-aircraft
guns
(Pollard)
1938
'Gee' navigation
(Dippy)
1938
Klystron
(Hahn
1939
Magnetron
(Randall
&
1940
(Bowen,
Dummer
Skiatron
(Rosenthal)
1940
(Reeves
1941
(Butement)
1941
(Dee, Lovell et al
1942
'Velodyne' analyser
(Williams
1942
LOR AN
(MIT)
1942
Phantastron circuit
(Williams and
Moody)
1942
(Williams and
Moody)
1940
&
Varian Bros)
Boot)
et al
&
et al
Uttley)
1942
(Blumlein)
1943
(Dummer and
1945
DECCA
1947
Chirp technique
(Bell Labs)
1971
(Iizuka,
navigation system
10.
Nguyen
Speech synthesis
(Kratzenstein)
1817
The optophone
(d'Albe)
1860
(Reis)
876
Telephone
(Bell)
877
Phonograph
(Edison)
1877
Microphone, carbon
(Edison)
1877
(Siemens)
1878
(Hunnings)
1887
Gramophone
(Berliner)
889
(Strowger)
896
Telephone
(Keith et al
dial
et al
Sound Reproduction
1779
Smart)
1898
(Poulsen)
1908
Electronic organ
(Cahill)
1912
(Betulander)
1914
ASDIC
(Langevin)
1915
Acoustic mine
(Wood)
1915
SONAR
(Hunt)
1916
1917
Microphone, condenser
(Wente)
1919
Crystal microphone
(Nicholson)
1920
Plastic
magnetic tape
(Pfleumer)
List
of Inventions by Subject
1924
(Neumann)
1925
Loudspeaker, electrostatic
(Various)
1926
(Warner Bros.)
1927
1930s
(Grainger)
1931
1933
Stereo record
(EMI)
1936
Vocoder
(Bell Labs)
1937
(Reeves)
1948
(RCA
1950s
MODEM
1950
(Nakamata)
1957
(Walker)
1958
(Ampex)
1960
(Bell Labs)
1961
Tape cassette
(Philips)
1964
Packet switching
(Canon)
1965
Synthesizer
(Moog
1967
(Dolby)
1969
PARCOR
(NTT, Japan)
1972
Video discs
(Philips)
1973
(Quate)
1974
PRESTEL
(Fedida)
1978
Bell Labs)
1978
(Philips)
1979
satellite
1979
Compact
1982
Camcorder
1987
DAB
1991
(Insight, P)
1995
DVD
(International)
speech synthesis
system
et al
(Bell Labs)
echo-cancelling circuit
(Philips)
disc
digital
et al
(Sony)
(Eureka 147)
audio broadcasting
11. Television
1884
Nipkow
1897
(Braun)
1908
(Campbell-Swinton)
1919
Electronic system
(Zworykin)
1923
Iconoscope
(Zworykin)
1925
Mechanical system
(Baird)
1927
Cable
1929
Colour television
(Bell Labs)
1932
Scanning
(Blumlein)
1933
(Puckle)
1936
1938
Shadow-mask
(Flechsig)
1950
TV tube
Large screen TV projector
VIDICON TV camera tube
(RCA)
(MIT)
1939
television system
TV
(Nipkow)
circuit
(Blumlein)
(Fischer)
1951
Image animation
1957
PLUMBICON TV
1958
(Ampex)
1965
Virtual reality
(USA
1965
(Weckler)
camera tube
(Philips)
Military)
69
70
List
of Inventions by Subject
1968
TRINITRON
1968
High
(Sony)
colour tube
TV
definition
(Nippon)
(Japan, Europe)
1974
PRESTEL
(Fedida)
1975
VHS
970
system
(JVC)
recorder
(Sony)
1975
1977
1979
CCD
1980
(Mitsubishi)
1987
Compact
(JVC)
987
1988
1
995
TV
(Sinclair)
receiver
colour
TV
(Sony)
camera
disc video
(Matsushita)
Video Walkman
(Sony)
VHS
(Hitachi,
bit
stream recorder
12. Transistors
(See also
7.
Thomson)
Microelectronics)
1917
(Czochralski)
1930
MOS/FET
(Lilienfeld)
1935
1948
1948
Transistor
(Bardeen et al
1949/50
Ion implantation
1950
PIN diode
(Niskizawa)
1950s
Thermo-compression bonding
(Anderson
1952
(Pfann)
concept
(Heil)
germanium
et al
1952
(Teal, Bueler)
1952
Alloyed transistor
(RCA)
1953
(Philco)
1953
(Keck, Emeis et al
1953
Unijunction transistor
(GEC)
1954
(Regency)
1954
(Chapin, Fuller et al
1954
Interdigitated transistor
(Fletcher)
1955
Infra-red emission
1956
Diffusion process
(Fuller, Reis)
956
from GaSb
(Braunstein)
1957
(Frosch)
1958
(Dash)
1958
Tunnel diode
1958
Technetron'
1958
959
(Esaki)
FET
(Teszner)
(Bell Labs)
Planar process
(Hoerni)
(LED)
&
1960
1960
1961
(Nelson)
1962
LED
1963
Gunn diode
(Allen
Loor
Gibbons)
et al
(Holonyak)
(Gunn)
1963
Silicon-on-sapphire technology
(Various)
1964
IMPATT
(Johnston, de Loach)
1964
Transistor modelling
(Gummel)
1964
Overlay transistor
(RCA)
diode
List
of Inventions by Subject
1965
1966
Nitride-over-oxide semiconductors
(Horn)
1967
TRAPATT
(Prager,
1968
(Ovshinsky)
1968
BARRITT
(Wright)
1969
Magnetic bubbles
(Bobeck, Fischer
1969
(Hudson, IBM)
(Weckler)
diode
diode
Chang
1970
(Boyle, Smith)
1970
(Feder et al
1971
Carrier-domain magnetometer
(Gilbert)
1972
Auto control of
1974
CATT
1976
Amorphous
1977
FLAD
crystal
growth
Cady
et al
(RCA)
display system
(Inst.
1979
FLOTOX
(Intel)
1980
Magnetic avalanche
transistor
(IBM)
1980
MCZ
growth
(Sony)
1981
(MIT)
1982
Amorphous photosensors
(Sony)
1982
(Texas Instruments)
process
silicon crystal
13. Hibes,
Lamps,
etc
1855
(Gaugain)
1856
Low
(Geissler)
1857
Mercury
1878
(Swan, Stearn
1901
Fluorescent lamp
(Cooper-Hewitt)
1904
Two
1906
(de Forest)
et al
(Quantronix)
978
(Bardsley et al
(Tu,
triode
et al
71
lamp
(Wray)
et al
(Fleming)
electrode tube
1910
Neon lamp
(Claude)
1912
Tungar
(Langmuir)
1914
Thyratron
1919
Retarded
1919
Housekeeper
1922
(Gill,
1926
(Round)
1928
Pentode tube
(Tellegen; Hoist)
1931
CRO
(Rijant)
1933
Ignitron
1935
Travelling
rectifier
(Langmuir)
fieid
microwave
oscillator
(Barkhausen, Kurtz)
(Housekeeper)
seal
cardiograph
Morrell)
(Westinghouse)
wave microwave
oscillator
(Heil)
1935
Multiplier phototube
(Zworykin
1936
Cold cathode
(Bell Labs)
1937
(von Ardenne et al
1938
(Flechsig)
1939
Shadow-mask tube
Double-beam oscillograph
1939
Klystron
1939
Magnetron
1940
Skiatron
1943
Travelling
1941
(Remington Rand)
1950
VIDICON TV camera
(USA)
trigger tube
et al
(Fleming-Williams)
CRO
(Rosenthal)
wave tube
(Kompfner
tube
et al
72
List
of Inventions by Subject
1956
1957
1960
1968
TRINITRON
1975
colour tube
(Beutheret)
(Philips)
(Dyke)
(Sony)
(Nishizawa)
Chapter
Order
642
COMPUTER
Pascal (France)
is
history.
The invention of
the
first
on the basis of
to Pascal,
letters sent to
who
Kepler
machine
The
preserved in museums.
still
number wheels by
pin gearing.
the
in their
covers.
for
to the
had twenty and twelve divisions, respectively for sous and deniers.
right
The
now
which
Most of
in
manner has
Pascal,
axes.
in a digital
in
of which are
in 1642.
and Pyre
Proc.
SEE ALSO:
10,
first
desk calculator' by
V P
p 6 (September 1961)
to
von
Neuman by H H
p 7 (1972)
1672
COMPUTERS
W Leibniz (Germany)
in that
it
him
to build a calculating
Pascal to von
Neuman by H H
73
A Concise
74
1729
WIRE CONDUCTOR
It
He found
paper.
He used
that electricity
that
that
a metal ball
some
some
when rubbed,
materials would,
such as pieces of
some
did not.
suspended from a charged rod by means of a thin wire. This 'conducts' the charge
SOURCE:
wires.
to the ball,
Gray
S Gray (UK)
Stephen Gray (1696-1736) discovered the difference between electrical insulators and
1729,
In
conductors.
1745
British Library
Kleist
(Pomerania)
Kleist
of the Cathedral of Camin, Germany, in October 1745 and Peter von Muschenbrock, Professor
in the
According
Leyden
Jar
As described by them,
it
was
a glass
jar
The modern
miniature glass dielectric capacitor differs in form and structure from the 200-year-old Leyden Jar, but
the principle of operation
SOURCE:
IRE
is
the same.
Trans, on
and
C A Crommelin,
vol 77, p
is
vol 46, p
274 (1957)
fluid'
by E
Gray
Phil.
Trans.
407 (1788)
Phil.
Mag.
moulded and
fired.
Hopkinson
1772
in a
Navy compass.
Knight (UK)
oil,
SOURCE:
SEE ALSO:
B Wilson
1
779
'The early history of the permanent magnet' by Andrade Endeavour p 27 (January 1958)
Phil.
SPEECH SYNTHESIS
One of
the earliest
Kratzenstein (Russia)
documented attempts
at
in
when
scientist
activated by a vibrating
produced imitations of the vowels. In 1791 Wolfgang Von Kemplen, a Hungarian, constructed
a large bellows
tube (resonator).
much more
which supplied
stream of
to
air to a
It
consisted of
Extra tubes and whistles were added to imitate the nasal and fricative sounds.
to vary the
in
1937.
The motion of
tract.
It
SOURCE:
Owens
(Basingstoke: MacMillan
New
Electronics) p 88
(1993)
NOTE: A comprehensive
may be found
in the
A Concise
1780
GALVANIC ACTION
Galvani
75
(Italy)
When
1780.
performing
experiments on nervous excitability in frogs, he saw that violent muscle contractions could be observed
if
the
in the
discharges.
The word
'electricity'
von Humboldt
was reserved
SOURCE: 'From
torpedo to telemetry' by
& Power
Hill Electronics
pp
10-1
(27
November
1975)
1800
DRY BATTERY
Volta (1800),
Zamboni
Volta' s invention of the electric battery
was announced
by a moistened cloth
These were
electrolyte.
manganese dioxide on
Pile'
later
in a letter to Sir
De Luc
(1809)
and
(1812) (Italy)
improved
to consist
between
diameter discs.
to
his
many
analisi
1800
de
in 1809.
priority to
Zamboni
De Luc
since
lui
first
Work on
sull
to 1812.
SOURCE:
'On the
Phil. Trans,
electricity excited
vol 90, p
SEE ALSO: A
403 (1800)
Adam
and Charles
1800
W Herschel (UK)
INFRA-RED RADIATION
William Herschel, during research into the heating effects of the visible spectrum, discovered
In 1800,
that the
maximum
concluded
heating was not within the visible spectrum but just beyond the red range. Herschel
rays.
SOURCE:
Book (London:
Newnes-Butterworth) chapter
4,
p 4-2
(1976)
1801
ULTRA-VIOLET RADIATION
In 1801 the
German
physicist Ritter
most
just
beyond
SOURCE:
it
made
a further discovery.
on top of
a visible
He
in bright light.
W Ritter (Germany)
These
It
it
was blackened
Book (London:
Newnes-Butterworth) chapter
4,
p 4-2
(1976)
1803
ACCUMULATOR
Ritter's charging or
W Ritter (Germany)
secondary pile consists of but one metal, the discs of which are separated by circular
pieces of cloth, flannel or cardboard, moistened in a liquid which cannot chemically affect the metal.
76
When
electrified
SOURCE:
and
latter
it
voltaic pile
becomes
it
&
1808
ATOMIC THEORY
Dalton (UK)
Dalton conceived the idea that the atoms of different elements were distinguished by differences in
All
In 1808, he
their weights.
atoms and
said,
that all
atoms, as the
that these
name
up any
further.
the lightest
other atoms
all
it.
SOURCE: New
SEE ALSO: A
Dalton (1808)
Adam
Williams (London:
and Charles
1812
C Babbage (UK)
(DIFFERENCE ENGINE)
Charles Babbage (1791-1871)
first
wanted
in 1812, as he
to
eleminate
all
number represented by
SOURCE: The
1812
was
was
in that
the objective
first
was
development was
SOURCE:
'cable'
Sommering and
in
was
front detail
(SCM/CCM/C1001
&
Schilling
1ZH).
(Germany)
submarine telegraphy.
feasibility of
For
at
least another
in a
Curiously
50 years, however,
practically
all
by S
E Goodall
Proc.
1EE
E E
is
1832 by
OPTOPHONE
Stroud, Limited,
in
the value of
'Electric cables'
The instrument
first
Sommering
in
enough,
in figure 11.1.
CABLE INSULATION
It
1817
shown
is
It
to calculate
the invention of
Glasgow
No
25, p
(January 1959)
It
depends
in
for
its
action
upon
a very
&
remarkable property
in its
grey crystalline form varies greatly in electrical conductivity in accordance with the amount of light to
which
it is
is
always high.
Instruments can therefore be constructed that can detect pulsations of light of periods corresponding to
those of the vibrations in audible sounds.
a battery
and a telephone receiver and exposed to illumination and eclipse alternating some hundreds
of times per second, causes corresponding pulsations of current through the telephone, and produces
audible sound of corresponding pitch and quality.
SOURCE: The
A Concise
detail
Picture Library).
Optophone
tn uie
Museum/ Science
77
&
Society
A Concise
78
1820
ELECTROMAGNETISM
In
HC
(Galvanometer)
Oersted (Denmark)
1820, Oersted reported the discovery of electromagnetism, and this led him to develop the
galvanometers.
It
the
first
first
sensitivity with
its
SOURCE: 'From
SEE ALSO:
torpedo to telemetry' by
Hill Electronics
(27
November 1975)
H C
1821
THERMOELECTRICITY
The discovery of
although there
Cummings
is
thermoelectricity
some evidence
is
J Seebeck (Germany)
that he
Seebeck of Berlin
of Cambridge also discovered the effect independently and published his findings
C A
Pettier
in
1821,
Professor
in 1815.
in
1823.
of electricity through a junction of two different metals (antimony and copper) could produce a rise in
temperature
at the
junction
when passing
in
drop
in
The
introduction of the
first
SOURCE:
1828
(1st
FOURIER ANALYSIS
Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Fourier laid the basis for the analysis of complicated waveforms more than 150
years ago
when he showed
Scientists
that
any waveform
way
is
the
sum
The
analysis
is
powerful Fourier transform, which maps a time-varying signal into the frequency domain and thus
causes the spectral distribution of
its
sinusoidal
components
to
become
visible.
See figure
1.3.
2000
1500 -
Discrete Fourier
transform
1000 -
500
20
Number
of
30
samples
Since the Fourier transform requires evaluation of the integral of the input waveform,
complex
to
in real life,
it
can only be
far
be readily defined. The discrete Fourier transform, however, approximates the actual
It
digitally.
A Concise
but the numbers of operations
it
requires
is
Date Order
in
number samples
79
even a
that
was before
N\nN
to
but as this
DFT
through the
to grind
by hand, the work of Danielson and Lanczos lay dormant for nearly twenty years.
Then
J
1960s interest
in the early
came
be known as the
to
fast
in the
enormously
SOURCE:
1826
that requires
N\nN
R Capace
Electronics (16
the
Ohm
at the
(Germany)
name.
E = IR
R =
E
-
E
= -
DFT
March 1978)
was Head of
Ohm
1828
J Schweigger (Germany)
1828
ASTATIC GALVANOMETER
C L
Nobilli (Italy)
him
galvanometers.
It
the
torpedo to telemetry' by
entre
les
W Hill
& Power
Electronics
deux galvanometres
les
plus
pp
its
(27
sensibles,
sensitivity with
C L
la
November 1975)
grenouille
et
le
vol 43,
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
SELF INDUCTION
(see also
In 1831
was
current. Thus,
SOURCE: A
Faraday (UK)
1832)
first
SOURCE: 'From
1831
develop the
to
first
As
is
for the
numbers of samples.
for large
when he discovered
operations
OHM'S LAW
Ohm
many
coils: one,
from
this
to create
and
another
Williams (London:
Adam
(1969)p 174
1831
TRANSFORMER
A
Faraday (UK)
device
'Expts.
is
described
in his diary
iron) iron
is
This
etc.
Have had an
in external diameter.
iron ring
Wound many
made
coils of
(soft
copper
being separated by twine and calico there were three lengths of wire
80
each about 24
By
long and they could be connected as one length or used as separate lengths.
feet
wound
On
of the ring A.
trial
the direction being as with the former coils: this side call B.
Charges a battery of 10
pr.
plates
on
coil
one
side
and connected
coil
its
extremities by a copper wire passing to a distance and just over a magnetic needle (3 feet from iron
ring).
effort
Then connected
on needle.
the ends of
oscillated
It
and settled
On
breaking connection of
side
Made
much
on
the wires
all
SOURCE:
IRE
Trans,
P S Darnell
first
used
two
to link
electric circuits
power appears
by a magnetic
No
be Jablochkoff's patent
to
1832
in the electrical
and
it
sense
circuit.
The
Henry
is
to publish, priority
REFERENCE:
was given
to
Joseph Henry by
SEE ALSO: A
May
1877).
This was
'
Henry (USA)
1831)
phenomenom
Michael Faraday
transformers and
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
static
SELF INDUCTION
(see
in
to
of self induction
1830
in
but,
Adam
Williams (London:
and Charles
1832
Schilling
system of
SOURCE:
1833
was so
in 1836.
In that
same
year, William
British Library
C Babbage (UK)
(Calculating Machines)
He worked on
a
& UK)
own.
his
COMPUTER
In
Cooke (Russia
&
it
with his
to hold
own money
digital
until his
first
1000 words of 50
form of
the elements of
cards.
all
be incorporated
now
ability to
was
backward
to
be by
a specified
was
to
number of
cards.
1
Jablochkoff's patent covered a lighting system which includes a mention of a transformer transferring power supply to a
number of lumps
A Concise
SOURCE: The
Date Order
in
81
Pascal
Neuman by H H
von
to
'On the mathematical powers of the calculating engine' by Charles Babbage, 26 December 1837
(in
1834
ELECTROLYSIS
Faraday announced his two laws of electrolysis
amount of
in
electrical force,
chemical substances
was
SOURCE: A
on the molecular
Faraday (UK)
chemical
cell,
level.
Adam
Williams (London:
p 175 (1969)
1837
RELAYS
The
first
patent
No
in
of making telegraph signals or communications from one distant place to another by employement of
No 7390)
relays of metallic circuits brought into operation by electric currents'. In 1837 (British Patent
bell there,
SOURCE: Note
SEE ALSO: A
1837
granted.
Morse
in the
Dictionary of Scientists by
in the
Year 1837 by
Williams (London:
Adam
B Morse
develop the
to
electrical
B Morse (USA)
it
with Washington
DC,
telecommunications.
It
met
a real
SOURCE:
'Telecommunications
resume' by
Everitt Proc.
fast
first
No
9, p
system
his
in
connect Baltimore
to
development of
practical
vol 64,
demonstrated
first
need for
ELECTRIC MOTOR
earliest
He
government grant
of 37 miles.
IEEE
it
The
is
1837
to
USA
A Biographical
Fothergill
is
was
electrical
rapidly.
and philosophical
historical
T Davenport (USA)
February 1837 to
Patent
No
132 granted on 25
improvements
in
Propelling
by a 'galvanic battery',
is
which
is
intended to be driven
82
SOURCE:
L H A Carr and
C Wood
Chapman and
(London:
Hall) p 87
(1959)
1839
MICROFILMING
Dancer (UK)
The knowledge of
to store
prompted
mm.
size (1:160)
in
reference works) in a
(e.g.
reduced form, provided the reduction does not involve any hazard for the original documents. The same
idea
was advanced
beginning of
at the
BATTERY
century by
this
many
members of
review on microfilming' by
historial
Scharffenberg and
(Magnetohydrodynamic)
electricity
pumps and
is
in
839.
produced
from a moving
conducting
at right
make
which
fluid,
fluid is
angles to the
Faraday (UK)
MHD
the basis of an
is
field.
This principle
is
generator,
magnet and an
induction flow meters for conducting fluids. In recent proposals by Kantrowitz and Spron
is
at a
high velocity
is
passed through a magnetic field at right angles to the direction of florid electrodes placed on opposite
sides of the channel extract the
SOURCE:
power and
AEI Engineering p 62
Phillips
(March/April 1964)
SEE ALSO:
Experimental Researches
'Application of the
MHD
by
in Electricity
839
AVCO
PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT
The photovoltaic
Smith
first
effect
SOURCE:
light
Kontrowitz and P
Becquerel (France)
as early as 1839.
finally,
Willoughby
In 1873,
on metal electrodes.
Schlesinger and
Ramberg
IRE
Proc.
p 991
(May 1962)
9,
'Effect of light
5,
839?
electric effects
Acad.
Sci.
J. Sci.
vol
p 561 (1839)
electric current'
by
W Smith American
p 301 (1873)
BATTERY
The
W R Grove (UK)
(Fuel Cell)
that
is,
can avoid the thermodynamic limitation on efficiency imposed by the Carnot relation
scientists
the
first
produce
same
electricity.
catalyst,
He used
It
is
Langer made
has intrigued
though probably
In
badly
in different
physical form.
when an appreciable
hydrogen-oxygen
cell
One major
current drain
was
Gemini
fuel cell
used the
was
Mond
and
put
on
it.
In
1889,
black. This cell produced 1.46 watts at 0.73 volt at about 50 percent efficiency.
However,
it
contained
1.3
buy
as an electric generator.
it
capital cost
its
83
made
it
poor
oxygen.
SOURCE:
'Hydrocarbon-air fuel
voltaic series in
C G
systems' by
cell
Peattie
IEEE Spectrum p 69
(June 1966)
W R Grove Phil.
Mag.
vol 14,
p 127 (1839)
NOTE. The
in
R Grove
Mag.
Phil.
is
by no means new,
fuel
fuel cell
was
a 5 kilowatt unit
employed hydrogen-oxygen
development of
the
Pratt
&
this cell
in
at a
development
a modified version
UK' by
in the
first
Bacon, and
The
SOURCE:
demonstrated
was described
power
417 (1842)
vol 21, p
was used
to
a research subsidiary of
in the
Apollo spacecraft.
(February 1966)
1840
THERMOGRAPHY
J Herschel (UK)
Sir
in
of energy beyond the red end of the visible spectrum. As long ago as 1840 his son John demonstrated
thermal imaging and saw images in the dark.
in
use today,
John Herschel's methods were both embarrassingly simple and successful. He took a blackened sheet
of paper, soaked
it
and focused radiation from a hot source onto the sheet. The infra-red
in alcohol
radiation selectively heated parts of the paper, evaporating the alcohol and lightening
its
colour to form
an image.
Variations on this
the next 100 years but not until 1940, with the pressing need
now produce
all
significant progress
high-performance
was
a fraction of a degree.
SOURCE:
No
26, p 15 (June
1977)
843
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Wheatstone described
C Wheatstone (UK)
comprehensive paper on
electric
it
which he
measurements presented
in Proc.
Royal Society
to the
in
at
a time
the
in a
That paper
1843.
way
in
measurement
unstable
instruments and there was no sound method of calibrating them. Wheatstone found the theoretical basis
for solving these
there
The
was
problems
a simple
in
an obscure
German
Ohm
showed
that
basis of Wheatstone's
method of measurements
is
the current constant and so avoid any need for calibration of the galvanometers
Wheatstone remarked
to make
'rheostat')
Ohm's work showed that the resistance of a conductor of uniform section was proportional to
length. He showed how to determine the value of an unknown resistance by a simple substitution
that
it
was easy
because
its
is
is
noted
84
The
scale
SOURCE:
is
is
unknown
its
B P Bowers
same
the
as before.
resistance.
Electronics
& Power
1843
FACSIMILE REPRODUCTION
For the purpose of
review facsimile
this
is
Bain (UK)
and graphic data may be transmitted over communication channels and received
copy.
Its
when
form of
in the
a hard
technology advances
electronics and
in
the
drastic
fall
in
In
to
the
SOURCE:
vol 46, No
1845
'Facsimile
by
a review'
Malster and
it
modern method
C
were made
in
Wheatstone (UK)
in
who
1845 by Wheatstone,
strip.
Electronic Engineer
2 p 55 (February 1976)
soldering 50
is
ft.
by means of a
die.
This again
1879 the
direct extrusion
first
pre-heated to 120 C.
possible thermal
It
on
to cable
damage
in
which technique
as
will ultimately
is
was limited
to a
one
billet
Development
charge.
By
in service but
it
development
hard to predict
is
SOURCE: The
billets
hollow
this
AV
1962)
1845
circuits,
1st
law:
In
Kirchhoff (Germany)
1845 he gave the laws for closed
The
1847
GR
any point
in
is
equal to the
of the IR
W Siemens (Germany)
in
London by Dr Montgomerie
already been introduced into Europe. This was gutta percha, the
at the
sum
circuit.
when immersed
in
gum from
1843.
in sea water,
The
Malayan
electrical
were such
that
it
tree,
exhibited
and mechanical
had no
rival for
A Concise
over 70 years as an insulant
formed
in
1845-6
to exploit
85
submarine cables.
in
Date Order
in
use, and primitive extruders had been constructed for the production of
its
many
Before 1849,
made
underground
split rattan,
but none of these lasted long in the sea. In 1847 Werner Siemens used gutta percha for an underground
line in
In
America
in the
same
year,
River, where Ezra Cornell had previously connected Fort Lee with
which worked
847
p4
is
J Joule (UK)
well-known phenomenon
dimension
as the
Hudson
Story of the Submarine Cable booklet published by Submarine Cables Limited (AEI,
Magnetostriction
is
in the
(1960)
MAGNETOSTRICTION
material
York by
SOURCE: The
London)
New
changed.
is
is
varied,
in
and
in
in
set
up
into electrical
magnetic
altered
is
wrapped around
coil
it;
in
such a
Electro-
it.
mechanical interactions were observed as early as 1847 with Joules discovery of magnetostriction.
SOURCE:
by B Lax and
vol 30, p
the effects of
226
magnetism on
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Formal
workings of
logic.
digital
of
this binary
SOURCE:
1850
steel bars' J
P Joule
Phil.
or
answer
in
Laws of Thought',
in these writings,
X2 X
The equation
as an
Boole (UK)
satisfactorily explained
In
now symbolic
and
(April 1847)
for every
it
the foundation of
was possible
system
in the
what
is
to express logic in
is
basic to Boolean
THERMISTOR
The temperature-sensitive non-linear
resistors are
known
USA). They
Faraday (UK)
generally as thermistors, a
are,
name coined by
discovered that silver sulphide possessed a high negative temperature coefficient (although
the conduction
is
A magnesium
in
titanate spinet
was introduced
this
in
to the
The
is
USA
conduction
unstable.
Telephone Laboratories
is
case
effects).
the Bell
that
in this
from polarisation
investigated.
in general use,
blocks, etc.
SOURCE:
A Dummer
A Concise
86
1851
in
Date Order
first
later
temporary magnets
SOURCE: A
in
permanent and
Adam
Williams (London:
p 512 (1969)
1852
THIN FILMS
W R Grove (UK)
(Sputtering Process)
is
some cases
SOURCE:
many
vacuum
been received
far
has been found that certain materials are more conveniently deposited by sputtering.
it
is
it
for
method
more convenient
years, however,
In
many
A E
Lessor,
Maissel and
R E Thun IEEE
Spectrum
p 73 (April 1964)
SEE ALSO:
1
854
W R Grove
COMPUTERS
Phil.
(Calculating Machines)
Scheutz (Sweden)
Pehr Georg Scheutz built a difference engine in Stockholm inspired by Babbage's ideas and displayed
it
in
London
in
was capable of
Pascal
printing
own
its
H H
von Neuman by
to
tables (Scheutz
was
a printer).
1855
were
in
from an induction
its
coil
two electrodes of
With the
was
as light sources.
SOURCE:
for
SEE ALSO:
Gaugain
C. R.
different size
Acad.
artist
Sci.
and
was capable of
Most of them
recognition of
rectifying the
The
early
glow lamps
all
required
skilful glass
first
The
1856
small diameter glow tubes, often in the form called Geissler tubes.
oscillating current
many
Gaugain (France)
Geissler
(Germany)
filled
Many
at
with different gases and they were often used for decorations. As,
filled
commemorate Queen
Victoria's
Diamond
Jubilee.
However, sputtering
The
principal use
was
SOURCE:
SEE ALSO:
(1949)
A A
Bright Jr
(New
York:
MacMillan) p 218
et seq.
W
1857
DeLaRue, H
W Spottieswoode Proc.
Muller and
R. Soc.
first
was
electric arc
T Wray (UK)
No
21
London on
Two
September 1860.
for illumination.
T Wray
British patents
first
were used
arc 'tubes'
Patent
in
87
356 (1875)
vol 23, p
Suspension Bridge
The
on the Hungerford
were issued
Much
in Paris in 1863.
him
to
later,
In
in 1857.
low-pressure
in British
in
public his mercury-arc lamp on 12 April 1901. Georges Glaude, a French inventor, demonstrated the
first
in
Neon
sign, an
improvement of
Grand
Developments
in 1920.
SOURCE:
SEE ALSO:
1858
1857
P Pleucker (Germany)
In
SOURCE: A Biographical
p422 (1969)
MICROPHONE
that the
Dictionary of Scientists by
contact.
stretched
to
flat
SOURCE:
is
clamped
similarity to the
to actuate
at its
B B Bauer
Proc.
am
was
is
used
in
present-day
ci.
Physikalischen (Vereins
(Secondary)
Plante (France)
battery business dates back to Plante's discovery of the lead-acid system in 1860.
Secondary or storage
which
after discharge
the
eardrum
loose metal-to-metal
SEE ALSO:
requirement,
zu Frankfurt
The secondary
ring.
BATTERY
Adam
typically
field.
P Reis (Germany)
electrostatic
magnetic
Williams (London:
(Diaphragm type)
through gases
electric discharge
in a strong
stretched
Earliest
1860
GLOW DISCHARGES
at
1860
in that the
cells, the
cells
set
number of electrode
At present,
lead,
cadmium,
iron and
zinc anode materials, and lead dioxide, nickel dioxide and silver oxide cathode materials are the only
ones used
SOURCE:
in
commercial secondary
'Batteries'
by
C K
cells.
1958)
1865
first
C Maxwell (UK)
set
up
partial
analogies, between electric and magnetic lines of force and the lines of flow of an incompressible
fluid.
phenomena viewed
had become
fully
in the light
of the
1861-62 he gave
field
a fully
Thomson (Lord
Kelvin) in the
88
was represented by
about the axis of the tube, interference between the rotations of neighbouring tubes being avoided by
rows of intervening
means of
manner of
this
By
known
idle
to give a
quantitative description of the propagation of a disturbance in the model. Reinterpreted in terms of the
electromagnetic
field, this
in the
electromagnetic
field
speed equal to the ratio of the electrodynamic to the electrostatic units of electric force.
SOURCE: A
Adam
Williams (London:
p 358 (1969)
SEE ALSO:
vol 13,
866
pp 531-6
(8
C Maxwell
TC &
first
Proc. R. Soc.
London
December 1864)
by
field'
made and
Co (UK)
laid in
and Maintenance Company, then newly formed by the amalgamation of the Gutta Percha Company
and Glass,
two cables by
Mr R A
Elliot
Managing Director of
Company, from
the
the
Glass, the
first
of the
'All right',
abbreviation been available the message would doubtless have been even shorter.
few days
replying to
came
later
Queen
Victoria,
message of 405
at a
letters
speed of 37
States,
letters
letters
were crowned with success and the submarine cable was firmly established as a
intrepid pioneers
SOURCE:
'The Story of the Submarine Cable' booklet published by Submarine Cables Limited (AEI)
London (1960) p
1868
RHEOTOME
(Waveform
sample
a periodic
plotter)
Law) developed
waveform
at
Lenz (Germany)
known
at that point, to a
By
to chart the
By 1876
a sufficient sensitivity
to record biolectric
SOURCE:
'From torpedo
SEE ALSO:
ALSO:
868
Lippmann' E
by
Hill Electronics
& Power
due couer an
et
pp
(27
November 1975)
particulier etudiees au
BATTERIES
(Leclanche
d.
ges. Physiol,
cell is
moyen de
PI tigers Arch,
in
to telemetry'
l'electrometre de
events directly.
in
R Marchand
cell)
known
cell
cell
in
was
Leclanche (France)
common
use today.
It
originally described by
Basically,
it
is
widely used
in
Georges Leclanche
consists of a nearly
89
pure (99.99 per cent) zinc negative terminal, a carbon positive terminal, and a mixture of
chloride,
chloride,
chrome
ammonium
The mixture
Improvements which have been made include leak proofing, longer shelf
life,
SOURCE:
SEE ALSO:
L6clanch6
N D
16,
R.
Acad.
Set.
(1876))
1870
BATTERY
In about
L Clark (UK)
electrician, introduced a
new kind
of voltaic
cell
consisting of a positive electrode of mercury covered with a paste of mercurous sulphate and a negative
electrode of zinc.
The
electrolyte
was
to the cell a
mean
at
15.5 C.
(1200^V/C). However,
many
The Clark
in spite
of
determinations
from
cell suffered
this,
the
Chicago
International Electrical Congress in 1891 adopted the Clark cell together with the silver coulometer in
definitions of the
SOURCE:
ampere and
the volt.
SEE ALSO:
1874
also
p 19 (July 1964)
(1874)
M Bauer (Germany)
CAPACITORS (MICA)
Mica sheet
3,
NOTE: See
No
as dielectric
came
it
into
it
also
enabled the size of the capacitors to be reduced substantially for the same effective performance. The
drive of war requirements pushed this developed to the fore, although the use of mica as a capacitor
dielectric
SOURCE:
'Electrical capacitors in
our everyday
earlier.
life'
by P
6,
p 10 (January
1959)
SEE ALSO:
1876
Bauer
Z. duet. geol.
DG
first
Fitzgerald
covered by a patent
filed in
(UK)
described:
tin-foil)
alternately
interleaved with each other on to a cylinder, and the impregnation of such condenser with paraffin
wax
after rolling'
SOURCE:
IRE
Trans, on
Condensers or Accumulators' by
DG
components' by P S Darnell
F Mansbridge J
Inst.
Elec.
Engrs.
(May
A Concise
90
1876
TELEPHONE
It
A G
Bell
(USA)
he plucked a reed of a rudimentary transmitter. But that sound travelled over wire and was heard
another
first
when
Ma
Gray instead of
filed a
Had
it.
Bell.
telephone patent was issued to Bell on March 7 1876 three days before the historic
the
first
human
intelligible
come
here.
Watson
a 'Ma'
new
moment
first
commercial
when
wooden box
both transmitter and receivers The talker had to alternately talk and
According
that contained
tentative agreement,
offer.
The
'Alexander
27 February
later
listen.
merchant named
They reached
Hubbard made
875 and
Company, Gardiner
a simple
Bell a similar
Hubbard, Trustee.
December 1975)
Electronics p 91 (11
SEE ALSO:
SOURCE:
in
reed-and-diaphragm
to be holding a similar
now famous
different,
The
who happened
telephone signal.
first
was working on
declaring that he
Bell
Graham
E Flood
Electronics
&
its
& Power
is
devoted
111/1976
'Bell's great invention: the
first
DA
Hounshell Proc.
IEEE
vol 64,
No
9,
877
PHONOGRAPH
T A
(Gramophone)
One of
wrapped
around a cylinder,
a sheet of tinfoil
in 1876,
Edison (USA)
drew
Thomas Alva
partially deaf.
Edison,
Sometime
set a
it,
little
date of invention
as to
how
the
more
rhyme
that begins:
'Mary
lamb'. After making a few changes, he cranked the cylinder again, and from the horn of
The
all
of 1877, Edison
cylinder, and into a mouthpiece attached to the needle he shouted the nursery
had a
who was
in the fall
was
later recollected
is.
We
the
know, however,
was
first
is
filed
phonograph.
some question
24 December
SOURCE: 'Disk
IREp 738 (May
SEE ALSO: US
Patent
1962)
No 200
521 (T
Edison)
S Bachman,
Proc.
A Concise
1877
MICROPHONE
Among
T A
(Carbon)
Edison (USA)
was
the earliest devices intended for converting vibration into electrical impulses
This
intelligible speech.
is
Reis' loose
event seems
latter
91
to
first
magnetic
Bell, using a
microphone, on 3 June 1875. However, Bell's microphone proved not to be sufficiently sensitive for
telephone work and the experiments of Berliner, Edison, Hughes and others soon thereafter introduced
a long era of
first
to
dominance
To Edison goes
are
still
used
present-day microphones.
in
made
chemically and roasted in several stages under a stream of hydrogen. This drives out volatile matter,
The
coal.
last step
SOURCE:
SEE ALSO: T A
1877
Edison:
LOUDSPEAKER
US
(Moving
B B Bauer
No 474 230
Patent
Proc.
magnetic
is
filed
of the process
particles.
coil type)
US
Patent
No 474
231/2
W Siemens (Germany)
was
disclosed by
first
Siemens. Lodge, Pridham and Jenson and others contributed to the suspension system. However, there
breakthrough
in the
loudspeakers
in
in the
in
The success
1925.
of the development was due to their recognition of three physical factors with relation to the action
The second
the diaphragm.
system which
is
first is
to
that the
sound-power output of
a small vibrating
diaphragm gives
The
is
mass controlled.
It
a loudspeaker
that
is
due
if
rise to a
third is a vibrating
below the
lowest frequency of interest, the complementary variations of the second and third factors which control
the
first
fail.
SOURCE:
'Loudspeakers' by
SEE ALSO:
H F
Electroacoustics by
W Siemens:
S Pridham and P
German
Patent
1878
AIEE
vol 44,
pp 461-75
all
it
filed
filed
Patent
new
14 December 1877
27 April 1898
No
1448 279
filed
28 April 1920
Rice and
Kellogg
(April 1925)
CATHODE RAYS
In his
frequency
No 2355
Trans
US
to the
No 9712
Jenson:
up
Sir
W Crookes (UK)
Bakerian lecture of 1878 and his British Association Lecture of 1879, he announced various
The
title
SOURCE: A
p 120 (1969)
new
state in
free path
was so
large
Williams (London:
Adam
A Concise
92
1878
and
CF
Cross (UK)
Swan
fibres
for
lamp
who made
glass-blower
SOURCE:
filaments.
make
nitro-cellulose
Topham
the
the glass globes. Cross discovered the viscose process for the fibres.
Jewkes,
Sawers and
p 59(1958)
NOTE: T A
Edison
Edison's main interest was to perfect the incandescent electric lamp, of which the construction was
now
'Edison'
he devised the cotton thread filament which, when joined with bulb patents, made the
alternatives,
lamp
SOURCE: A
commercial success.
Williams (London:
Adam
p 159 (1969)
1878
Hunnings (UK)
the credit for inventing a carbon transmitter using a multiple loose contact,
which
soon took the form of a disk electrode projecting into a contact cup containing granulated carbon
From
particles.
SOURCE:
that
Electroacoustics by
SEE ALSO: Henry Hunnings (granulated-carbon microphone) British Patent No 3647 dated 16
US Patents No 246 512 (filed 14 May 1881) issued 30 August 1881, and No 250 250
September 1878;
(filed
1879
30 September 1881) issued 29 November 1881; both assigned to American Bell Telephone Co.
DIODE DETECTOR
In 1879,
D Hughes (UK)
truly
in
London. Hughes was using the as yet undiscovered Hertzian waves, the radio
He was
may have
functioned like a self- restoring coherer, or, possibly, in a manner closely resembling the rectifying
action of crystal detectors which
SOURCE:
No 411
Publication
1879
came
AR
p 15 (September 1995)
HALL EFFECT
E H
Hall (UK)
SOURCE:
field, a potential
move
in a
given direction
field.
edRM
(1974)
1880
PIEZO ELECTRICITY
The
relation
SOURCE:
P Curie (France)
inclinees' by
J Curie and
l'electricite polaire
Sci.
dans
les cristaux
hemiedres
a faces
A Concise
1882
WIMSHURST MACHINE
The
Wimshurst (UK)
electrostatic electricity
discs are
made of an
by
friction.
It
consists of
in capacitors
93
are generated
on
as they rotate
to
ball conductors.
REFERENCE:
Text
Electricity by
Duncan and S C
Starling
(London: MacMillan
REFERENCE:
Sarbacher
1884
first
Nipkow
Paul
P Nipkow
in
was
the
on a small region
As
at the
cell
light
The image
was made
was
image
disk.
It
to be transmitted
to spin at
had 24 holes
was focused
in a straight line.
a succession of currents,
to the intensity
cell.
The
of the light on a
Nipkow
built
no hardware
To form
the transmitter,
at
which
is
modulator to vary
would be needed.
not have permitted him to build his system; the light modulator alone would have required
watts of control power. His disk, however,
built,
model
some 10
SOURCE:
1884
was
No 3256
SOURCE:
H Holmes
Holmes (UK)
1884.
in
'Improvements
title:
For
this
device he was
in or applicable to switches or
conducting apparatus'.
L H A Carr and
C Wood
(1959)
1884
BATTERY
The
number of
C L
was
made over
additional attempts
War
II
that a
first
Clarke (USA)
suggested by Clarke
in 1884.
cell
it
was
was invented by
Ruben.
SOURCE:
'Batteries'
by
C K
S Lozier Proc.
1958)
SEE ALSO: C L
Clarke:
US
cells'
Patent
No 298
175
(May 6 1884)
94
1885
TRANSFORMER
(Power)
Zipernowski,
Deri and
OT
Blathy (Hungary)
The
earliest patent
Max
The
date of application
'Improvements
SOURCE:
all
in Induction
was applied
this patent
and granted
for
in
numbered 5201
in that
title:
L H A Carr and
C Wood
(London:
Chapman and
Hall) p 89/90
(1959)
1885
It
Composition Type)
S Bradley (UK)
of passing interest to note that the earliest moulded-rod composition-type resistor of which the
author has been able to trace any record dates back before the days of radio.
In 1885, a
moulded-
composition resistor was patented, comprising a mixture of carbon and rubber heated and moulded
to
SOURCE:
Pt.
Ill,
SEE ALSO: C
1885
US
Slattery:
D C
P R Coursey.
IEE
Proc.
vol 96,
p 169 (1949)
US
Voss:
No 354
Patent
TRANSFORMER
8076/1885.
275 (1885)
No 573 558
Patent
No
(1896)
(Distribution)
For the
earliest patent
refer to
German
No
Patent
Deri (Austria)
system
in a distribution
it
is
necessary to
in the
United
Kingdom.
Max
under the
title
SOURCE:
(translated) of
'Improvements
L H A Carr and
in the Distribution
of Electricity'.
C Wood
Chapman and
(London:
Hall) p 91
(1959)
1887
GRAMOPHONE
On 4 May
it
(Phonograph)
1887, Emile Berliner applied for a patent on what he called a 'Gramophone' to distinguish
year earlier.
The
first
groove
Berliner (USA)
in this record
figure of the
when he introduced
had
earlier
drawings
others.
This
movement,
lateral
wound on
a record
a cylindrical
flat-disk record.
'hill
The
shows
his first
a lateral side-to-side
in Berliner's patent
of sound vibrations on
this
process which permitted transfer of the original engraving to copper or nickel. Thus Berliner achieved
a
longer did
By
artists
groove, his
own
possible.
No
flat
disc,
and
a coating of Bell's
many
ideas of his
own and
others:
Scott's lateral
as the
industry standard for half a century, thus Berliner deserves the mantle as the father of disk recording
and reproduction.
A Concise
and reproduction' by
first
R. Soc. Arts,
vol LVI,
633^9
pp
May
(8
Proc.
1908)
A D
physiologist from
Waller (UK)
in
In 1901
S Bachman, B
ELECTROCARDIOGRAPH
The
95
'The gramophone and the mechanical recording and reproduction of musical sounds' by
L N Reddie /
1887
at the
colleague of the physicist and 1908 Nobel Prize-winner Gabriel Lippmann (France), developed the loop
galvanometers. This
that
weighed 661
lb
made him
and required
now
The
heart.
result
people to operate
five
is
woman
(ECG),
a piece of
it.
on her abdomen
woman by
equipment
to
who can
is not.
It
is
health of the baby, thus saving everyone a great deal of time and effort.
SOURCE:
(New
1887
AERIALS
It
Inventions
Wave
(Radio
first
balls separated
HR
Propagation)
The
Mark Young
in the
metallic plates,
flat
same
7-mm
waves
in
in his classical
experiments
straight line,
long.
Hertz (Germany)
at their
at
Karlsruhe
to a rod
in
cm
30
Ruhmkorff
coil.
In
order to detect the radiated waves, Hertz employed a receiving circuit consisting of a circular loop of
SOURCE:
The
'Early history of the antennas and propagation field until the end of
I antennas'
SEE ALSO:
(Wiedeman)
1887
in
by P S Carter and
H H
NF
vol 31, pp
SWITCH, QUICK
World War
I,
part
Physikund Chetnie
Hertz Ann.
Holmes (UK)
later variant
provided for
a loose-
handle operating a spring over a dead centre by means of a toggle action, so that both quick-make and
quick-break were obtained. (British Patent
SOURCE:
No 5648
of 1887.)
L H A Carr and
C Wood
(London:
Chapman and
Hall) p 95
(1959)
1888
INDUCTION MOTOR
was improvements
was granted
and
it
The
specification
SOURCE:
(1959)
No
is
in the
Tesla (USA)
was taken
name of Nikola
power and
New
to apparatus therefore'
York,
USA.
L H A Carr and
C Wood
A Concise
96
889
COMPUTERS
Hollerith
1889.
in
He used
a system of holes in a
was the
it
Hollerith
machine
chose because
Date Order
(Tabulating Machinery)
worked on
he patented
in
shown
in figure
cards were
6=j
Pascal
to
in the
USA
which
by 3^ inches
at
in size,
which he
1.4.
1890 census
is
The
etc.
punch card
(USA)
von Neuman by
H H
&
SEE ALSO:
B
edited by
89
'An
Hollerith, reprinted
is
is
Almon Brown
was
installed in the
SOURCE:
A B
be used commercially
first
money
call to
because,
filings,
He
Strowger (USA)
practical
said that
was determined
to invent a
system
patented his ideas in 1889, and three years later his equipment
TELONDE, No
at the
USA.
E Branly
to 'Hertzian
USA.
operators.
when subjected
first
when people
COHERER
In Paris,
by
(France)
filings
do not transmit
A Concise
an electric current because there are
air
The
filings
remain a conductor
little
enough
together,
little
to offer a
97
the range of
by shaking or tapping.
it
was
the
first
form of
SOURCE:
Larsen (London:
Dent
&
Sons) and
(New
York:
Roy
1891
BATTERY
In 1891,
E Weston (USA)
New
1893 disclosing a
cadmium
cell in
cell
was
a definite
40
cell
finally the
SOURCE:
cadmium amalgam,
work of
Patent
in
the depolariser
in
this
made
committee, Weston's
a saturated solution of
1893
was replaced by
cadmium
cell
No 494 827
No
3,
p 19 (July 1964)
WAVEGUIDES
Thomson (UK)
J J
Perhaps the
the
first
in Electricity
waves
in
and Magnetism' by
J J
what might
result if an electric
Even now,
this
problem
A much more
in
1893
in
is
in
connection
SOURCE:
arts'
by
G C
SEE ALSO:
Recent Researches
1895
Mag.
electric
in Electricity
and Magnetism by
Lord Rayleigh
W K Rontgen (Germany)
X-RAYS
On
J J
November
that,
when
SOURCE: A
Williams (London:
Adam
p 448 (1969)
1896
TELEPHONE DIAL
E A
Keith,
J Erickson and J
Erickson (UK)
The
early
Strowger,
used push-buttons which the caller was required to press a number of times depending
98
When
numbers became
was no longer
SOURCE: The
1896
Marconi
in the
E A
in 1896,
Keith,
at first
roof of the
first
much
signals
transmitted over one hundred yards, a satisfactory demonstration being arranged from the
year,
(Italy)
were
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY
On
and
practical,
dial.
except
in all countries
Telegraph
SOURCE: A
Company
in
suspended from a
aerial
London
in
developed world-wide
a Wireless
Cornwall
in the following
His
affiliations.
first
transatlantic signals
to St John's,
kite.
Adam
Williams (London:
p 352 (1969)
897
ELECTRON
By improving
Thomson (UK)
J J
the
ray experiments,
Thomson
combined
with the long-known deflections by a magnet determined the ratio of the charge to the mass of the
supposed
particles.
This ratio e/m was over 1000 times larger than the ratio for hydrogen, the lightest
that this
was due
to the
with this small mass were universal constituents of matter, since they were the
same whatever
chemical nature of the gas carrying the discharge and the electrodes through which
He examined two
ratio as the
fall.
The
on the
particles to
SOURCE: A
p 51
in the
form
In both he
light.
to
found
measure
called these
atom regarded
the
left.
other cases of the discharge of electricity, namely, those from a hot wire negatively
atom
entered and
it
new
J
hydrogen
Adam
Williams (London:
(1969)
D L
(1964)
'The
897
first
subatomic
particle'
by
Frisch
New
Scientist p
its
in
F Braun (Germany)
1897, the
same year
in
which
J J
Thomson measured
cathode-ray oscillograph
at the
first
Just like the early X-ray tube, the 'Braun tube' used gas discharge
was developed
Even
phenomena
mm
The
and
Hg was
still
retained in
SOURCE:
Schlesinger and
Ramberg
Proc.
IRE
p 991,
method
552 (1897)
Thomson
J J
'Cathode rays' by
99
Phil.
Mag.
Shiers Scientific
American
vol 230. p 92
(March
1974)
1897
RESISTOR (Carbon
The
T E Gambrell and A F
Film Type)
earliest type
when
apparently forgotten
the greater
demand
arose.
Harris (UK)
those formed by spraying or otherwise applying the conducting coating and then baking on to a glass
filament,
and
with terminals connected to the filament coating by casting into a metal such as type-metal.
SOURCE:
Ill,
one
really
he found
'It
Proc.
IEE
vol 96,
pt.
No 25412/1897
MAGNETIC RECORDING
No
R Coursey
p 170(1949)
knowns how
Poulsen (Denmark)
that:
would be possible
recorded on
it
to
magnetize a wire
to different
by running the current from a microphone through an electromagnet and by either drawing
the wire rapidly past the electromagnet or drawing the electromagnet rapidly past the wire.'
by de-magnetizing
Poulsen invented
1900.
He
filed
commend
it:
and recordings could be played thousands of times without destroying the quality.
it
this
Telegraphone
in
1898; with
he
it
won
the
Grand Prix
Paris Exposition in
at the
in
filed additional
patent applications in the United States and most European countries. These early patents suggested,
as recording media, steel wires
still
SOURCE: The
applied in
and tapes and discs of material coated with magnetisable metallic dust,
steel
all
types of
Source of Invention by
modern magnetic
J
Jewkes,
recorders.
Sawers and
Stillerman (London:
MacMillan
&
SEE ALSO:
1900
'The development of the magnetic tape recorder' Engineer (18 March 1949)
CAPACITORS
L Lombardi
(Ceramic)
for
many
Being completely
at
(Italy)
They
SOURCE:
'Dielectric losses
by
A Dummer
(London: Pitman) p
L Lombardi,
homogenous
British Patent
4, p
No
15 (1956)
plates,
9133,
more
filed
particularly
May
17 1900.
959 (1902)
18. p
172
(May 1931)
'Insulating materials of the steatite group' by
E Schonberg
100
No 440951/1934
1900
BATTERY
TA
(Nickel-Iron Cell)
The nickel-iron-alkaline
form
to
same
grouped together
Edison (USA)
1908.
in
as discovered
by Edison
filled
SOURCE:
by
'Batteries'
C K
Morehouse,
R Glicksman
and
S Lozier Proc.
1958)
Edison nickel-iron-alkaline
by F
cell'
C Anderson
Electrochetn.
J.
Soc.
vol 99,
p 244C(1952)
1900
QUANTUM THEORY
Max
always
in
of packets of
in a collection
energy
is
in
order to explain
SOURCE:
1900
that
He was
finite size.
Planck (Germany)
Science at
BATTERY
War by
(Nickel-Cadmium
Crowther and
R Whiddington
Cell)
HMSO)
(London:
Junger
&
Berg (Sweden)
1900
is
The nickel-cadmium
battery differs
SOURCE:
by
'Batteries'
C K
in the
Morehouse,
use of
cadmium anodes
R Glicksman
(1947) p 124
and
abuse
in that
The nickel-cadmium
in place of iron.
S Lozier Proc.
1958)
SEE ALSO:
1901
Storage Batteries by
(New
A Kennedy
(USA)
When Marconi
in
succeeded
first
in establishing radio
in the
USA
proposed
that the
phenomena
could reflect radio waves. However, another explanation was that the waves were detectable because
of diffraction around the earth's curvature, a phenomenon which would be more observable, the longer
occur
constant of the atmosphere should progressively change with altitude due to the
if the dielectric
The observation of
the
that of the
and moisture.
Breit
layer.
and Tuve
in
1926, definitely confirmed the existence of several such layers by sounding the atmosphere with short
pulses sent from a transmitter on earth which were reflected from the layers back to a receiver adjacent
to the transmitter.
characteristics of the nature of the reflection and the degree of penetration as a function of frequency.
was renamed
the 'Ionosphere'
The region of
F|
and F2
layers, the
SOURCE:
'Telecommunications
resume' by
Levitt Proc.
IEEE
vol 64,
No
9,
historical
and philosophical
SEE ALSO:
28, p
1901
'A
test
Breit and
vol
first
P Cooper-Hewitt (USA)
American individual
mercury early
inventor.
at the
Sir
differed
the
101
FLUORESCENT LAMP
The
also produced
it
being designed to produce visible radiation, not ultra-violet. In 1901 he used rhodamine dye, which
fluoresces red, to improve the light's colour, but the rhodamine deteriorated too rapidly for this to be
a success.
much
at
was
the
first
modify
its
to
the
same time
as the
Cooper-
it,
powders and
to
in
lamp.
SOURCE:
Jewkes,
Sawers and
pp 298/9 (1958)
SEE ALSO:
1902
'Lighting by luminescence' by
in
its first
is
June 1939)
Danielson (Sweden)
inception.
(3
to Ernst
information
full
is
After relating the advantages of the over-magnetised synchronous motors for eliminating lag (of current)
and referring
to the difficulty
in
resistance for connecting to the secondary element of said motor, a source of continuous electric
currents (and) a switch arrangement so connected that the secondary part of the motor
may by means
of said switch arrangement either be connected to the said resistance or to the said source of continuous
currents'.
With reference
'When
is
is
is
to a
synchronous
a three-phase-secondary
and were
it
somewhat archaic
outlines of the
machines, might have been taken from a present-day text book or manufacturer's pamphlet.
SOURCE:
L H A Carr and
C Wood
pp 97/8
1902
brilliant analysis
of the
of atoms.
They
phenomena
led Rutherford
and Soddy
to
announce
in 1902,
only
asserted that atoms, the very foundation of matter and nature, were exploding, and
not according to any rule, but merely by chance. Einstein has said that he 'could not believe that the
first
to the
throwing of dice'.
It
needed
A Concise
02
He proved
that
little
structures, consisting of a
made
full
the
all
relatively
heavy nucleus,
like the
sum of
in
SOURCE:
1904
War by
Science at
Crowther and
R Whiddington
(1947) p 123
Fleming (UK)
was appointed
HMSO)
(London:
later
'electrician' to the
he spent
Company
in
1882. During a visit to the United States in 1884 he visited Edison to discuss electric lighting problems,
and
it
moment
of particular
is
made
discovery he had
plate
when
that
He used
was very
showed
It
interested in the
No 24850
Specification
SOURCE:
plate
an
was
immersed
to
stations.
in
to
Fleming
which he
in
British Patent
appreciation' by Captain
manufactured
later
in a
Thermionic Valves
for
in tubular
Moscicki (UK)
form known as the Moscicki tube
in practical wireless
flat
all
continued to provide the condensers for the spark wireless transmitting apparatus up
in oil,
SOURCE:
one-way
to the
(1955)
power
is
a metal
that Professor J
which
his return
in
galvanometer
phenomenon, and, on
lamp
the plate
Edison demonstrated a
at least
'Electrical capacitors in
our everyday
by P
life'
6,
p 10 (January
1959)
SEE ALSO:
Moscicki 'Improvements
in electric
No
1904
1905
was issued
issued to
that 'the
Anson
as an electrical conductor
Betts,
who
sodium be enclosed
A G
is
hardly a
Betts
new
(USA)
Back
one.
in 1901, a basic
Swiss
patents, respectively,
were
prefereably hermeticallyby
reinforcing material.'
In 1927,
in steel pipes,
and
in
1930,
Dow
of the
Dow
constructed a line 10
The
SOURCE:
'Insulated
(November 1966)
in
sodium conductors
J
Steeve,
a future trend'
I
long, by joining
Schneider,
to
diameter by 260
E Ruprecht, P H Ware, E
cm
by
from 500
to
at
4000 amperes
Dow's
direct
in considerable detail.
L E Humphrey, R C
F Matthysse and E
Scoran
Hess,
Addis,
IEEE Spectrum p 73
R H Boundy
by
as electrical conductor'
in
Date Order
R H Boundy
103
Trans. Electrochemical
1932)
T De
pp 202-32 (1955)
1905
THEORY OF RELATIVITY
The
constant under
is
of nature, and
it
began
to
From
line
this
were
conditions.
all
released,
there
would be
in a unit
of mass.
If a
to turn nearly
that
it
Science at
a vast
into energy,
War by
Crowther and
R Whiddington
(London:
H C Dun woody
March 1906.
It
HMSO)
one of the
first
Henry
this
crystal rectifiers.
its
for
first
Ironically,
the
for
good
results,
Fessenden (USA)
Fessenden
at
kw
many
was connected
antenna
in the
Eiffel
SOURCE: 'AM
(1938)
microphone which
Clear reception
Tower
in Paris,
and
in
in
1907 from
his laboratory in
These experiments, which were conducted with arc transmitters of about 500 watts
circuit.
SEE ALSO:
Reginald
of power and which was built by the General Electric Co., under the
W Alexanderson.
Dr E F
was obtained
Dr.
practicable.
RADIO BROADCASTING
The
The
H C Dunwoody, who
consulting work.
SOURCE:
1906
the proper
(1947) p 125
company
would produce
it
(USA)
it
energy was
and proportionate
carborundum the
When
would be enormous.
De
seemed
as congealed energy;
He found
battle.
motions
to all the
SOURCE:
1906
was extended
relativity
of development, Einstein showed that mass and energy were one of these pairs of
output of energy.
enough
The theory of
in the light
interchangeable aspects.
much energy
(USA)
be evident that many apparently different things were the same fundamental
Einstein
of relativity was proposed by Einstein in 1905 to explain the observed fact that the
brilliant theory
speed of light
in the
and
FM
Broadcasting' by
R F Guy
G L
Proc.
IRE p
81
(May 1962)
A Concise
104
1906
in
Date Order
THREE-ELECTRODE TUBE
While Fleming was developing
on somewhat similar
States
L
his two-electrode valve,
de Forest (USA)
in the
achieved by using a voltage on the intermediate electrode (grid) to control the plate current.
months
later
United
lines,
few
de Forest extended the patent to cover the use of the valve as a detector. The introduction
extended the potential applications of the thermionic valve, and much credit
very greatly
rectifier
due
is
to
achievement.
Unfortunately, the invention of the triode led to considerable bitterness and litigation involving Fleming
on
his
own
two-electrode valve.
to the
On
end of
when
1943,
until
own.
Initially the
always maintained
that
he was not
that
de Forest's
been invalid.
SOURCE:
an
appreciation' by Captain
GONIOMETER
The
making
possible,
SOURCE:
A Artom
CF
2 (1955)
the old,
cumbersome
by
Italian
(Italy)
Alessandro Artom.
Now
(November 1982)
1907
W Pickard (USA)
In addition to the silicon detectors, Wireless Specialty sold detectors using other minerals discovered
Pickard in
November
1907: Pyron (iron pyrite) and Perikon (zincite in contact with chalcopyrite).
name Perikon was coined from PERfect pIcKard cONtact. Each mineral had
most
sensitive, but
heavy
to
own
its
field:
Perikon was
be readjusted often, whereas silicon was very stable and able to withstand
static discharges.
SOURCE:
1908
had
by
The
ELECTRONIC ORGAN
vacuum tube
(USA)
Cahill
photo-optics, magnetic or
blown
reeds, etc.
of these, called the Telharmonium, was invented by Thadius Cahill and demonstrated
size of a small power-generating station,
it
in
1908.
One
The
Then through
all
1935
Mr
Laurens
Hammond, based on
his
synchronous
instruments
Since then,
in a variety
commercially
many manufacturers
all
SOURCE:
Book (London:
Newnes-Butterworth) chap.
(1976)
SEE ALSO: T
Cahill:
US
Patent
No
17,
p 17-2
A Concise
L Hammond: US
1908
Patent
No 1956350
this time,
105
experiments were being conducted with the collection of current by a positive wire
Date Order
GEIGER COUNTER
About
in
that
were
to
paper by Rutherford and Geiger, which showed that the number of charges of an
in a
ionizing event could be multiplied several thousand times by the ionising action of electrons in the high
field
tubes and
now
start
The technique of
was
established in 1928, and the following year, schemes for determining the coincidence of ionising events
SOURCE:
SEE ALSO: E
1908
Rutherford and
TELEVISION
Geiger Proc.
R. Soc.
A A Campbell-Swinton (UK)
(Electronic)
St.
As
remote
Nipkow
first
physicist
who
same time
AA
a system of electronic television, but with cathode-ray tubes for transmission as well as for reception.
He published
that the
magazine Nature
image transmitted
SOURCE: A
p323
1909
History of Invention by
Larsen (London:
in
way could be
in this
up
split
in
1911
and reassembled
into,
of a second.
&
Dent
Sons)
(New
York:
Roy
Publishers)
(1971)
FERRITES
(HF)
L Snoek
(Holland)
The
first
synthesised such
come about
until
ferrites.
However,
Snoek from
the practical
made
in
Germany
in
1909 by Hilpert,
who
first
as
ferrite
UHF
region.
SOURCE:
B Lax and
SEE ALSO:
Ferriten
und Eisenoxyden' by
New Developments
1910
in
Zusammenhange
Ferromagnetic Materials by
Sir
the
L Snoek (New
NEON LAMP
Development of
in
a gas
filling
Ten years
later
Claude (France)
is
the
principal
constituent.
of which neon
2248-61 (1909)
two
38-ft.
which
to isolate substantial
which the
light
comes
at that time.
a strong
on
A Concise
106
H E Watson
first in
Germany
1918 and
in
neon
110
Date Order
in
The
fall.
USA
activity in the
Holland.
Once
was required
the cathode
later in
220
for
in
and eventually,
in
indicator.
SOURCE:
(1911-61)' by
ATOMIC THEORY
The general model of
H E Watson
atom was
proposed by Rutherford
first
in
of protons and neutrons, about which rotated electrons in orbits. Such a system appears not unlike our
solar
system
SOURCE:
1911
'Semiconductor electronics
1.
of the components.
Solid-state physics' Electro-Technology p 95 (October 1960)
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
The discovery of superconductivity
Onnes (Netherlands)
carrying out a
systematic investigation at Leiden of the electrical resistivity of metals in the range of low temperatures
opened up by
helium
in
resistance below
SOURCE:
to detect
any remaining
Book Co.) p
measurements he
1908.
A Dummer (New
York: Hayden
121
SEE ALSO:
1911 Onnes
1913 Onnes
1914 Onnes
H K Commun.
H K Commun.
1912
No
Phys.
when brought
into a
magnetic
133b, Suppl.
No
No
34
field')
TUNG AR RECTIFIER
Langmuir (USA)
During the spring and summar of 1912, Dr. Irving Langmuir of General Electric became interested and
active in the development of the gas-filled, tungsten-filament, incandescent lamp. These early laboratory
it
that operated at
would operate
at
in the bulb.
the mercury vapour condensed and ran back into the filament portion.
As one of
tested
was
on the arc as a
work
rectifier
at
was noticed
that,
when
the filament
at
very high
sometimes burned
the break.
were made
It
at that
was
time.
in the arc as a
tests
A
In the early part of
it
became
in
Date Order
107
1915 the possible need for a garage battery charger was considered and during 1916
a going concern.
SOURCE:
1912
CLOUD CHAMBER
W C White Proc.
CT R
IRE p
Wilson (UK)
occur
that
it
even
artificial
that
air.
For condensation
in the
He was
much
showed up
that
it
was
his
Cloud Chamber,
which
in
modern
SOURCE: A
Williams (London:
Adam
p 564 (1969)
1912
GA
N G Palmgren
Betulander and
(Sweden)
The
conceived
in
1912 by
Although
selector.
to the selector
RADIO
Betulander and
name
is less
N G
known, Betulander
well
it
was
first
is to
is
exchange.
SOURCE: The
1912
his
GA
W H Eccles (UK)
(Ionospheric propagation)
in
postulated the existence of a conducting (ionized) layer in the earth's upper atmosphere and suggested
After
it
became
clear that
diffraction could not explain the substantial field strengths actually received at great distance, increased
attention
was directed
to this proposal of
an ionised region.
Larmor
the ionosphere
1924 re-examined the work of Eccles and others and ascribed the major
in
is
field, is
work was
later
now
in
1912,
The Eccles-Larmor
to
in a
nonhomogeneous
ionosphere.
SOURCE:
and
II'
(May 1962)
waves occurring
in nature
pp 79-99 (June
1912)
1912
CIRCUITRY
The regenerative
circuit
was invented
decided
E H Armstrong and I
Langmuir (USA) and A Meissner
(Germany)
de Forest,
(Regenerative)
in
Germany.
de Forest's favour.
in
in the
United
Supreme Court
108
RF
at
energy
Date Order
in
is
in
By 1922
they provided large amplification of small signals and small amplification of large signals.
they had reached the high point in their development and had almost entirely superseded crystal
SOURCE:
art
sets.
WO
vol 10,
1912
circuit'
by E
H Armstrong
HM
(see
Fessenden and
E H Armstrong
(USA)
figure 5.2)
Professor Fessenden, in his search for an improved receiver, invented the heterodyne system in 1912.
Previous receivers had merely acted as valves, detecting by turning a direct current on and off
amounts proportional
in
wave generated
at the
these two alternating currents resulted in an audio beat-note, the difference frequency between the
two
waves. Although Fessenden's local oscillator was an arc source, very bulky and troublesome,
was
it
in
frequency. Several parallel developments took place in the United States and in Europe.
name an
at
E H Armstrong
SOURCE:
H Hammon, A
SEE ALSO:
'The superheterodyne
RELIABILITY
At the
difficult to
risk of
12, p
Alexanderson, and
its
origin,
AIEE (USA)
(Standards)
some controversy,
it
AIEE
Standard No.
first
first
1
step in the
this
new
field
Based
in the
of
title
reliability
can be
of this document
mechanism of
EF
stand out. Armstrong fully appreciated the problem and obtained a patent in 1920 that
1913
It is
inventor since the superheterodyne system as a basic idea seemed to appear from several sources
electrical
and electronic
field,
However,
there has
in all fairness,
should be stated that the element of time-dependent degradation was not a part of the referenced
it
first
SOURCE:
Proc.
1913
IRE
'The
reliability
p 1323
field
from
C M
Ryerson
N Bohr (Denmark)
orbits in
its
(May 1962)
constant; (3)
if
in the earlier
momentum
is
an integral
is
emitted
or absorbed corresponding to the difference in energy between those orbits. Thus, various stable orbits
A Concise
SOURCE:
1913
'Semiconductor electronics
RESISTORS
Since
1.
review
article
W F G Swann
Swann measured
necessary to refer to
it
is
is
example
typical
Date Order
in
this is a
thin films.
which
in 1913,
Dr
some of
G Swann
how
illustrates
95 (October 1960)
(UK)
on
the subject of
little
109
in this period.
the resistivity of sputtered platinum films as a function of the sputtering time and
hence of the film thickness; he also recorded the temperature coefficient of resistance of these films
resistivity associated
with very thin films and also a negative temperature coefficient of resistance in the thinnest films.
SOURCE:
Electronic
SEE ALSO:
1914
G Swann
Phil.
Mag.
vol 28 p
history, science
1914 Dr Langmuir
first
Bennett
Langmuir (USA)
He showed how
of a grid.
467 (1914)
THYRATRONS
In
and technology' by
main arc
in
each rectifying cycle. Thus, the average arc current through the tube was controlled when an ac anode
voltage was used.
In
improved on
scientist,
this
any point
in the
made
its
to
1936 Dr
gas or vapour.
dropped
to a
positive-ion
SOURCE:
1914
Hull developed the idea of operating a hot-cathode diode in a low pressure of an inert
As
bombardment of
the cathode
is
this
not destructive.
CG
ASDIC
The
At
volts.
(UK)
waves
the sound
Committee),
set
in a
up
system
to
World War
I,
when
a piezoelectric oscillator
was used
to
emit
system called the ASDIC, named for the Allied Submarine Detection Investigation
in 1917.
II,
Britain outfitted
its fleet
ASDICs
with
that
had the quartz-steel transducer. In the US, meanwhile, work on the magnetostriction-tube transducer
SOURCE:
1915
the
ACOUSTIC MINE
The
RI.
acoustic mine
Wood (UK)
later
Deputy Superintendent of
the Admiralty
Research
The
31
first
encounter with a
German
twice
in a
that the
boat.
war occurred
Then
in the Firth
of Forth on
to
at
the end of
up and communicated by
which operate
on
a frequency of
like a telephone
The
until
it
is
A Concise
10
The
first
over
safely and
it
SOURCE:
1915
SONAR
Science at
War by
R Whiddington
Crowther and
will
it
many
for
(London:
HMSO)
p 172 (1947)
P Langevin (France)
Ultra-Sonics)
The
6.)
detection of submerged submarines by sound has been particularly highly developed by British
scientists.
liner Titanic
a suggestion
British engineer
made
in
might be detected by the echo of a pulse of sound waves emitted from the approaching
of short sound waves which can be readily 'beamed' like a searchlight
precise definition of the direction of the berg.
In
is
that icebergs
ship.
The use
such short or supersonic waves was from oscillators made of mica and caused to vibrate by electrical
stresses.
An
Allied
Committee was
at this
included Dr
It
(later Sir
Rutherford. Langevin succeeded in 1915 in producing ultra-sonic waves by applying the piezo-electric
way
Thus an
and these vibrations are of the type that produces sound waves. Hence by suspending a
made
to vibrate
it
and communicate
electrification
it
When
effect discovered
to the
If
such an obstacle
of sufficient size an echo can be received on the quartz which sent out the transmission. The echo
creates a
of 1918, scientists
this
current
at the
at
SOURCE:
Science at
SEE ALSO:
War by
R Whiddington
Crowther and
at a
(London:
HMSO)
p 153 (1947)
P Mason
IRE p 1374
Proc.
(May 1962)
Electroacoustics by
1915
FILTERS (ELECTROMAGNETIC)
In
Campbell
&K
(1954)
W Wagner (UK)
Some
1831 Michael Faraday formulated the law of electromagnetic induction and self-induction.
84 years
the
first
later,
in
1915,
Campbell and
electromagnetic or
followed rapidly,
LC wave
some kind of
signal
filter,
Wagner
utilized Faraday's
Significant advances in
filter.
filter
industrial,
LC
filter
in their invention
of
Consumer,
law
that
it is
hard to conceive
all
require
efficient
and
SOURCE:
inductorless
SEE ALSO:
filters:
a survey'
by
S Moschytz
filters'
by
1970)
3,
1915
RADIO
The
(Single
filters'
by
Sideband Communication)
companies with
J
a
need
to
Carson (USA)
to
radio,
Single-sideband
A Concise
Like so
many
1915,
R Carson
AT &
of
showed
that
it
major application
SOURCE:
1916
Three years
intelligence.
at
in
first
'Communications' by
Air
in the Strategic
making
teleprinter,
RELIABILITY
Press,
in 1916.
it
was invented
&
Macdonald
name
telex
in
from
at a
teleprinter exchange.
first
clear-cut
The Western
planned programme
to
Electric
Company and
the Bell
programme
a reliability-control
in a
produce good performing and trouble-free telephone equipment for public use.
good
reliability
programme were
involved:
(1)
An
(2)
to
tests.
(3) Part
test-to-failure
stress loading.
and simplification
(4) Standardization
(7)
November 1972)
(Control)
(5)
its first
The Book of Inventions and Discoveries Associate Editor Valerie-Anne Giscard d'Estaing
under
Markrum Co (USA)
SOURCE:
model
By
occurred
telephone systems. In
high radio frequencies had proved successful. In the late 1950s, after
1916
to
TELEX
The
in
T's Development and Research Dept. had proved that only one sideband was
was possible
sideband transmission
it
in design.
field application
field to
its
G M
Ryerson
Proc.
1916
Roberts and J
Reynolds
(USA)
The
first
'crossbar' based
system.
system
years of development
and by Gotthelf
mechanism. The
first
work before
system but
it
used
SOURCE. The
it
One
Roberts, of the
USA,
exchange was
where
it
installed in
Sweden
in 1926.
was
a step-by-step
kind of selector.
CONDENSER MICROPHONE
a totally different
it
Strowger, although
1917
satisfactory
By
many
Covey
E C Wente
(USA)
electrostatic device chat has earned a secure place for itself in the transducer art
is
the condenser
first
it
transducer
was almost
A Concise
112
certainly the
first
Date Order
in
in
relied
on
to gain
by
lost
eschewing resonance.
SOURCE:
Electroacoustics by
by
1917
The
is
oldest of these
grown from
was
J Czochralski
is
a charge
of
commonly
of
a vertical rod
region
is
The
some
SEE ALSO:
the crystal
movement of
is
it
third crystal
whereby
the molten
this
molten
'Microinhomogeneity problems
is
SOURCE:
whereby
Si
down
is
and Packaging
H F
by
in silicon'
vol
PMP-2, No
3,
John,
Faust and
Stickler
IEEE
p 51 (September 1966)
Czochralski
Z.
1918
ALEXANDERSON ALTERNATOR
E F
However Fessenden
iron
would melt
it
magnetic
magnetic
and found
fields,
in a strong
strips
at
W Alexanderson (USA)
field at
on the use of
wooden core
was sure
as he
wooden core
and Fessenden
as specified,
in
broadcasting
However
both speech and music, and the transmission was heard as far away as Norfolk, Virginia.
GE
to build a
model
alternator to his
its
that
100 kHz.
potential
own
design.
When
this
to obtain
kW
alternators using
iron cores.
By 1915
modulate
was
a
it
50 kW, 50 kHz experimental alternator was being tested and Dr Alexanderson was able
to
with voice, using a DeForest Audion valve to control a magnetic amplifier. Dr Alexanderson
also responsible for the design of a multiple tuned antenna for use with the alternator.
By 1917
the 50
kW
alternator
was ready
to
be tested
in the
NJ, but by this time America had entered the war and
American Marconi
all
station at
New
Brunswick,
US
government.
SOURCE:
WAT
transmission' by
K Weedon
SEE ALSO:
p 626
1918
E F
5,
(May 1984)
INDUCTION HEATING
The production of
(High Frequency)
was recognised
E F Northrup (USA)
as early as 1880.
cores due to eddy currents was, of course, understood at an early date. Probably the real engineering
in
was Professor
A Concise
E F Northrup of Princeton
1918
RADIO
At
all
kW
C White
is
shadow of an
obstacle, the
significant break-through
shadow zone
to be far
The
1918,
in
who showed
that
waves radiated by
10000
Watson (UK)
in the
IRE p
Proc.
GN
first
SOURCE:
great
at
interest in the
ionosphere as a mechanism that might explain the wide divergence in the mathematical and experimental
values of field strength, particularly
SOURCE:
in the
and
II'
(May 1962)
SEE ALSO:
pp 546-63
vol 96,
THE DYNATRON
G N
Watson Proc.
vol 95,
Hull (USA)
substantial advantages over other types of oscillator that are available for the
in additions
has applications for which other types are not available. For example, a
no necessity
R. Soc.
(July 1919)
The
being
in oscillation, there
more
stable in
frequency than those maintained by triodes and are under more precise control.
SOURCE:
MG
(October 1933)
SEE ALSO:
'The dynatron' by
Hull Proc.
IRE
vol 6,
'The dynatron detector' by Hull, Kennelly and Elder Proc. IRE p 320 (October 1922)
1918
ATOMIC TRANSMUTATION
When
certain radioactive
of helium.
They
Some
when
the
the
its
nucleus.
the British
his laboratory at
the
Germans were
to
it
Why
not
this
Government
this
was bombarding
the nucleus in
energy by communicating
idea
their
might be possible
why
When one
of his
he had failed to appear, he said that he had just got definite evidence that
to disintegrate an
atom
at will,
and that
if this
proved
to
be true
'it
was
far
more
Immediately
and
in
that
still
in
Manchester, he completed
at
Manchester.
by Chadwick,
Cambridge, he extended
later, in
this investigation
many
light elements.
his
He was
A Concise
14
SOURCE:
1918
Science at
War by
R Whiddington
Crowther and
H Abraham & E
MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUIT
The
multivibrator, described by
many purposes
for
HMSO)
(London:
In
its
p 126 (1947)
Bloch (France)
in 1918, is a
is
it
use
is in
for the
oHTt
The
multivibrator consists of two valves, each having the anode coupled to the grid of the other via
a condenser,
when
the
and with
in
anode current
R2
still
in the first
it
anode current
off.
circuit.
further.
It
first
will thus
load..
sufficiently to permit
anode current
The anode
to flow
maximum
charge
when
is
thus
is
in the
once more
in the
second
cut
is
second valve.
in the
as follows:
until the
is
the circuit
The
When
this
occurs the
is at
two
grid potential.
SOURCE: Time
SEE ALSO:
Bases by
&
Hall) p 25 (1944)
No
27 of
1918
CIRCUITRY
The neutrodyne
circuit
was invented
L A
(Neutrodyne)
in
Hazeltine (USA)
this
it
was
a tuned radio-frequency
achieved
stability
and prevented
oscillation.
SOURCE:
art
WO
SEE ALSO:
A Concise
1918
NOISE
The
first
realisation
tube amplifiers.
that
It
in
Date Order
when
that there
was
to
contend with
to
the
in
field
of
a limit to the
weak
quest for high gain due to an unacceptably high background noise which masked the
random component
15
W Schottky (Germany)
(Shot Effect)
in the
signals
first
of a vacuum tube.
Schottky ascribed the random fluctuations in the plate current to the fact that
composed
this current is
not of a continuous but rather of a sequence of discrete increments of charge carried by each electron
arriving at the plate at
random
He
The average
superimposed
phenomenon
referred to this
SOURCE:
times.
is
rate
component
a flucuation
as 'schroteffekt' or 'shot-effect'.
Ragazzini and
SSL Chang
IRE p
Proc.
146 (May
1962)
SEE ALSO:
1919
TELEVISION
(Electronic System)
V Zworykin (USA)
1927
TELEVISION
(Electronic System)
P Farnsworth (USA)
It
work was
that a
started
the Westinghouse
Company.
until, after
going to America
in
He, like
Campbell-Swinton, had conceived the idea of charge storage by 1919. Zworykin lacked the necessary
funds to carry his ideas forward into practical form
at the
it
was
several
years before he could concentrate on their elaboration. Westinghouse took him on to their research staff
but their laboratory devoted itself mainly to radio research, and, since
to
to
Westinghouse
in
in
Kansas.
Returning
inventions he had disclosed in 1919, while Westinghouse acquired the exclusive option to purchase the
patents at a later date.
Philo Farnsworth was essentially an individual inventor who, though fortunate enough to find substantial
financial backing,
in research.
on
in
his
first
to
He was of
Working
in laboratories in
image dissector
tube,
at
which prefers
the type
an early
to
work
later
when he
filed
in
1927,
which constitutes
his
most important
inventive contribution After long-drawn-out patent interference proceedings, Farnsworth and Zworykin
SOURCE: The
Sources of Invention by
Jewkes,
&
SEE ALSO:
vol
1919
'The history of
TV
by
GRM
Garratt and
A H Mumford
111
A, Television
99 (1952)
Barkhausen
&K
Kurtz
(Germany)
In
1919
it
valves in which the grid was held at a high positive potential and the anode at a negative one, that
oscillation could be maintained in a circuit connected
pairs
of electrodes.
through
116
pass.
in the grid
to the grid,
by
SEE ALSO:
1919
CIRCUITRY
to scale
in
all
Barkhausen and
Kurtz
Z. Phys.
down
late
1930s
which the
possible 16 states.
its
In
tandem
was developed
flip-flops in
last 'carry'
to
in
Used
1919 by Eccles
skip six of
is
this circuit
register.
decades
(Flip-Flop Circuits)
today
pp 1-6 (1920)
vol 21,
state
a binary counter to
one often neon lamps for each stablestate of the counter. By connecting such
were achieved
and the way was cleared for the widespread application of high speed electronic counting.
SOURCE:
'Digital display of
measurements
by
in instrumentation'
Oliver Proc.
IRE
170 (May
1962)
SEE ALSO:
1919
7,
WG
through glass.
this invention
it
in
1919 when
this the
was possible
to
C H
Vincent
p 325 (1960)
Houskeeper patented
Houskeeper (USA)
method of sealing base metals
With
make
is
easily
common
worked
glass
is
into
52 x 10" 7 /C so a matched
is
The
technique developed by Houskeeper was to taper the metal to a feather edge and then seal the glass
to the thin
copper
edge of the
taper.
Tie copper
is
is
The
thin
and metal.
With
this
development
it
became possible
to
make
in
cool
its
SOURCE:
Book (London:
Newnes-Butterworth) chap.
7,
pp 7-31
(1976)
SEE ALSO:
'The
art
Houskeeper
J.
Am, IEE
vol 41,
p 870 (1923)
1919
CRYSTAL MICROPHONE
The
is
crystal
made
in the
USA
Nicholson (USA)
in
home
Sound
quality
is
but the mike reacts adversely to heat, humidity and rough handling.
SOURCE: The
1982)
A Concise
1919
is a
i.e,
condenser
1.6)
is
C(A +
1) in series
amperes per
Miller (USA)
device
known
volt.
This
its
is
grid.
When
such a
substantially the
same
is
known
usually
is
as a Miller Capacitance
to
provided with a resistive anode load the effect on the grid circuit
as if a capacitance of
the grid
utilize the
117
valve circuit
which
Date Order
in
is
HTt
Out
oHT-
SOURCE:
Time Bases by
1919
RESISTOR
&
circuit.
the load in
Miller Sci. Papers of the Bureau of Standards vol 15, p 367 (1919)
F Kruger (Germany)
(Metal-Film Type)
Proposals for the production of metallic-film resistors that will possess a high degree. of stability date
back over 25 years, but mostly they could be prepared only with comparatively low resistance values.
By
manner similar
SOURCE:
Ill,
films
up
to
it
200000 ohms.
R Coursey
Proc.
IEE
vol 96,
pt.
p 173 (1949)
SEE ALSO: F
1920
to that
No 157909/1919
Dr Pfleumer (Germany)
Magnetic tape recording becomes possible outside the laboratory. The reason
is
SOURCE: The
the introduction, by
The magnetophones
in the
1982)
1920
ULTRA-MICROMETER
Few would
published in the
November 1920
The
title
R Whiddington (UK)
first
issue of
was
The Philosophical Magazine by R Whiddington MA, DSc,
in the University
of Leeds.
Thermionic Valve
to the
is
The
in oscillation
'If
by means of
118
a thermionic valve, a small change in distance apart of the plates produces a change in the frequency of
the oscillations
The name
shown
It is
that
'ultra-micrometer'
changes so
tentatively
is
'The ultra-micrometer
small distances' by
1921
an
Whiddington
by F
electronics'
Mag. Series
W G Cady (USA)
measurement of very
Phil.
vacuum-tube
oscillator,
it
many
made
use of crystals associated with vacuum-tube circuits with which they might have observed this stabilizing
action; but
results
this
neighbourhood
in
W Pierce of Harvard
University.
Pierce took up the study of such crystal-oscillator circuits immediately, and within a few
months
experiments had led him to the invention of several improved forms of crystal oscillator
in
his
which a two-terminal
crystal could be
made
to control
single-tube circuit.
SOURCE:
Electroacoustics by
SEE ALSO:
Proc.
Inst.
10,
W G Cady
Cady
(crystal resonator)
US
Patent
No
1450 246
(filed
1923; also (crystal stabilization and a 3-tube oscillator controlled by a 4-terminaI crystal)
No
1921
1472 583
(filed
28
May
FERROELECTRICITY
Ferroelectricity
its
was
first
US
Patent
J Valasek
salt,
at
MIT
which
is
is
barium
piezoelectric above
titanate,
which was
Since then,
other materials of the Perovskite structure and of other structures have been found to be ferroelectric.
SOURCE:
by B Lax and
Mavroides Proc.
IRE
SEE ALSO:
phenomena
in
Rochelle
salt'
by
Valasek Phys.
Rev.
vol 17,
ALSO:
1921
of the main developments in radio after 1918 was the discovery of the usefulness of the shorter
wave-bands.
It
that
A Concise
These were regarded
as freaks, however,
who encouraged by
to
amateurs
in
Date Order
in
showed
19
trial
that
SOURCE:
Sources of Invention by
Jewkes,
Sawers and
(1958)
1922
CIRCUITRY
E H Armstrong (USA)
(Superregeneration)
E H Arrmstrong
usually between
and considerable
used as transmitters
SOURCE:
was
sensitivity,
at
cps.
practical
the oscillations.
The superregenerative
and popular
when
earlier
detector, because of
its
broad tuning
SEE ALSO:
damps
'Super-regenerative receivers' by
R Whitehead
(1950)
1922
Following the work of Barkhausen and Kurtz (1919) which for the
electrical oscillations
Subsequent work on
first
whole
this
field
tuned
circuit,
and
this
in a
in a
many
others,
showed
field'
by the
by
1923
E V
'SQUEGGER' CIRCUIT
The
first
hard valve time base was of the transformer-coupled type and was developed about 1923 by
The
known
1.7).
circuit consists of a transformer-coupled valve V|, oscillating fairly violently at a radio frequency
in the
at the grid,
current flows from the transformer secondary winding through the valve V, from grid to cathode and
into the
increasingly negative.
When
makes
SOURCE:
which
Time Bases by
SEE ALSO: E V
is
Appleton,
becomes
grid potential
is
the grid,
at
is
oscillatory motion
mean
that the
the negative potential reaches the cut-off bias potential of the valve, the
Upon
this
its
excursion there
charge via
is
F Herd and R
Watson Watt:
&
Hall) (1951)
British Patent
superimposed
resumption of
V2
No 235254.
damped
A Concise
120
HT-
Out
1923
circuit.
ICONOSCOPE
V K Zworykin (USA)
The combination of
by
V K
Zworykin
electron
in
1923
storage
was
first
The
target
was
an aluminium film oxidised on one side, which was photosensitised with cesium vapour and faced a
metal
grill
The metal
side,
which served as
to flow off
layer,
common
Their
transmission.
was
plate.
patterns,
became
it
the
all
a signal plate,
forming a temporary
The
first
camera tube was the iconoscope. Here, the picture was projected on
practical storage
plate.
mosaic
high-velocity beam, restoring the mosaic to a uniform potential and releasing photoelectrically stored
charge for forming the picture signal. The secondary-emission ratio was greater than unity, so that the
beam was
SOURCE:
Schlesinger and
G Ramberg
Proc.
IRE p 993
(May 1962)
SEE ALSO: V K
'The Iconoscope
Zworykin:
US
Patent
modern version of
No
V K
filed
29 December 1923
vol 22, p 16
(January 1934)
1924
CARBON
REISZ TRANSVERSE-CURRENT
G Neumann
(Germany)
MICROPHONE
A
It
in
BBC
the
microphone
field
was
to
1935
Company
in
Germany
at
block of marble or other insulating material had two deep recesses cut
trough-plus-recesses
was
filled
a thin
it,
in
it,
connected
to a terminal at the
this
and the
light,
that of other
SOURCE: Communication
in
from P
Engineering 1922-72 p 42
(BBC
Publications) (1972)
in telephones.
A Concise
Neumann
'Georg
1924
memoriam'
in
J.
R Anson (UK)
and was developed about the year 1924. The author believes
of the development of the Anson relay
which
in
low pressure,
upon
and
is
in
is
When
volts.
When
St
filled
which
a potential,
at
dependent
is
Time Bases by
SEE ALSO: R
appeared as a result
neon tube when the charge upon the condenser reaches the
SOURCE:
two-electrode valve,
heated.
is
1924/5
is
121
Date Order
in
Chapman
S Puckle (London:
&
Hall) p 13 (1944)
No 214754
RADAR
Appleton,
Watt SFR,
Briet,
GEMA
R A Watson
(primarily
et al
UK)
The
use found for the reflecting properties of radio waves was in measuring the height of the
first
USA
were the
in Britain in
A Tuve
in
first
Institute.
Barnett, and in
Breit and
Tuve
to
By
the
first
done by the
of the Carnegie
scientists
made
of radio companies:
in
USA
France
in Britain
in
all
and the
USA
by scientists
Germany
in
the
work was
government research
stations.
began
waves
'obstacle detector'
fitted to the liner
equipment
Normandie
aircraft.
in
1935;
it
by other
Though
As
a result,
Le Havre
in 1936.
at least as
installed
short,
waves
Research
at
beam would be
new
GEMA,
firm
German
less effort
policy
was put
Rowe
Hill
Britain about
in
into
H E
1934.
latter
The
occasion
aircraft at a distance
A V
in
and consequently
efforts to
were
aircraft
sets
by 1939.
USA.
in Britain or the
scientists, Sir
it
war would be
reflection
An
firms.
the
at
was based on
and then
to study the
working on decimetric waves and employing magnetrons and the pulse principle was
and
view
its
set up.
It
was
warning
equipment.
Robert
Watson-Watt (now
Sir Robert)
equipment
in the
in Britain.
who was
He was
role in
developing
22
in
Date Order
Physical Laboratories at the time the pressure for improved air defence reached
confident that radio waves could be employed to detect aircraft. His two
its
He
peak.
felt
described his suggested means for so using them; after a demonstration of the echoes produced by
from the
aircraft
BBC
Daventry short-wave
was
in the
summer of
Working with
whom A F
six assistants, of
Wilkins
practical radar
first
1935.
station, the
aircraft
the construction of a
it
The performance of
the
first
equipment was
considered promising enough for the Air Ministry to build a chain of five radar stations.
The development of
radar had meanwhile been proceeding independently in the United States. Military
L A Hyland,
A H
interest
began
aircraft
cause interference in radio waves and Leo Young successfully applied the pulse apparatus to
after
an associate of
this.
amount on
it,
Robert
some of
Navy was
Harold
the
Bowen, chief of
first
devices to
some of
its
In 1938,
finally
two years
fitted
radar
ships.
After 1940 Great Britain and the United States co-operated in radar development.
SOURCE: The
Sources of Invention by
Jewkes,
Sawers and
&
RESISTOR (Cracked-Carbon
It
was undoubtedly
in
Type)
Germany
use was
made of
by several firms
in that
Amongst
commonly came
One
is
to
this general
these, the
Siemens
resistor'.
of the earliest disclosures of the cracking of hydrocarbon vapour to produce a hard carbon layer
contained
of 1930 and in the Stemag patent of the same year. The Siemens and
the fundamental
method
is
already
SOURCE:
Ill
C A
1925
R Coursey
Proc.
IEE
pp 174-5 (1949)
No 438 429
German
Patent
No 387150
(1932)
(1925)
ELECTROSTATIC LOUDSPEAKER
The
electrostatic
development
shortcomings
relied
on
(Various)
activity
still
No 438429/1925
devoted to
adhered to
its
it
acceptance,
in
spite
of extensive
during 1920-35, for the very sound reason that several serious
design.
Either the diaphragm or the air gap itself had usually been
breakdown, but
this protection
was often
inadequate and limits were thereby imposed on the voltages that could be used and on the specific
power output.
stiff
air,
at
to
be employed
in
order to radiate
at
high frequencies.
A Concise
below bear on one or another of these
improvements would have made
it
features,
possible to
and
now
is
it
23
overcome almost
but not
quite
every one of
these
performance handicaps. Occurring singly as they did, however, no one of these good ideas was able
by
rescue the electrostatic units from the burden of their other shortcomings. Taken together,
itself to
however, with the newly available diaphragm materials and with the important addition of one or two
new
in
modern form of
ideas, the
handicaps that
many
it
electrostatic loudspeaker
applications.
SOURCE:
Electroacoustics by
(1954)
SEE ALSO:
No
German
21
May
Patent
No
61
1746 540
783
1927, renewed 14
No
117
601
(filed
November 1930)
German
25
Hans Vogt (Berlin), more than a score of contemporary and relevant German
1933 and
No
Patents
17
(filed
May
583 769
(filed
US
Patent
No
107
1881
(filed 15 September 1928) issued 4 October 1932 (tightly stretched diaphragm between perforated rigid
Edward
electrodes):
Kellogg (GEC)
US
Patent
No
1983 377
(filed
December 1934 (sectionalised diaphragm with inductances for impedance correction); William Colvin,
Jr.
US
Patent
No 2000 437 (filed 19 February 1931) issued 7 May 1935 (woven-wire electrodes); DEL
No 537 931 (filed 21 February 1940, complete spec. 23 January 1941, accepted
14 July 1941) (diaphragm segmentation with external dividing networks for improving directivity and
impedance).
'Wide range
1925
by P
electrostatic loudspeakers'
wave
in
transmitter to
after
it
kW
see
how
far
this
invited
after
pt. 2,
into operation.
many
in
difficulties,
.5
managed
MHz
(!).
Working
it
was arranged
to
send a cable
in
if
that
hoping to be read.
Then,
in a
It
The
ship's reactions,
Hilversum.
'Prins der
Malabar
came
air'.
coming
To
1,
between The Netherlands and the Dutch East Indies, now Indonesia, causing a huge long-
in a
pt.
pt. 3,
The telegram
sent back
SOURCE:
1925
Philips Telecommunication
IONOSPHERE LAYER
Review vol
33,
No
4,
Appleton (UK)
for the
development
of radar: he measures the height of the ionosphere and finds that radio waves are reflected from the
upper atmosphere
to a height
level.
24
SOURCE: The
1982)
1925
TELEVISION
When
(Mechanical Scanning)
Baird (UK)
Baird, in 1923, decided to devote his untried inventive genius to the development of a practical
problem seemed
him
to
to
Two
be comparatively simple.
optical exploring
devices rotating in synchronism, a light-sensitive cell and a controlled varying light source capable of
rapid variations in light flux were
Patent-Office term,
known
that
all
Baird,
to the art'.
however
to be already, to
use a
'The
only ominous cloud on the horizon', he wrote 'was that in spite of the apparent simplicity of the task
C F
of Hungary.
USA
Jenkins of the
and
von Mihaly
Other inventors were patenting their ideas on television at this time (1923) but only
Jenkins, Mihaly and Baird and a few others were pursuing a practical study of the problem based on
the utilisation of mechanical scanners.
SOURCE:
'The
first
demonstration of television' by
1975)
1925
NOISE
(Johnson)
were generated
made of homogeneous
metallic resistors
in
paper by Johnson
in the
agitated molecules.
The
made
in the
conductor
effect
is
in
consequence of
similar to the
it
was found
random noise
that
materials.
These
A number
of basic contributions
a certain
noise
was traced
Brownian movement of
the particle
is
to the
random
particles
suspended
particle
its
SOURCE:
SSL Chang
Ragazzini and
in
conductors' by
to
to the
excitation
its
which the thermally-agitated molecules of the liquid collide with the suspended
in
signals
were found
effects
in 1925.
it
B Johnson (UK)
Proc.
in a liquid
and impart
to
molecules sets
a microscope.
IRE p
147/8
(May
1962)
SEE ALSO:
series,
1926
B Johnson
Phys.
Rev.
2nd
vol 32,
p 97 (July 1928)
some of
its
Round (UK)
common
electrostatic capacitance
in
One major
limitation arose
in uncontrollable,
The
was
first
suggested by
had earlier suggested a four-electrode tube, but his suggestion of the introduction of an
was directed
rise to a
the control grid and the anode, to reduce this inter-electrode coupling,
Hull. Schottky
This gave
to the reduction
of grid-anode capacitance.
But
it
remained for
Round
to bring the
Other, and
later,
one or more
versions of the screen-grid valve were developed, the screen grid being provided with
skirts
which extended
way
at the top
nn F
In
grid,
and
in
the
anode could
A Concise
Date Order
in
125
'Thermionic devices from the development of the triode up to 1939' by Sir Edward Appleton
SOURCE:
lEEPub. Thermionic
1926
L O Grondahl and P H
Geiger
(USA)
In the course of an investigation of
when
flowed
it
was about
was
less
1.
from
of the resistances
from anything
different in nature
was observed
it
that
in the
that
copper than
two directions
in
types of rectifiers that an intensive study and experimental investigation was undertaken
during which
it
it
CIRCUITRY
new device
that the
Grondahl and P
was
Geiger Proc.
HA
make
it
when
3 to
known
other
in a direction at right
A1EE
Winter Convention,
Wheeler (USA)
AVC
circuit.
at
first
which
AVC
Full
RF
bias voltage
stage, half
AVC
was applied
bias voltage
to the first
was applied
once
it
by
and
ear,
it
was unnecessary
to
action
was
was adjusted
SOURCE:
RF
two
to that stage.
art
SEE ALSO:
H A
by
sets'
vol 16,
p 30 (January 1928)
1926
cameras
that
(Sound-on-Disc System)
were housed
in
to
in
arranged to
1926 decided
this studio
their facilities
Victor Talking
licensee,
and
made with
the
equipped with
Western Electric developed motor drives for theatre projectors and disc turntables.
These were
mechanically connected to the same constant speed motor system. Essentially standard public address
first
picture produced
was 'Don
Juan'. In October
The
public reaction
was so
pictures,
Vitaphone.
It
Warner Bros,
was destined
installed disk-recording
to
equipment
As
to
in their studios.
on the same film the picture was printed on. Having demonstrated the popularity of sound pictures and
developed the equipment, the industry proceeded with great speed
production.
SOURCE:
1962)
Batsel and
L Dimmick
Proc.
26
A Concise
1926
FIXED RESISTOR
The
reduces
is
Loewe developed
compressed
air
in
Date Order
S Loewe (Germany)
in 1926,
through
it
'Resistors
SEE ALSO:
to an insulating base.
No
field' J
US
TRANSITRON OSCILLATOR
One
Germany
to the metal.
it
SOURCE:
1926
Patent
No
B van der
Pol (Holland)
of the earliest forms of single-valve trigger circuit was described by van der Pol in 1926.
employs
circuit
a tetrode in
This
which the screen and grid have a resistance-capacitance coupling, the grid
being fed from the high potential source via a high resistance, which forms part of the coupling network.
The term
come
valve in such a
way
coined by Brunetti,
any
who
defined
it
may produce
it
It is
pentode
Generally,
wave output
arranged as a relaxation
is
many
is
a single
When
oscillator or as a flip-flop
which employs
circuit
applications to time
SOURCE:
Time Bases by
1926
B van
relaxation oscillations' by
Brunetti and
Chapman
E Weiss
Proc.
IRE
to 1914,
to 1915,
G H
p 978 (1926)
Yagi (Japan)
Barkhausen
2,
YAGI AERIAL
Dr
&
Dresden Technische
at the
to 1916.
Tohoku
VHF
Academy
directive 'Yagi
Some
antenna' which was widely put into practical use for domestic television reception.
years
later, as
SOURCE:
1926
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
In
two of
his fellow
countrymen.
microscope
in
1933.
It
Max
on
Busch (Germany)
microscope. In 1928
development of the
first
operational electron
was perfected by Rulska, who, with Heinrich Rohrer and Gerd Binnig, was
for Physics in
below).
SOURCE:
(New
1927
Inventions
CABLE TELEVISION
The
first
Company
disc
Mark Young
Bell
was used
was
Telephone
Co (USA)
The experiment took place between Washington and New York. A Nipkow scanning
127
This cable technique was then taken up again for the purposes of reaching those areas without access
to traditional Hertzian transmission.
In
in
Oregon
in the
would
be installed on high ground. From there a cable network transmitted programmes, without any
risk of
was decided
It
it.
parasitic oscillation.
It
was not
until the
real
to different cable
growth
in the
The development of
makes
is
The
fibre optic
it
choose
by the Americans
programmes
programmes and
their
technique makes
it
to active
to participate
etc).
television
Thanks
to benefit
&
in the history
S Black (USA)
of communications,
was possible by
SOURCE:
in 1993.
some
sacrificing
its
S Black
in
1927
at Bell
Mission Communications
Hill,
1927
first
commercially successful photographic sound recording system (Fox Movietone News) used
a variable intensity
lamp known as
method of modulating
beam of
light to
(Sound-on-Film System)
a light restricting
slit
anode voltage,
in a tube
at
and
which passed
beam about
its
intensity could be
at the
back.
between the picture and the sprocket holes. The Aeo-light could produce
to
modulated over
volts.
expose the sensitive negative films used for picture taking. The system worked quite well for news
photography, where the sound and pictures were taken simultaneously on the same camera.
SOURCE:
G L Dimmick
Batsel and
Proc.
1962)
1928
PENTODE TUBE
The
it
is
is
desired to operate with high anode and screen potentials, and so by far the most
and anode, as
in the
suppressor grid
is
is
grid,
maintained
common method
in
Holland. The
become extremely
SOURCE: Thermionic
IEE Pub. Thermionic
devices from the development of the triode up to 1939' by Sir Edward Appleton
A Concise
128
1928
FREQUENCY STANDARDS
The tuning
(Quartz Clocks)
was developed
fork
it
which
to a point at
By
further.
still
seemed
J
it
this time,
gave
a stability of
however, the
per
week and
first
many
part in 10
advantages.
made
One fundamental
advantage was the higher frequency of quartz vibrations. Frequencies of many millions of cycles per
them
in
SOURCE:
SEE ALSO:
16,
1928
L Essen
Proc.
it
to
measure
kc.
IRE
Horton and
RADIO
HA
(Diversity Reception)
HO
Beverage,
Peterson and J
B Moore (USA)
Because of the turbulence and abrupt changes encountered
be given
to
were not
sufficient.
Among
as
in the
became apparent
is
any frequency.
H A
HO
Beverage,
is
statistical
resistor
above
Peterson and
rectified outputs
a certain
independence
B Moore
SEE ALSO:
Beverage and
H O
fading characteristics
employed
IRE
to television.
Washington and
New
of modern colour
TV
common
load
as the voltage
was
RCA
vol 19, pp
As long
Communications
Inc.
for radiotelegraphy'
H H
Bell Laboratories
SOURCE: The
in the
COLOUR TV
Colour comes
receiver, a properly
Peterson Proc.
is
SOURCE:
1929
The
feet apart.
basic,
1000
HF medium,
that transmitter
a considerable improvement
at
it
(USA)
beamed between
York. The 50-line system used by the Bell Telephone Laboratories transmits the
red, blue
is laid
and green
down when
along
1982)
1929
E O Laurence (USA)
CYCLOTRON
Laurence used a curved path for the
long distances in a relatively small volume and using the same accelerating system over and over again.
An
electrically
particle,
proceeds to
of the circle
in
SOURCE: The
move
which the
in a circle
particle
moves
Sources of Invention by
is
Jewkes,
pp 290/1 (1958)
SEE ALSO:
L A Schuler
Scientific
A G
MICROWAVE COMMUNICATIONS
means
oscillator provided a
In
29
Clavier (France)
40-cm
1929 Andre
In
whenever
physically possible.
In
demonstrated
and
in
New
that
On
to France.
new
31
flexibility in
went on
power output of
provided
circuit
beam by means of
his associates
link in
Andre Clavier
a fraction of a watt.
to St.
Inglevert, France.
SOURCE: 'Microwave
1930
communications' by
TRANSISTOR (MOSFET
A
compared
H Vogelman
Proc.
Concept)
J Lilienfeld
to Julius Lilienfeld
MOSFET,
to today's
(Germany)
to
provide a means of obtaining amplification in a thin film of copper sulfide. However, a working device
SOURCE:
1930
in the material
any amplification.
to preclude
November 1972)
For nuclear structure research, constant-potential accelerators use the electrostatic belt generator invented
now
(equipment
SOURCE: The
Reinhold
&
1930s
G Trump
were insulated
in air
and
WW
METEOR SCATTER
1,
(BURST) SYSTEMS
km;
to 120
this
Schanker
lower
VHF
trail
was eventually
realised that
reflections.
It
reflections.
Schanker estimates
milliseconds to
scatter paths
1
activities
was made
van de Graaf,
up
at altitudes typically
layer.
aimed
(USA)
et al
When
upper
predicting 'sporadic'
in the 1930s;
it
to irregular
is
from 80
efficiently in the
at
Because meteor
(1948)
Billions of meteors enter the Earth's atmosphere every day and burn
km
1930
in
of Science).
SEE ALSO:
J
volts
Museum
Boston
in the
well
HF
E
meteor
known
and
layer
trail
that large
is
from
can be passed. Thus, systems suitable for general use had to wait for the production of high speed,
cheap microprocessors and modern memory chips and have developed rapidly since 1982.
typical
meteor scatter burst system can provide information exceeding 75 b/s (sometimes much
24 hour period
SOURCE:
Communication from
Private
at
distances up to
J
2000 km.
UK
A Concise
30
JANET
'The Canadian
1930
by Jacob
system' by Davis
Date Order
in
WL
Z Shanker
et al Proc.
(Netherlands)
The
that resistance
was restored
gauss
The
at
4.2 K.
suggested to
in the
fields as
high as 16000 to
20000
eutectic alloy had a transition temperature of about 8.8 K. This discovery immediately
authors the old idea of making a superconducting solenoid with wire of this material,
its
but because of the very low critical current densities that they observed, the idea was soon dropped
and
wound
in
with niobium wire which produced fields up to 7000 gauss, but this received
made
Autler (1960)
a similar coil
attention.
until
little
producing 4300 gauss but, the subject did not really take off
by Matthias
et al
is still
the highest
known
critical
transition
SOURCE:
Book Co)
p 141
SEE ALSO:
de Haas and
'Superconducting electromagnetics' by S
GB
Autler Rev.
Yntema
Sci. Instrum.
vol 31, p
'Superconductivity in
1930s
Dummer (New
York: Hayden
E Beuhler F
WA
197 (1955)
369 (1960)
kgauss' by J
Kunzler,
L Hsu and
RADIOPHONIC SOUNDMUSIC
These techniques
first
came
P Grainger
(Australia)
into real use during the 1950s with the maturation of the
magnetic tape
recorder although as long ago as the 1930s Percy Grainger, the Australian composer of 'Country
Gardens' fame, had produced a brief composition based on pure frequencies for the Theremin, an early
electronic sound generator.
although as the
name
was achieved
SOURCE:
1931
bore
i.e.
it
became apparent
that if
more 'musical'
was provided by
to differing
(Oxide Film)
some audible
FIXED RESISTOR
The seed
as the timbre
still
made through
Littleton
Littleton (1931)
Its resistivity
was
17,
p 17-16 (1976)
(USA)
who developed
sufficiently
low
an iridized,
to equalise potential
across the insulator, thereby reducing corona effect, but too high for use in conventional resistors.
Mochel modified
By
SOURCE:
'Resistors
SEE ALSO:
J
this film
its
electrical properties.
varying the tin-antimony proportions, negative or positive temperature coefficients are obtained.
Mochel:
T
US
Littleton:
Patent
US
Patent
No 2564 707
No 2228 795
(1931)
A Concise
1931
A D
Date Order
in
131
(USA)
Stereophonic reproduction per se was pioneered almost simultaneously by Blumlein in Great Britain
and
Telephone Laboratories.
at the Bell
He showed
his patents.
microphone arrays
simultaneous
utilising
and
lateral
in
to
microphones, transmission
Economic
vertical recording.
circuits,
difficulties
are believed to have prevented completion and commercial exploitation of these systems.
The recognised
early
demonstration of Bell Telephone Laboratories equipment under the guidance of Dr Harvey Fletcher
SOURCE:
SEE ALSO: A D
Also
US
Academy of Music
in the
Patent
Philadelphia and
in
it
was
Washington, DC.
in Constitution Hall,
No 394 325
IRE
Hilliard Proc.
p 776
(May 1962)
December 1931)
(14
No 2093 540
'Perfect transmission
in auditory perspective'
F B Jowett
et al
1931
CRO CARDIOGRAPH
The
first
workers
realising
its
Among
work was
work on
Rijlant (Belgium)
Rijlant,
of Brussels (1931
et seq)
who
in this country,
the
has published
first to
own
adapt
first
fields,
particular problems; a
to electrocardiographic
it
many papers on
in their
in bio-electrical
to publish
electrocardiograms
recorded by the cathode-ray oscillograph (CRO). Matthews (1934) was able to show that Rijlant's
electrocardiograms were inaccurate, and to point out that the
were
really
SOURCE:
caused by deficiencies
ray oscillograph' by
Robertson
new waves
(P2,
T2
etc) described
by him
in his amplifer.
J.
IEE
human
vol 81, p
497 (1937)
phenomena with
in
human
heart'
la
1931
COMPUTERS
V Bush (USA)
(Differential Analyser)
SOURCE:
new machine
by
V Bush
Pascal
to
von Neumann by
H H
1931
finally
W A Shewhart (USA)
Dodge and Romig
was brought
in
to light during
acceptance sampling
World War
II
through
A Concise
132
War Production
Date Order
programmes sponsored by
of the
in
Development
Board.
and
scientific investigators
statisticians in the
as an aid to solving practical problems, and their ability to recognise and formulate a systematic
approach.
SOURCE:
Van
Nostrand) (1931)
1932
NEUTRON
Some
J Chadwick (UK)
German
radiations obtained
assumed
country
paraffin
were of
by bombarding the
wave
some very
The French
nature.
studied
made
in front
penetrating
light metal
it
They found
that if a piece
of
if
the radiations
interpretation,
new
was
kind of
atomic particle without any electric charge. Thus he discovered the neutron.
SOURCE:
1932
Science at
War by
Crowther and
Whiddington (London:
COCKCROFT-WALTON ACCELERATOR
(Atom-Smasher)
(UK)
HMSO)
p 127 (1947)
ED
Cockcroft and
He had graduated
S Walton
as an engineer at the
Manchester College of Technology and joined the engineering firm of Metropolitan- Vickers Electrical
Company Ltd. After spending four years in the army in the war of 1914-18 he returned to his firm.
He engaged in advanced study with Professor Miles Walker and was presently awarded a post-graduate
scholarship to continue his studies
Cambridge.
at
fitted
him
to devise
powerful electrical apparatus, and he attacked the problem of devising an electrical machine by which
an electrical
of several hundred thousand volts could be applied to atomic particles, so that they
field
could be given a very high speed and energy, like those thrown out naturally by radium.
and
his colleague
Walton succeeded
in disintegrating lithium
Cockcroft
1932, shortly after Chadwick' s discovery of the neutron. This was a great advance, because electrical
machines could be developed, and large streams of atomic projectiles could be produced
Cockcroft used protons, the nuclei of hydrogen atoms,
about sixty times as
much energy
relatively insignificant,
greater than
the total
SOURCE:
1932
possessed
amount
in
As
field
was much
common
A D
As with most of
into a
it
experiments.
itself.
Science at War by
CIRCUITRY
as
in his first
at will.
which
.8(a) is taken
is
now
HMSO)
p 128 (1947)
Blumlein (UK)
use until 1946. Figure 11.8(b) shows the method of operation, involving three separate
now
the saw-tooth
as
LC
circuit
waveform
it
which
is
is all
it
will not
that
is
be described
in detail, but
it
is
interesting to
compare
necessary to provide also the switches in the form of the valve and diode
earlier
133
<t
SOURCE:
circuit,
(a)
'The world of Alan Blumlein' British Kinematography Sound and Television vol 50,
No
7.
SEE ALSO:
1932
No 400 976
(1932)
electron microscope
first
was
built at the
Knoll
&E
Ruska (Germany)
in
1931.
It
had two
electro-magnetic lenses in series and achieved a modest magnification of 17. Improvements were
later.
Ruska
condenser lens was added and an iron shield with a narrow gap
SOURCE:
&
in
first
1933.
lens.
MM
STEREO RECORD
The
made
1933
in
Reinhold
built
EMI (UK)
The
EMI
(Electric
in the
recording
134
company Audio
in
EMI
Date Order
remained experimental untl 1958, when the American
Fidelity
first
commercial stereo
SOURCE:
(New
1933
Inventions
FREQUENCY-MODULATION
The
FM
promoting
credit for
seeking a
way
to
reduce
E H Armstrong (USA)
static,
and
finally
E H Armstrong. For
SOURCE:
static.
Mark Young
to
overcome
natural and
75
kc by audio
In this
to 15 kc.
art
SEE ALSO:
'Frequency modulation' by S
vol 5, p
(1970)
NOTE
The
US
Ehret
1933
POLYETHYLENE INSULATION
An
ICI (UK)
outstanding event in the cable world in recent years was the discovery of polyethylene in 1933 by
small amount
At
first
at
after
extended research, a mile of submarine cable insulated with Telcothene, a synthetic material based on
polyethylene, was
SOURCE:
Ltd. in 1939.
'The story of the submarine cable' Booklet published by Submarine Cables Ltd (AEI) London
p 13 (1960)
1933
S Puckle (UK)
O S Puckle developed a time base which employs a variation of the multivibrator as a condenser
charging medium.
from
SOURCE:
Time Bases by
SEE ALSO:
maximum
repetition frequency, as
to a
maximum
&
compared with
of about
that obtainable
Mc/s.
Hall) p 30 (1944)
1933
RADIO ASTRONOMY
While looking
SOURCE:
KG
stars
thus launching
Mission Communications
Jansky (USA)
KG
Jansky
in
Hill,
1933
'IGNITRON' (Mercury-Arc
In
Westinghouse (USA)
Rectifier)
Company announced
its
By
it
extensively.
was
at
once recognised
was
A
SOURCE:
1934
W C White Proc.
FREQUENCY STANDARDS
CE
(Atomic Clocks)
Date Order
in
IRE p
135
Cleeton and
NA
Williams
(USA)
In
Mcs by
of 23 870
ammonia was
at
at
a source of radio
was
waves generated
atmospheric pressure,
SEE ALSO:
C E
1934
'Electromagnetic waves of
Cleeton and
N A
fairly
1.1
L Essen
cm
this
Proc.
frequency
for
The
observed.
is
IRE p
(May 1962)
161
E Fermi
Enrico Fermi
Professor
1934,
at a
TRANS-URANIAN ATOMS
In
ammonia
at
SOURCE:
spectral line of
in the laboratory.
in
Rome
all
(Italy)
He found
that several
dozen
of them could be transmuted by neutrons, and he obtained particularly interesting results from uranium.
This
The
nucleus.
No
first
and the
1,
stable.
Fermi found
different
Atom No 92
It
known
is
that
he had made
new
SOURCE:
1934
series of
Science at War by
Crowther and
as
Atom
not
It is
88.
new
as
properties quite
known
Atom No 92.
that the
earth.
in the series is
in fact
It is
in
last is
surprising that
made
is
93,
94
etc.
He seemed
to
have
earth.
R Whiddington
LIQUID-CRYSTALS
(London:
HMSO)
p 129 (1947)
J Dreyer (UK)
state
was
first
noted
in
1889,
it
was not
until
around 1934
that serious
consideration was given to these electro-optical devices, in the Marconi laboratories, in England. John
Dreyer found
polarisers
method
still
began
to investigate them.
Its
in the
when
the
RCA
in 1950.
one each
The
US
and
two
in
in 1971.
Few
companies claim as long-lived an association with the subject as Marconi and RCA: most have been
in the field for
SOURCE:
1935
two years or
'The
fluid state
less.
of liquid-crystals' by
SUPERCONDUCTING SWITCH
W J de Haas
Casimir-Jonker and
(Netherlands)
The
idea of using the superconductive transition to switch a small resistance into and out of a circuit
at will
seems
to
have occurred
at
at
to the cryostat
when
as small as 3
x 10""
field external
the current decayed in a super conducting circuit in series with the specimen.
ohm
its
resistance,
in
trace of resistance
and a resistance
36
Date Order
in
a moving-coil
moving copper
coil.
the field coils acted as a superconducting switch and could be driven normal by
a copper solenoid.
their decay.
Used
4
as small as 10
SOURCE:
in this
amp
way
means of
a current in
in a circuit
itself,
it
4
of self-inductance of 5 x 10" henry.
A Dummer (New
York: Hayden
SEE ALSO:
1935:
1935
1935: Casimir-Jonker
H Grayson
Smith and F
G A
and de Haas
Physica vol
2,
p 935
and
Canada
Heil
vol 29, p 23
(Germany)
(Early Magnetron)
Studies of the classical triode valve in which the anode current
a
fundamental
electron inertia.
In
power
was
is
Heil and
first
time, a
new mechanism
that
to
shown
by
SEE ALSO:
grosser Intensitat' by
1935
A A
Heil and
Knoll,
von Ardenne
(Germany) and
D McMullan, C
Oatley (UK)
Postulated by Knoll in 1935, an early form of scanning electron microscscope was built by von Ardenne
in 1938.
and
it
However, the
beam
at the
in
order to obtain
The
trial
and
in
The
beam should be
collected by
scanning electron microscope designed especially for opaque speciments was made by Zworykin and
others in 1942.
main
is
thick specimens.
proceeding,
He
difficult
error.
well
known
a resolution of about
that with
500
was inconclusive.
primary voltages below a few thousand volts the secondary emission ratio
very dependent on the cleanness of the surface and in a demountable system with
significant part in determining the contrasts in the final micrograph. This difficulty has
in the
at
Cambridge and,
in addition, a
oil
pumps
it
is
been overcome
have been incorporated including direct viewing of the picture before recording.
SOURCE:
Letter from
Dr D McMullan dated
16/10/77.
1953)
D McMullan
A Concise
SEE ALSO:
von Ardenne
Tech. Phys.
K C A
Z.
D McMullan
Proc.
IEE
vol 100,
Smith and
'First international
(New
Knoll
407-16 (1938)
vol 19,
No
467 (1935)
III,
137
Part
Date Order
in
W Oatley
Brit.
p 391 (1955)
6,
Beam
Bakish
NOTE:
In
1957 a team of
scientists
at
field that
breakthrough
electron
in
Before the wholly-British development of scanning techniques, specimens had to be moved under
probes and the element distribution plotted laboriously and slowly. Scanning made
the information
on
The following
year,
probe
it
static
possible to display
the
was so
in
1959, the Cambridge Instrument Co. entered into an agreement with TI to manufacture such
first
at
UKAEA,
efforts to
led to the
merging
of their work with that of the University's Engineering Department where scanning electron microscopes
field
of focus
result.
So revolutionary
otherwise, and produced dramatic results of both rough and delicate surface alike.
company had
to
before microscopists were convinced that they were true pictures of the surface.
SOURCE: 'From
Microscan
to Stereoscan....
Cambridge keeping
1935
CIRCUITRY
A D
Blumlein (UK)
Circuit)
Figures
11.9(a)
and
(b)
show two
provided L/C =
1
1.9(b)) as a
R2
is
namely two-terminal
at all
frequencies,
This property was known, but Blumlein adapted the circuit (particularly figure
in
figure
1.9(c)
is
the application of the idea to the filament supply for the cathode follower output valve of the vision
The 'hardware' of
this is
preserved in the
Science Museum.
SOURCE:
'The work of Alan Blumlein' British Kinematographv Sound and Television vol 50,
SEE ALSO:
No 462 530
(1935)
No
7,
138
CR
1935
MULTIPLIER PHOTOTUBES
One
circuit.
&
Zworykin, Morton
is
Malter (USA)
When
electrons
of one or several hundred electron volts energy impinge on a suitably prepared conducting surface, they
eject
initial
to 10.
Repetition of this process leads to current multiplication by an arbitrarily high factor, practically without
the addition of amplification noise. If the initial current
reflects the variation
is
of the light incident on the photocathode with a precision which depends only
on the quantum efficiency of the cathode; with proper design, the dispersion
in the transit
time of the
electrons from the cathode to the final collector can be held to quantities of the order of 10"'" second.
In the earliest effective multipliers
from dynode
to
electric
and magnetic
fields.
Purely electrostatic focusing and acceleration systems were developed subsequently by Zworykin and
as well as
image orthicon
is
also
RCA
as
RCA
Finally,
at the
SOURCE:
Schlesinger and
E C Ramberg
Proc.
IRE
p 1001/2
(May 1962)
SEE ALSO:
new
electronic device' by
(March 1936)
V K
Zvorykin ?nd
A Rajchman
V K
Zworykin,
IRE
Proc.
G A
(September 1939)
'Photocell multiplier tube' by
CC
Larson and
TRANSISTOR
In
Weiss
The
light area
marked 3
is
Figure 11.10
in or
is
Relating to Electrical
(Germany)
improvements
Heil
1,
vol 17, p
(Field Effect)
to
to
A Concise
Heil describes
means of
how
in
a signal
Date Order
139
may be observed by
the current meter 5. Using today's experience and language, one might describe this device
SOURCE:
transistor.
CIRCUITRY
This
now
familiar and
much used
not the
now
A D
(Long-Tailed Pair)
circuit (figure
between points
in Central
Blumlein (UK)
was
first
needed
was
in the amplifiers
Palace.
purpose, but transformers to handle the video frequency range were not then available.
o+
The name of
that
it
do
the job
is
the
circuit.
name given
to
it
by Blumlein, and
is
so descriptive
has stuck.
Sound and
No
7,
A Concise
40
SEE ALSO:
1936
No 482 740
(1936)
Bell
The
first
number of
decades.
(USA)
Bell Laboratories
made
trigger tubes
in
in
activated cathode led to anode maintaining and critical trigger voltages each of the order
of 70 V.
SOURCE:
DM
p 87 (February 1964)
SEE ALSO:
1936
B Ingram
WAVEGUIDES
Carson, S P Meade, S
Schelkunoff,
GC
Southworth
(Bell
Laboratories) (USA)
In
from the Bell Telephone Laboratories, Carson, Meade and Schelkunoff published
1936,
mathematical
theory
experimental
results.
same year
In that
Waves
in
on
Wave
'Hyper-Frequency
Guides'
his
their
while
for the
work on
Hollow Tubes of Metal'. Before 1934 Southworth had transmitted telegraph and telephone
ft.
attenuation.
SOURCE: 'Microwave
communications' by
H Vogelman
Proc.
VOCODER
In
US Government
SOURCE:
Hill,
With
later
Carson, S P
Meade and S
(USA)
for secure
World War
since
II
by
communications.
'Mission Communications
C Mabon
(Murray
XEROGRAPHY
An
1936, Bell Laboratories developed the voice coder, or vocoder, for analysing the pitch and energy
1937
Bell Laboratories
the
by
Carlson (USA)
is
new photographic
process which in a relatively short time has found numerous industrial applications.
dry and
is
It
is
completely
in the
photoconductive coating on
a thin
a metallic sheet.
is
to
light.
Thus an
an optical image.
When
electrostatic
the plate
is
in
printing.
By
to
Roland
completed: a high-vacuum technique for coating plates with selenium; and a corona discharge wire,
both for applying the original electrostatic charge to the plate and for transferring powder from the
plate to the paper.
The most
became
filled
interested.
significant contribution
was
the discovery of a
method
to
with stray powder. Thus Battelle improved Xerography to the point where
A Concise
SOURCE: The
Sources of Invention by
Jewkes,
Sawers and
141
&
SEE ALSO:
'Printing with
'Xerography
From Fable
'Developments
1937
in
Xerography' by
by
W T Reid
T G
Dowling and
usually
employs
special
Bullen (Ireland)
oscillographic device which has been specially designed for the purpose of depicting oscillograms
in polar co-ordinates.
von Ardenne and Dowling and Bullen have independently developed polar co-ordinate cathode ray
oscillograph tubes, von Ardenne's tube and the circuit employed with
Wavt term
to
are
it
shown
in figure 11.12.
bt exanmtlt
The
resultant
final
anode
deflectors across
shown
is
the case
when
it
the signal
to
be examined
is
in figure 11.13.
is
is,
is
potential.
The form of
the image, as
it
is
shown
in figure 11.13,
difficult to find a
is
name which
Figure 11.13. Polar co-ordinate oscillogram obtained with von Ardenne's polar co-ordinate oscillograph.
SOURCE: Time
Bases by
S Puckle (London:
Chapman
&
A Concise
42
SEE ALSO:
measurements with
A H
came
Only
use.
knew
in the last
that
few years,
no
too early.
T G
Dowling and
think
make
in this
Reeves (UK)
in
it
(1937)
1938 and
by
p 5 (1937)
14,
1937
Date Order
'A new polar co-ordinate cathode ray oscillograph with extremely linear time scale' by
in
economic
patented in
its
is
at the
felt.
Pulse code modulation was invented mainly for line-of-sight microwave links or link sections, where
in
1938 the needed extra bandwidth would have been cheap and easily obtainable, rather than for more
now
PCM,
was
its
sound reasons,
for quite
of application.
fields
It
is
this
difficulties
application.
in the
War
II
PCM
main
in fact the
that has
system
later
Ralph Bown.
It is
produced
SOURCE: The
US Army
past, present
work should be
PCM's
stressed, for
it
was
the
first
time that
vol 3,
No
5,
p 58
(May 1965)
1937
first
P E Pollard (UK)
first
in 1937.
It
It
was
gave
range up to 10 miles, with an accuracy of about 25 yards, but no angle of elevation, and was the only
equipment of
SOURCE:
1938
kind available
its
Science at War by
of 1940^11.
Crowther and
Whiddington (London:
German
its
seemed
to
had
to
blue-emitting phosphor
at
RCA
line.
p 76 (1947)
W Flechsig (Germany)
SHADOW-MASK TUBE
TELEVISION:
HMSO)
in
triads,
which hundreds of
each with a
fine wires
red-, green-
and
Laboratories. Schroeder suggested a hexagonal array of circular holes in a metal mask, together
with round phosphor dots and three closely spaced electron beams through a
Prior to 1948,
common
deflection yoke.
basic technology of aligning either holes or wires with phosphor dots or lines appeared well
reach.
One
Law.
When
beyond
RCA
the
Schroeder's idea.
He
then
made
a photographic process to
Law
H B
elected to pursue
produce
light
shadows
that
shadows. Application of any one of several photolithographic techniques then permitted deposition of
phosphors
in
etched a metal
mask with
good colour
at
RCA's
mask
came
rapidly and in a
first
(unrelated to
H B Law
but also at
RCA's
Princeton Laboratories).
R R Law
A Concise
SOURCE:
143
No
p 1333
9.
(September 1976)
SEE ALSO:
W Flechsig:
'Multi-colour television'
German
AC
US
Schroeder,
A C
H B Law
No 2595 548
Proc.
IRE
to the aircraft
P and beyond.
It is
If
we
which issues
Figure 11.14.
The
aircraft carries
navigator
stations
is
Mr R
when
it
second pulse,
Then
GEE
his
B which
is
team
at
master
B and
also
also activates a
navigational system.
and C, and
Science at
COMPUTERS
Shows
arrival
is
recorded.
The
provided with a chart covered with two intersecting sets of curves, corresponding to
SOURCE:
filed
J Dippy (UK)
arranged that
548
invented by
vol 39, p
R
a
filed
No 2595
Patent
'GEE' NAVIGATION
Owing to the use of a chart covered with
name of GEE (see figure 11.14). It was
1938
US
Schroeder,
1938
Patent
is
and
marked on
War by
the
Crowther and
its
R Whiddington
R
on
map
(London:
HMSO)
(Information Theory)
of the country to be
pt.
is
seen.
p 54 (1947)
Ill A,
p 468 (1946)
C E Shannon (USA)
the analysis of complicated circuits for switching could be effected by the use of Boolean algebra.
SOURCE:
p 713 (1938)
circuits'
by
C E Shannon
Trans.
AIEE
vol 57,
144
1938
NUCLEAR FISSION
Late in 1938,
new
in
substances,
recognised that one of them was probably barium, whose atomic mass and number are only about half
of that of uranium. This meant that they had previously been on a false
in Scandinavia,
uranium atoms
into
They
slightly heavier or
No
38
Xenon No
Dr
54.
in
could be done
splitting
Barium No 56
split into
R Dunning
The
parts.
now
variety of ways.
Strontium
new atoms
split
trail.
this discovery.
No
Krypton
the
in a
36; or into
work on
fission.
Here was the explanation of the chemical confusion: a wide variety of chemically different atoms was
named
this
new
process of atom-splitting
'nuclear fission'. Nothing like this had been seen in heavy atoms before.
SOURCE:
1939
Science at
War by
RADIO ALTIMETER
The
HMSO)
(USA)
Bell Laboratories
radio altimeter, by which a pilot can calculate his height above the ground,
USA
Laboratories.
The
The
at the Bell
relative altitude
SOURCE:
p 131 (1947)
developed
is
in the
altimeter bounces signals off the Earth and measures the time they
pilot then uses a calibrated indicator to translate this figure
the
(November
17
1982)
1939
KLYSTRON
Perhaps the
first
phenomena
in
C Hahn and
the invention
in
Webster's theoretical treatment of the klystron and the work of Hahn and Metcalf were published
in
1939.
full
SOURCE:
'History of the
SEE ALSO:
p 321
1939
a well-thought-out theory of
its
microwave tube
art'
by
Pierce Proc.
R H and
S F Varian
Appl.
J.
Phys.
vol 10,
(May 1939)
DOUBLE-BEAM OSCILLOGRAPH
A
splitter plate is
immersed
in the
B C Fleming-Williams (UK)
beam and
divides
it
two separate
into
sections.
Two
'bucking' wires
to which potentials are applied are used in order to cancel out mutual deflectional interference of the
two beams.
With
is
two beams
Since the Y
direction.
beam)
it
becomes necessary
to
employ an anti-trapezium
The production of
beam cathode
double beam
is
much
better
means of an
in time.
This
is
it is
two images
possible for
SOURCE:
Time Bases by
Chapman
SEE ALSO:
Wave World
vol 12, p
457 (1939)
&
B C Fleming-Williams
Electronics
&
Short
COMPUTERS
HH
(Digital)
145
IBM
Controlled Calculator, or
Mark
The Mark
more
at the
built
same
time.
Sequence
I,
I,
much
could perform
any specified sequence of five fundamental operations, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division
results.
The operation of
was
governed by an automatic sequence mechanism. The machine consisted of 60 registers for constants.
72 adding storage
The
was
either
punched
SOURCE:
and dividing
unit,
means of computing
the elementary
10*
was
in the
by
in
electric typewriters.
'The evolution of computing machines and systems' by Serrell, Astrahan, Patterson and
Pascal
von Neumann by
to
H H
1939
H H
Aitken
perhaps a
little
surprising that
it
was not
G
1937
until
that Bell
Stibitz et al
1964)
(USA)
design of calculating devices, although Andrews has stated that from about 1925 the possibility of using
relay circuit techniques for such purposes
started to
first
However,
there.
in
experiment with relays and drew up circuit designs for addition, multiplication and division. At
became an
official
TC
number
of problems
in the
representation.
The
project
design of
filter
fill
namely
November
In
1938, S
B Williams
with Stibitz refined the design of the calculator, whose construction was started in April and completed
in
October of 1939. The calculator, which became known as the 'Complex Number Computer', often
in
it
was modified so
built, the
'Model
1'
began routine
and subtraction of complex numbers, and was provided with a second, and then a third teletype control,
situated in remote locations.
SOURCE:
It
remained
in daily
use
at Bell
SEE ALSO:
'Computer' by
GR
Stibitz
(Berlin: Springer) p
238 (1973)
(Berlin:
1939
MAGNETRON
In the
the
autumn of 1939
University of Birmingham
to
by
and
WW
in
on
L Oliphant and
HAH
first
its
Boot (UK)
inventors,
The majority of
R H and S F
HAH
the
Varian
Randall
Boot, struck by the difficulty of getting enough power from the klystron, considered
Randall and
American General
Hull of
A Concise
146
The
result
was
in
Date Order
which proved
to
SOURCE: The
Sources of Invention by
Jewkes,
Sawers and
&
1939
FREQUENCY STANDARDS
The
(Caesium Beam)
at
nonuniform
field
When
in.
in
first
moment,
RF
from those
in the first
field is exactly
L Essen
Proc.
in the
TV
Fischer (Switzerland)
'television theatres'
Swiss Federal
at the
Institute
come from
detector.
which
second magnet
of Technology in 1939. At that time, Fischer thought that the growth of television would
the
to
passes
beam
In this
beam of atoms
his co-workers.
SOURCE:
1939
is
a magnetic dipole
to a detector through a
frequency and
Rabi (USA)
of bandwidth and low intensity are most easily overcome by using the atomic
difficulties
magnets have
I I
The
earliest
Eidophors were
darkened room. They were not the most reliable of machines and for a number of years the Eidophor
system was
little
known
or used.
programme
system capable of working for long periods of time, to provide data displays
centres.
in
NASA
flight control
Gretag AG, Zurich, a subsidiary of Ciba Geigy and patent holders and manufacturers of the
NASA
SOURCE:
television
'Projection
specifications.
The
latest
wide.
by
1940
CYBERNETICS
N Weiner (Germany)
Rosenblueth.
It
comes from
the
in
or pilot.
Cybernetics
in
is
in
machines
as well as
humans.
of Inventions and Discoveries Associate Editor Valerie-Anne Giscard d'Estaing
Press,
Macdonald
&
Co.) (1990) p
16
E G Bowen,
W B Lewis, G W A
Dummer and E
The
first
A Dummer
and
The
It
was
development of
made of
this
the authors
device
it
(G
may be of
the
Franklin (UK)
not,
however,
beam and
a satisfactory PPI.
until
1939-40
that the
two developments of
in
a radar station
the cathode ray screen with bright and lasting afterglow led to
A Concise
In
was envisaged
It
An
1.
It
Date Order
in
147
was decided
this
wavelength
should be possible
it
'map' of
surrounding
all
that the
electrostatically
deflected tube.
2.
At
were not
fully developed;
it
were
CH
on
in use
to
CHL
and
adopt the
sets
scheme.
first
Experimental work was also carried out on 'strobing' a portion of the time base, amplifying
it
By
to another tube.
side
on a 12
was produced on
in tube)
this
this area
the
appeared as
it
in
beamwidth of
to the 15
interesting to
and feeding
is
it
'square' (approximately
first
full size
dim
type was
this
become one of
has
USA
and
it
seems a
the
first
far cry
ft
H2 S
and ASV.
and the
today.
SOURCE:
by
for radar'
SEE ALSO:
1940
Odhams
A H
Press) p
268 (1957)
Reeves (UK)
Yet another high-precision method of radar navigation removed the necessity for the pilot to find the
target or
the
knowledge of
the pilot
who was
relieved of
circumference of a great
stations,
is
strain
aircraft.
whose centre
circle,
this
much
The
and B. Station
at
is
A, and of P from
way and
stations
that, tracking
and
B send
is
recorded
at
B.
The Cat
series of
Morse dashes
of dots.
But
if
earphones.
ready to warn
aircraft,
moment
intervention at
all
The inventor of
this
Marshal)
D C T
SOURCE:
mark
H 2 S,
Science at War by
IIIA,
when
bombs.
he worked
AP
is
it
it
greater than
AC,
A
its
it
keep
is
recorded
at
knowledge of
It
may even
Mr A H
comes within
release the
Reeves.
in close collaboration
special targets,
it
93,
as
it,
It
aircraft to
along the
he keeps exactly on the circle he hears a high-pitched continuous buzz. The Mouse
watches the
the hole.
in his
fly
the distance PA. If the aircraft has strayed to the right, so that
down
magnified and returned. From these responses, the exact distance of P from
aircraft,
station
who
tried
were, dart
bombs without
the pilot's
and adopted
in
their
It
p 496 (1946)
it
HMSO)
(1947) p 58
A Concise
148
Daslies orpa
200-300
200-300
miles
miles
"Cot7 or tracker
Cboe station
'Mouse," or release
Oboe station
OBOE
Figure 11.15.
1940
navigational system.
SKIATRON CRO
The
A H
The Skiatron
was developed
to
meet
Rosenthal (USA)
consists of a magnetically focused and deflected cathoderay tube with a screen consisting
vacuum on
An
is
obtained by evaporation of
beam produces
The
bombarded.
picture
is
SOURCE:
G R
King and
Gittins
IEE
J.
p 822 (1946)
H F
Roberts and F
Richards
in crystals'
RCA Review
vol 6 p
by
234
(1941)
1941
BETATRON
A
betatron
is
D
an electrical device
normal to a magnetic
spiral orbit
in
field,
and have
in a
W Kerst (USA)
vacuum
enclosure, in a circular or a
by the electric
force resulting from the variation with time of the magnetic flux enclosed by their orbits.
The betatron
comparable
to
an ordinary transformer
in
invented by
at
Illinois in 1941.
It is
to accelerate electrons to
340
SOURCE:
Sarbacher (London:
Pitman) p 10 (1959)
1941
W S Butement (UK)
the
most
brilliant
proposed by Butement.
the shell
interval
is
It
innovations of
Army
radar
was
the
V-T
These are
reflected
from the
their reflections is a
target.
When
The time-
A Concise
between the
and
shell
By
its target.
made
is
when
explode when
is
it
in
Date Order
149
below
This very ingenious invention was based on an application of the Doppler principle, and on the use
Both of these
of very rugged radio valves which could be fired in a shell without being destroyed.
were British inventions, the early successful rugged valves being made by the research
original features
team under
Mr D
Lawson of Pye
The
later
Many
engineers.
in
this fuse
guns using
V-T
it
scientists
all
and
Ltd.
quantity.
Company
end of
at the
shot
down by
States.
Our American
we
were able
allies
making 150000000 of
SOURCE:
1941
RADAR
to put
1500 persons on
able to put
Science at
to the
same
development of
to the
task.
War by
Crowther and
R Whiddington
If
air targets
in the
HMSO)
(London:
A C B
Dee,
Blumlein
them? Accordingly,
the prodigy of
NAVIGATION SYSTEM
(H 2 S)
no time were
this fuse; at
why
et al
p 82 (1947)
Lovell,
AD
(UK)
that this
experiment be
camp
tried.
The
aircraft
Thus
the
was proved
it
waves from
others.
The
that in the
cathode ray tube picture of the general reflections from the ground of
picture of the
definite features
which corresponded
to different objects
bomber,
in the
blister
was born
1941
new equipment
to live
SOURCE:
equipment
is
for the
War by
MICROELECTRONICS
During World War
II,
first
it
had
or
dome on
heavy
to short radio
Science at
was made of
shimmering confusion,
on the ground.
The
light.
The
H 2 S.
Crowther and
R Whiddington
(London:
HMSO)
p 63 (1947)
Centralab (USA)
Globe-Union
Inc.,
developed a ceramic-based
circuit for
the National Bureau of Standards. This 'printed circuit' used screen-deposited resistor inks and silver
Army
The PC board
that
followed stimulated manufacturers to develop components with radial leads and tubular shapes.
SOURCE:
(23
1942
packaging and
materials' by
R L Goldberg
THEVELODYNE
The Velodyne
is
an electromechanical system
to an input voltage
shaft is a
F C Williams and A
by feedback methods.
In
in
total
is
Uttley
(UK)
number of revolutions of
the output
A Concise
150
it
to solve
to the solution
circuits
made
in 1945.
1942
SANATRON
Velodyne' by F
one semi-stable
The two
Williams and
IEE
Uttley Proc.
valves are arranged in the form of a multivibrator having one stable and
As
its
is
is
initiated
is
circuit
and the
latter
by a negative trigger
circuit
quiescent condition.
p 1256 (1946)
III A,
reverts to
vol 93, pt
state, the
effort.
THE SANATRON.
differential
SOURCE: The
TRE
The upper
available from a
limit of rate
little
to
300-V supply
line
is
grid.
PHANTRASTRON
The Phantrastron
is
a circuit
Its
Williams and
1EE p 320
J.
IEE
THE PHANTRASTRON:
the Sanatron,
main use
lies in
Due
to
its
simplicity
it
is
like
widely
used where a somewhat lower order of accuracy and linearity than that provided by the Sanatron
is
acceptable.
SOURCE:
IEE
193 (1946)
Williams and
N F Moody
J.
A Concise
1942
LOR AN
151
MIT (USA)
LORAN
GEE
successor to the
air
system developed
in Britain
and given
USA
to the
1940 can,
in
developed
at
position
indicated.
is
SOURCE:
on
when
a screen;
at
a natural
long range,
LORAN
The
give an aircraft pilot or ship's captain his position to within a few hundred yards.
goes
like streets,
LORAN,
receiver,
The Timetable of Technology (London: Michael Joseph, Marshall Editions) p 124 (November
1982)
1943
RELIABILITY
Initial
his
now
reliability
and economy
when
minimum
when
our history
To give
the
new
speed, precision,
thorough
tool a
number of
strategic
demands
for
in
trial,
was
the military released a multiple sampling plan based on Wald's sequential theory. This plan
released to a limited
US war
value in
its
A Wald (USA)
(Sequential analysis)
acceptance sampling.
first
The
its
its
SOURCE:
Proc.
1943
'The
reliability
field
from
its
Ryerson
R Kompfner, A
W Haeff and J R
Pierce (USA)
It
Kompfner
to
experiment which gave us the travelling-wave tube and led to a host of related devices.
Kompfner reasoned
that
He
built a tube
beam of
electrons if the
wave
to
this
tube with a helix circuit can amplify over a frequency range of more than an octave.
SOURCE:
'History of the
SEE ALSO:
limited to
Mc
500-1000
is
were
same
performance.
and which can function over an astonishingly wide range of frequencies and powers.
bandwidth
in the
travelling-wave
More
typically,
microwave tube
by
art'
Pierce Proc.
R Kompfner
(November
1946)
1943
PRINTED WIRING
switchboard
and
circuit
components such
(UK)
in
methods
that is to say,
Eisler
circuit is
art
its
of a development of
it
their existing
first
its final
produced as
form,
a linear
three-dimensional form.
circuit, or
and
if it is
electric or
magnetic
A Concise
52
known methods
the well
printing surface;
SOURCE: UK
SEE ALSO:
1943
of the printing
and from
that imprint
No 639
Patent
in
Date Order
a printing surface;
art,
aid of the
(UK)
H2S
of the most important of the radar navigation devices designed during the war was
To use
'Oboe'.
The H2S
equipped with
H2 S
air.
water
in
trained either by
first
new
to use the
in place
principle of a
of electromagnetic
a liquid
H 2 S. The
velocity
of ultrasonic waves
This
possible
was used
1.5
is
normally encountered
x 10 5 cm/s and as
that
of
in the operation
of electro-magnetic waves in
x 10'"
air is 3
1.5
x 10 5
m
x 10 m
th
200000
of the radar scale. This meant that one 'ultrasonic' mile = 0.315
could be simulated
If
pulsed
is
at its
in,
fifty
miles
placed in the path of the transmitted wave, an echo will be re-radiated from the object in the same
up on the
The
crystal
beam was
crystal.
map
miles (0.10 in approximately), the crystal being used for both transmission and reception.
was
back 1.25
set
aircraft flying at
the area in
in.
20000
On
ft.
the glass
to simulate
training
was
to
left as
was then
Towns were
plain glass.
built
(to a scale
map was
sand-blasted or etched
to the glass
and the
at the
rotated at
crystal
The
energy was proportional to the 'roughness' of the glass surface, and the
to represent land masses.
is
way
of the IF amplifier
H2 S
receiver and
The
display produced
the actual
H2 S
when
flying
over Germany.
SOURCE:
'H 2 S trainer
use of
submerged
relief
maps' by
WA
Dummer
COMPUTERS
(ENIAC)
Ill,
RAF' by
(Electronic Numerator,
firing
and
in
built at the
Moore School of
in
1946.
principal object
was
the computation
US Army Ordnance
Corps. This
A Concise
Date Order
in
153
computation required the integration of a simple system of ordinary differential equations involving
arbitrary functions.
This equipment occupied a space 30 x 50 feet and contained 18 000 vacuum tubes. The computing
SOURCE:
IBM
'The evolution of computing machines and systems' by Serrell, Astrahan, Patterson and
SEE ALSO:
H H
1943
ASEA
(Sweden)
ASEA who
devised
many
techniques involving combinations of saturated reactors and metal rectifiers for supplying controllable
d.c.
power from
Much
systems.
single-, three-
of
pioneer work
this
in
power
Germany during
the
mainly
applications,
in place
is
SEE ALSO:
'The Transductor' by
'Some fundamentals of
AG
A U Lamm
Milnes
1EE
J.
As
A U Lamm (AIEE
by
establishment.
methods are
Much
initial
by other countries
is
contribution of
COLOSSUS
SOURCE:
machine
is
COLOSSUS
shown
came
it
to the allied
still
and
at the
As
war
techniques were
rocket
code-breaking activity
The V2
alternator.
p 89 (1949)
I,
VA
150
a theory of a transductor'
'Magnetic amplifier' by
1943
c/s,
rectifier
Considerable
in
SOURCE:
Uno Lamm.
COLOSSUS,
COLOSSUS
valves.
was
effort has
operational
first
not,
and had no
The extraordinary
view of the
in figure 11.17.
1'
by S
Lavington Electronics
& Power
p 827
(November/December 1978)
SEE ALSO:
'The Colossus' by
90 (1976). Reprinted
The Ultra Secret by F
in
condensed form
in
1944
New
Randell
Nicholson) (1974)
New
HF
of the
finally
programmes sponsored by
pp 346-8 (1977)
Dodge and
was brought
to light
H G Romig
in
(USA)
acceptance sampling
during World
War
II
through
Development
scientific investigators
and
statisticians in the
54
A Concise
Figure 11.17.
view of the
COLOSSUS
and
&
approach.
SOURCE:
1945
&
H F Dodge
and
H G Romig (New
York: John
Sons) (1944)
COMPUTERS
(Theory)
Basic design of the electronic computer project of the Institute of Advanced Study incorporating ideas
underlying essentially
all
modern machines.
REFERENCE: 'Memorandum
(8
November 1945)
SEE ALSO:
H H
1945
DECCA
Navigation system
Schwartz
(USA)
DECCA,
Allies'
internationally regarded as the best navigation system, under goes crucial tests during the
D-Day
landings on the
Normandy
dimensions
SOURCE: The
1982)
beaches.
DECCA
latitude, longitude
indicates
and altitude
and
on cockpit
is
in
Waves of
phase.
A
1945
Date Order
155
MIT (USA)
COMPUTERS
(Whirlwind)
An
assignment
in
was given
in
at that
1947, the major part of the effort was devoted to the design and
in
known
as 'Whirlwind'.
The
project
was sponsored by
in operation in
March 1951.
'Whirlwind
I'
was
vacuum
computer
Physically,
some
arithmetic 'element'
number
length of 15 binary
1 1
utilising a
a large
consisted of an
It
was
it
program counter
a source of synchronising
element and
to the arithmetic
megapulse
and Pyne
Proc.
Pascal to von
Neumann by H H
1945
COMMUNICATION
(Satellite)
A C
1945.
The use of
transmission from
a satellite S
to S,
at
A C
and from S
Clarke (UK)
and
permitted microwave
oceans by microwave
orbit taking
one day, so
Clarke's
link.
SPUTNIK
and
above the Equator would give the radio engineer an imaginary mast 22 300 miles high on which
to
SOURCE:
'Electronics in space' by
No
vol 45,
10,
SEE ALSO:
1945-
AC
POTTED CIRCUITS
No
10, p
1950
many
The
it is
only recently that plastics suitable for this purpose have become available, in the form of cold-
is
no doubt
now
years, but
as essential part of
modern
electronic equipment, and potting techniques lend themselves to this construction provided that
are available to dissipate the heat developed.
The
The
in
means
major dimensions.
casting resins are converted into rigid plastics by the addition of a catalyst and accelerator,
without the application of the considerable pressures and temperatures normally associated with the
polymerisation of thermosetting resins.
SOURCE: 'New
constructional
techniques'
by
A Dummer
and
D L
Johnston Electronic
by
Bibbero and
E B
Chester
(1951)
new development
in miniaturisation
A Concise
56
'Cast resin
1946
embedments of
and components'
circuit sub-units
Elect.
computers
On
NPL
probably the
200.
computer housed
result in a
Pilot
about designing a
first
It is
(ACE)
The
set
1936 and, although familiar through personal contact with von Neumann, he had no
in
Committee of
would
M Turing (UK)
at
ACE
at
NPL
NPL
Darwin, the
in
Director, thought of
had a complicated 32-bit instruction format including provision for specifying one of
32 'sources', one of 32 'destinations' and the source of the next instruction. Instructions also specified
the duration of a transfer, so that prolonging a transfer over several cycles could give the effect
Many
were straightforward
arithmetic or logical functions, including unsigned multiplication. Signed multiplication took just over
The main
was extended
to
Pilot
It
SOURCE:
ACE
first
words
in
mercury delay
was sensible
it
to
in
make
1954.
program
in
May
with a
lines.
This
Since the
NPL
medium
cards the
(1024
/is
serial,
for
ACE.
triodes.
bit
The
32
64
in as little as
worst case), depending on the position of the next instruction. Arithmetic was
The computer
1950.
1'
by S
ECC
81 double
is
Lavington Electronics
& Power
p 828
(November/December 1978)
'The early days of British computers
SEE ALSO:
NPL
Sci.
Report Com.
COMPUTERS (CRT
REFERENCE:
1EE
by S
Lavington Electronics
& Power
p 40 (January 1979)
B E
Carpenter and
pt.
Computing
F C Williams (UK)
Storage)
CRT
as a
memory
vol 96,
INTPL
57.)
Proc.
2'
Engine (ACE)' by
1946
2,
No
device.
digital
computers' by F
Williams and
Kilburn
Pascal
to
von Neumann by
H H
1947
DTN
amplifier
up
may be
to the
Williamson (UK)
listed as:
maximum
maximum
output
at all
component
spectrum of 10-20000
c/s.
(b)
Constant
A Concise
Figure 11.18.
(3)
ACE
stored
same
is
157
of
may be profoundly
Good
transient response.
effective gain
In addition to
due
to current
in
Low
transient response
is
realistic
which
to a
in the
in
design of iron-cored
minimum.
(6)
&
Date Order
(5)
in
component frequencies of
(4)
that
it
peak power capabilities of the order of 15-20 watts when the electro-acoustic transducer
is
a baffle-
SOURCE:
by
D T N
(April 1947)
1947
DTN
(USA)
Laboratories in 1947.
This
permitted pulsed radar systems to have long range and high resolution while avoiding problems
associated with generating and transmitting short pulses with high peak powers
SOURCE:
Mission Communications
C Mabon
(Murray
Hill,
NJ:
A Concise
158
947
ECME
(Electronic Circuit
Making Equipment)
first
Sargrove (UK)
grit to
roughen both sides of the plates simultaneously. The plates were then triple-sprayed
four to a side to allow simultaneous spraying of both sides of the plate once
to
form
modern
operation of Sargrove's machine was to prepare the |-in molded-plastic plates by blasting with
an abrasive
on the
first
to
The
resistance, capacitance
plate.
typical plate
shown
is
Figure 11.19.
SOURCE:
it
in figure 11.19.
and Construction by
A Dummer, C
L K
Brunetti and
of radio production'
by
Sargrove
J.
Brit.
IRE
vol
p 2
7(1),
1947
COMPUTERS (EDVAC)
The
at
SOURCE:
It
is
a serial, synchronous
EDVAC, was
It
Ballistic
machine
contains
in
built at the
which
all
at
the
Moore School
Research Laboratory
tubes, about
1200
digits.
'The evolution of computing machines and systems' by Serrell, Astrahan, Patterson and
Pascal
to
von Neumann by
H H
A Concise
1947
COMPUTERS
(UNIVAC)
P Eckert and
(Universal Automatic
159
Mauchly (USA)
Computer)
The development of
year.
The
who founded
UMVAC
first
was
USA
now
became
later
Remington Rand
the
December of
in
1947 by Presper
started about
Computer Corporation
the Eckert-Mauchly
UNIVAC was
Automatic Computer, or
the Universal
a subsidiary of
UNIVAC
that
in operation in
Remington Rand,
Corporation).
UNIVAC
was
a direct
descendent of the
ENIAC
at a rate
EDVAC
and of the
in the
development of which
University of Pennsylvania.
at the
and clamp
in logic
It
It
was
a serial,
circuits.
delay lines provided 1000 twelve-decimal-digit words of internal storage. Twelve additional delay lines
registers.
UNIVAC
SOURCE:
Proc.
machines were
tape.
Forty eight
built.
'The evolution of computing machines and systems' Serrell, Astrahan, Patterson and Pyne
Pascal
von Neumann by
to
H H
1947
Simpson (UK)
Molecular beam epitaxy
(MBE)
is
term used
denote
to
the
epitaxial
growth of compound
semiconductor films by a process involving the reaction of one or more thermal molecular beams
with a crystalline surface under high
offers
much improved
may be
differences
using
MBE,
it
is
A^Gai-jjAs with
vacuum
MBE
conditions.
is
related to
vacuum
evaporation, but
control over the incident atomic or molecular fluxes so that sticking coefficient
beam
low
as
lOA. Since
profile
speeds.
many
For example,
layers of
normal
to the surface
may be
GaAs and
added
to the
with a special resolution difficult to achieve by more conventional, faster growth techniques.
SOURCE:
'Molecular
beam
epitaxy' by
A Y Cho
and
Arthur
J.
Chemistry
SEE ALSO:
cells'
by
L Sosnowski,
Starkiewicz and
Simpson
Elleman and
H Wilman
Proc.
1948
COMPUTERS
(SEAC)
built
by the
May
1950.
It
was
built
SOURCE:
in
staff
to carry out
programming problems.
'The evolution of computing machines and systems' by Serrell, Astrahan, Patterson and
SEE ALSO:
to
von Neumann by
H H
A Concise
160
1948
TRANSISTOR
(USA)
Immediately
On
hostilities
ceased in 1945 Shockley organised a group for research on the physics of solids.
was discovered
it
function as Shockley had predicted; something prevented the electric field from penetrating into the
interior of the semi-conductor.
nature of the surface of a semi-conductor which accounted for this lack of penetration of
field,
Gibney observed
that
an electrolyte
an electric
in contact
field
would penetrate
one of
In
these, Walter
and also
Experiments
Brattain and
R B
of Shockley's amplifier in which a suitably prepared small block of silicon was used.
modified form
He
believed that
current flowing to a diode contact to the silicon block could be controlled by a voltage applied to an
electrolyte surrounding the contact. In the earlier experiments testing Shockley's ideas, thin films with
inferior electrical characteristics
tried
and found the amplification as Bardeen had predicted, but the operation was limited
frequencies because of the electrolyte. Similar experiments involving
was opposite
germanium were
very low
and discovered
electrolyte
to
successful, but
contact could be used to control, to a small extent, the current flowing to the diode contact.
again, however, the sign of the effect
results
on
was opposite
first
Here
by the two scientists led them to the invention of the point contact
transistor,
which operates
proposed.
controlled by current flowing from a second contact, rather than by an externally applied electric
is
field.
Brattain and Bardeen used extremely simple equipment, the most expensive piece of apparatus being
an oscilloscope.
The
rapidly.
The
in
it
it
was
noisy,
it
conceived the idea of the junction transistor which was free of many of these defects and most of the
transistors
now made
SOURCE: The
Sources of Invention by
Jewkes,
&
SEE ALSO:
'The
First
(Summer
1953)
1948
HOLOGRAPHY
D Gabor (UK)
With holography, one records not the optically formed image of an object but the object wave
This wave
of
this
is
in
itself.
is
practically indiscernible
from the
SOURCE:
Reinhold
&
SEE ALSO:
Optical Holography by
426 (1974)
J Collier,
C B
Burzkhardt and L
Lin
(New
York: Academic
Press) (1971)
1948
EDS AC
MV
Wilkes (UK)
Calculator)
The
EDSAC
working
in the scale
is a serial
electronic calculating
machine
of two and using ultrasonic tanks for storage. The main store consists of 32 tanks.
about 5
is
It is
all.
161
ft
accommodate
digit.
This
number only
are used
for accumulator and multiplier registers in the arithmetical united, and for control purposes in various
parts of the machine.
SOURCE: The
SEE ALSO:
London A,
1948
is
EDSAC,
used in the
same length
MV
vol 195, p
TRANSISTORS
as short numbers.
274 (1948)
GK
Teal
&
(USA)
Little
Germanium)
1948
G K
Teal and
Little
They
structural perfection.
BTL
began experiments
They succeeded
germanium of high
of
also
to
grow germanium
in
recrystallization methods.
At
BTL Teal,
working with
Using
ingots they prepared single crystals containing p-n junctions and soon afterwards n-p-n grown-junction
transistors
SOURCE:
R L
Petritz Proc.
ISE
crystals'
G K
by
Teal and
Little Phys.
vol 78, p
Rev.
647 (June
1950)
'Growth of silicon single crystals and of single crystal silicon p-n junctions' Phys. Rev. vol 87, p 190
(July 1952)
1948
COMMUNICATION
it
seems
C E Shannon (USA)
(Information Theory)
first
is
used
with
1948 by Shannon.
many
different senses.
mathematical model of
Shannon introduced
numerical measure, called by him and others entropy, of the randomness or uncertainty associated with
class of
facility
needed
main argument)
that this
SOURCE:
its
measures
in a real
He
class.
showed
also
in certain aspects
work and
incidentally to his
common, vague
in
He
(quite
with the
As
a result, his
information Theory' by
B McMillan and D
Slepian Proc.
of Communication by
C E Shannon
and
W Weaver (Urbana,
IL:
1948
RCA
(Magnetic Film)
inches in width.
quality
its
own. During
this
it
was not
Use of
this
new
until
it
on
World War
II
Germany
in
which was higher than had previously been obtained from either the film or the disk method.
A Concise
162
in
Date Order
Immediately after the war some of the German recorders were demonstrated
on
mm
became
film
to convert photographic
tried in motion-picture
to
The
'takes'.
SOURCE:
of magnetic recording
tests
in the
dynamic range,
its
and the
Since re-recording of
in this country,
sound recorders
Many
were
was already
recording.
the accepted
Batsel and
L Dimmick
IRE
Proc.
p 749
(May
1962)
1949
MICRO WIRE
Ulitovsky (USSR)
It
was invented
in
Russia
is
it
in
1949 by Professor
was
quite difficult to
Wollaston process
2.
Taylor process
3.
Microwire process
In the
is
is,
produced
is
drawing techniques:
a platinum rod
encased
in a silver tube
etched to remove the silver, leaving the fine platinum core behind.
traditional die
down
to 0.5/x.
made
is
is
attenuated in
a muffle furnace, using the technique of pulling and stretching as practiced in the glass fibre industry.
lower melting point than the softening point of the glass, thus allowing the
capillary to be filled with cast metal. Wires of lead, antimony, bismuth, gold, silver, tin, copper and
Microwire process
this
down
to 0.25//.
The
core metal by induction in a crucible formed by the walls of a glass tube extended upwards to a glass
feeding device above the melt.
SOURCE:
is
The
an improvement
A Dummer (New
York: Hayden
Book Co.) p 62
SEE ALSO:
'Glass-coated microwire' by
'Microwire.
A new
engineering material' by
1949
H Wagner
R G S
Nadgorny and B
Tele,
vol 2
pp 3048-9 (1960)
Army
new
era of
SOURCE:
1972)
RL
A Concise
SEE ALSO:
94
Date Order
US
Autosembly.
163
Lanzalotti Electronics
(July 1951)
No 2756485
Patent
assigned to
US Army,
31 July 1956
in
vol 24(7), p
1949
first
The
by Remington Rand.
first
made
in
England by
'Dekatron' became practically synonymous with the cold cathode stepping tube.
The
kc/s.
were added
1955
in
in
SOURCE:
In
to
20
original double-
Routing guides
directly.
STC
its
p 87 (February 1964)
SEE ALSO:
No
1949-
Lamb and
Brustman
1,
S Ohl,
W Shockley (USA)
1950
Ion implantation
a technique for
is
The
properties of a solid by the interactions they have with the solid both as they slow
their presence after they
have come to
rest.
The implantation
idea
is
not a
new one
down and by
work
at Bell
Laboratories during the late 1940s and early 1950s by Russel S Ohl and William Shockley pioneered
the application of ion implantation to semiconductor device fabrication.
SOURCE: ion
implantation' by
C Brown
and
A U MacRae
(November 1975)
SEE ALSO:
No 2787564
ion implantation
42,
1950s
No
6,
refers to a
24-hour basis
in
system
minimum
of visible
on ground,
it
air,
IEEE
is
to
and time
to all users
that
can
satellite signals.
life
would be possible
a position
by
in all
intercept a certain
way
Patent
the
US
Shockley:
that a
know
minimum
GPS,
realized that
if
a system of
LORAN
GPS
GPS
satellites
at a cost
of
US$10
billion,
to
and
in
for the
to the
aviation
minimum
to provide
community.
New
18
complete
in satellite
1993.
until
of a series of a
first
be fully operational.
would arouse
A Concise
164
basis,
now even
civil application
justified
base has
made
case to the
its
in
GPS, have
US DoD,
and
is
US$10
mid-1970s
in the
billion
is
this year,
SOURCE: 'GPS
shadow of
out of the
and
GPS
business
is
estimated to reach
by
R K
Inc.)
p 3 (August 1996)
1950
FLOPPY DISCS
Floppy
Y Nakamats
discs, universally
in
1950
at the
He granted
(Japan)
Imperial University in
IBM.
Press,
Macdonald
&
NOTE ON DEVELOPMENTS
Schugzat/IBM (USA)
1971
1978
Tandy (USA)
1984
3.5 inch
SOURCE:
1950
Sony (Japan)
Floppy Disc
Private
COMPUTER GRAPHICS
The
art
Burnett (USA)
of computer graphics can be traced back to the graphics made for wallpaper by Burnett
Laposky who,
in 1950, really
founded the
art
Today,
animated graphics
still
which
it
in
was Ben F
But
figures.
still
common
example
these can be
SOURCE:
(New
1950s
Inventions
Digital
in this field.
ULTRASOUND IMAGING
The
first
Mark Young
in
Glasgow
in the late
Donald
et al
(UK)
women, undertaken by
show
echoes from within the patient's abdomen could be used to measure the size of ovarian cysts and
other tumours.
This
is
known
it
shows how
without producing an image. In two-dimensional scans actual images are produced by the technique of
moving
are
for a 'scan'.
many of
the procedures
In a period of heightened
way of examining
all
now
in the
Science
Museum, made
in
part of
pregnant
women
were diagnosed
and malformations.
at
A Concise
The
occurred after
first
this
1950
in 1975.
Cossons
The Vidicon,
the
TV
first
RCA
Tube
camera tube
change
activity, is
than previous
TV
Technology
Museum)
(USA)
by which
&
of Science
et al
VIDICONTV Camera
SOURCE:
Milestones
SOURCE:
165
edited by
devised
USA
in the
sensitive
light
RCA.
by
of
After
and cheaper
cameras.
The Timetable of Technology (London: Michael Joseph, Marshall Editions) p 138 (November
1982)
1950
HAMMING CODE
It
Hamming's technique
first
which was
method
Hamming,
machine-caused errors
for correcting
Dr Richard
W Hamming (USA)
mathematics
in digital
enabled computers
at
computers.
for the
first
to
time,
enabled computers to correct those errors and go right on solving problems without interruption.
20 April 1980, marks the 30th anniversary of Hamming's pioneering work, which has evolved
new
field
into a
SOURCE:
'Bell
SEE ALSO:
p 103 (22
1950
COMPUTERS
during the late
a
representation in storage
Electronics
was made
installation
late in
1954.
2-out-of-5 decimal
the
The main
store of the
650
anywhere on
first
instructions
was considered
in
L Wall
IBM (USA)
is
by Ernst
to microprocessor-based systems'
(IBM 650)
Hamming code
'Applying the
November 1979)
step.
it
him
to
successive instructions.
SOURCE:
'The evolution of computing machines and systems' by Serrell, Astrahan, Patterson and
Pascal
to
von Neumann by
H H
1950
PIN
DIODE
The
p-i-n
sandwiched between
Nishizawa (Japan)
J-I
a p layer
'pin'
diode
in
which an
intrinsic or a
Nishizawa
in
1950.
In the
is
same
year several manufacturing methods of the p-i-n diode, including the thermal diffusion, the chemical
treatment, the anodic oxidation, the ion implantation and the nuclear transmutation by the
bombardment
A Concise
166
1.5
at
reverse
100 A, by using the alloying method and the elaborate simple surface
by
group successfully
J Nishizaura.
Company. Also
the
4000
was
p-i-n diode
realized
group with the development of the original high purity epitaxial growth technology
his research
The
breakdown voltage up
It is
used
all
to ten
thousands
such as the industrial high power systems, which includes the famous Japanese bullet
its
power handling
efficient high
The
p-i-n diode
microwave
The
is
low
also used as a
fields
owing
train,
as
to
TV.
and an attenuator
in
circuits in radar
low forward
volts,
by
Nishizawa
is
widely used
is
SOURCE:
Japanese Patent
SEE ALSO:
No 205068
1950
No 221722
Nishizawa and
the
IBM
vacuum
Watanabe;
Nishizawa and
September 1950)
226859 (1950)
IBM (USA)
IBM
at the
end of 1950.
at the
model was
701 system was a 36-bit single, address, binary, parallel, synchronous processor employing
tube flip-flops and diode logic at a rate of one megapulse per second.
Multiple pluggable
NORC
in
stored program of
SOURCE:
Dyne
(Application date:
(IBM 701)
The development of
circuit
COMPUTERS
the
by
resistivity region'
December 1950)
ALSO:
(Application date: 20
two
bit.
it
circuit,
possible to
a single address
'The evolution of computing machines and systems' by Serrell, Aastrahan, Patterson and
Proc.
Pascal to von
Neumann by H H
1950s
OL
THERMO-COMPRESSION BONDING
Anderson,
Christensen and P
Andreatch (USA)
In the 1950s,
O L Anderson,
circuits.
mounting
at
low heat
levels,
provides a firm bond without introducing undesired electrical properties and has been widely used
SOURCE:
life
'Mission Communications
and
It
is
reliability.
C Mabon
(Murray
Hill,
department by
MIT
1950s
MODEM
(MODulation
The modem
as
we know
&
it
DEModulation)
today
is
a product of research
MIT
done
Bell
Labs (USA)
Encouraged by advances
in
data
Date Order
in
167
Hi
wedge
.capillary
tube
balled
metal or semiconductor
wedge
nail
head or
eyelet
ball
network.
handsomely. In
less than
1950s
in the late
that
to
SOURCE: 'Where
went
facilities
20 years,
MODEM'S
going' by
is
baud
Bell Laboratories
(USA)
two or four
sealed-in-
controlled by magnetised wire coils. Ferreed switches, used to switch phone calls
in
jumped 700
improve
FERREED SWITCH
The
to
could work efficiently with these line parameters. This early work paid off
9600 bps
are
ways
modulation techniques
1950s
at
the speed
faster operating
and require
less
switching devices.
SOURCE:
'Mission Communications
C Mabon
by P
(Murray
Hill,
1950s
APL
APL, which
way
and teach
stands for
a professor at
pithy
(A Programming Language)
to represent
Iverson (USA)
in the late
system
fill
a need for a
his classes.
IBM
Corp. There, with the help of Adin Falkoff and other interested researchers,
an interpretive version of the language was adapted for the System/360. In 1973,
The appended SV
information.
More
means whereby
to
in data processing,
on
DEC
less
number of
IBM
users
released APLSV.
may communicate
Inc.'s
System 900,
to
name
in question.
APL's
fall
into
two categories,
functions can be used with scalar arguments and arrays on an item-by-item basis.
to arrays with various ranks
shape.
The
and
may produce
in
rank and
one and
number of new
in a great
APL
little
and some
uncommon
letters,
functions.
A Concise
168
1951
in
Date Order
QUALITY CONTROL
First edition
M Juran
(USA)
New
York.
An
95
authorative treatise on
all
System)
1950 the Navy Bureau of Aeronautics asked the National Bureau of Standards to study further
automation of
The process
assembly.
circuit
was dubbed
The system
followed in 1951
led to the
it
first
It
developed by
Robert Henry of
components mounted on
1/16-inch thick.
that
Project Tinkertoy.
11.21).
steatite
printed wiring.
Four
to six
wafers were then automatically selected, stacked and mechanically and electrically joined by machinesoldered riser wires, which were attached
at
Figure 11.21.
Though
this
modular approach
as the transistor
SOURCE:
p 126 (23
1951
began
to
to replace the
vacuum
faded
in the late
1950s
packaging and
materials' by
R L Goldberg
November 1972)
MICROPROGRAMMING COMPUTERS
Credit for the original microprogramming concept
Computer Conference
Machine'.
it
tube.
in July
95
is
Wilkes (UK)
In a paper he presented at
Way
to
Wilkes of
Manchester University's
Wilkes' intention, ironically enough, was to simplify the design of a hardwires machine.
Today microprogramming
is
used
to replace
his
in
1960s because
little
in
IBM
Practices',
it
in
to
1961
System/360, the
69
the technique
implement.
The
first
RCA
Honeywell H4200.
variety of
store.
memory
Among
memory, and
technologies were used for the read-only memories needed for the microinstruction
these were traditional ferrite cores, cores cut into an E-shape to create a transformer
ROM
for several of
Microprogramming came
its
minicomputers early
to
ROMs, and
Equipment's PDP-11
The
line.
memory
its
Digital
ROMs,
boom
to
in popularity.
making
widespread use
it
Many
by
started'
is
used
it
was not
in the fields
first
to
emulate
area.
MIT
now
of the machines
IBM-compatible computer
in the
IMAGE ANIMATION
1951. But
it
change the machine. Also, the ease with which microprogramming allows one machine
1951
in units
use random-access
to
1970s
in the
System/360 models.
Virtually
card capacitor
experimented on
(USA)
at
Technology
in
1960s that the potential of the technique was fully understood. Today
in three
and chemistry.
SOURCE:
inventions and Discoveries 1993' edited by Valerie-Anne Giscard d'Estaing and Mark Young
Facts on File
1952
New
York p 2 1
ALLOYED TRANSISTOR
In
RCA
(USA)
made
transistors
make
that they
had successfully
to
germanium. The resulting penetration of the chips was made from both
sides.
SOURCE:
1952
MICROELECTRONICS
In a paper read at the
components
in
work
in
would
IRE Symposium
Great Britain'
I
D F
like to take a
semiconductors generally,
it
DC
on 5
May
1952, entitled:
'Electronic
stated:
future.
Washington
in
A Dummer
W A Dummer (UK)
may
to
transistor
and the
in a solid
electrical functions
various layers'.
SOURCE:
Proc.
in
(May 1952)
3; solid circuits
new
concept' by
A Concise
70
1952
circuit'
by
in
Date Order
W G Pfann (USA)
which was then grown into single crystals bv the pulling technique.
levelling technique,
which
in material
He grew
zone levelling apparatus using seeding techniques. The combination of zone levelling and horizontal
in today's transistor
manufacturing
operations.
SOURCE:
R L
Petriz Proc.
IRE
SEE ALSO:
J.
4,
1952
p423
one
illustrative
embodiment of
zones.
Pfann
(New
(1957)
Metals vol
The device
S Darlington (USA)
zones of which are electrically integral and the base zone of one of which
is
tied
and base
transistors, but
SOURCE:
Laboratories (dated 9
1952
May
Device'
US
DIGITAL VOLTMETER
The
took
to multimeters to scopes
No 2663806,
Bell
Telephone
digital voltmeter.
The model
A Kay (USA)
when Andy Kay unveiled
Patent
1952)
first
Non
Linear Systems
digitised, thanks to
is
the
to the
the
company
commercial
introduced by Burroughs (then Haydu) just one year before. (Burroughs' familiar Nixie tube actually
had a
days
the Inditron,
SOURCE:
instruments'
November 1972)
1952
J Baxandall (UK)
CIRCUIT
The
circuit to
be described
is
the
outcome of
continuously-adjustable type, and provides in dependent control of bass and treble response by means
of two potentiometers, without the need for switches to change over from
features are the
The
when
'lift'
to 'cut'.
Unusual
the control
is
the curves to 'flatten off towards the upper limit of the audio range.
is
practically
The shape of
no tendency
curves, though not constant, varies less than with most continuously-adjustable circuits.
SOURCE:
for
the bass-response
COMPUTERS
IBM, MIT
(SAGE)
SAGE
system began,
I'
was delivered by
SOURCE:
IBM
co-operative
171
and of the
in 1952, as a
information
first
in
'The evolution of computing machines and systems' by Serrell, Astrahan, Patterson and
TRANSISTORS
(Single Crystal
GK
FabricationSilicon)
Teal and
Buehler (USA)
Large single crystals of silicon and silicon p-n junctions were prepared by Teal and Buehler by an
extension of the pulling technique developed for germanium. These crystals were used by
to prepare p-n junction diodes
SOURCE:
L Pearson
R L
Petritz Proc.
IRE
1953
TRANSISTOR
Engineers
at
experimented
that
8,
could be used
bipolar transitory
Teal and
(Unijunction)
in the early
G K
NY,
Syracuse,
in
at
The
tetrode structures,
it
impedance
regarding frequency.
But
in
was present on
was removed,
new
The
switching-type device.
The
GE engineers
added
And when
to the
double-based
SOURCE:
'Solid
State a switch
by
in time'
18 (19
February 1968)
1953
TRANSISTOR
Advancing
1953.
Philco (USA)
(Surface Barrier)
the early trend toward higher frequencies, Philco developed the jet-etching technique in
Here electrochemical machining was used to fabricate the necessary thin base
layers.
major
product of this process was the surface-barrier transistor, which boosted the upper frequency limit of
transistors into the
SOURCE:
megahertz region.
the processes' by
E A Torrero
November 1972)
1953
COMPUTERS
(IBM
IBM
The development of
the
in
was followed
It
IBM (USA)
the
first
January 1956. The 704 featured higher speed, magnetic-core memory, floating
in
as well as several special operations, including a table look-up instruction and indirect addressing.
installed
on a 704
in April
1957.
the
first
units of
A Concise
172
in
709 on
1959,
is
in
Date Order
a transistorised
About
7090 incorporates
a 2.18-^ts core
five times
magnetic-tape units.
SOURCE:
'The evolution of computing machines and systems' by Serrell, Astrahan, Patterson and
Pascal
to
von Neumann by
H H
1953
Autofab (General
IBM
Mills),
develop standards which would allow unrestricted electronics design and production
processes sufficiently flexible to permit rapid transition from design to manufacturing, the following
The use of
2.
basic to practically
is
commonly
automatic approaches.
accepted).
mounting dimensions
for
all
components and
must be used.
parts
circuit
machines can be
By
utilized.
this
When
component.
to attain.
It is
is
to use
or performed manually.
automatic production
producers,
many
of such a machine permits the insertion of a variety of components by recycling the printed-
flexibility
and
all
generic grid pattern to govern circuit layout must be used in order to prevent obsolescence of
board
a printed-circuit
it
is
would be impractical
It
at the
Even
for
mass
years of experience in the step-by-step evolution toward a mechanised operation (see figure
11.22).
SOURCE:
and Construction by
A Dummer, C
Brunetti and
L K
SEE ALSO:
by Stanford Research
1953
MASER
Institute
and the
US
Emission of Radiation)
(USSR)
The
first
who had
who
filed a patent in
1951 (although
it
However,
was
his
The
first
statement
in
the
open
literature
for a
beam-type maser
excitement was caused by the short article of Gordon, Zeiger and Townes,
the operation of the
first
was
many
in
in the
in
in
1954.
1953, followed by
However, the
same
year,
real
announcing
microwave spectroscopy.
In the years
other techniques were studied, but the only one to give any degree of
the three-level
in the
A Concise
in-line
173
electronics'
by
Fabrikant in Elektronnye
ionnye
pribory (Electron and ion devices); Trudy Vsesoyuznogo Elektrotekhnicheskogo Instituta (Proceedings
of the All-Union Electrotechnical Institute) vol 41, p 236 (1940)
'Evolution of masers and lasers' by
B A Lengyel and V A
Fabrikant Am.
J.
Weber IRE
Trans,
Basov and
beams
Prokhorov
J.
P Gordon, H
Zeiger and
'Proposals for a
new
by
new
C H Townes
N Bloembergen
(1
Phys.
NH
'
by
July 1954)
Rev.
vol
104, pp
324-7 (15
October 1956)
'Forgotten inventor emerges from epic patent battle with claim to laser' Science vol 198, p 379 (28
October 1977)
1953
CONNECTION TECHNIQUES
(Wire Wrapped
RF
Mallina
.23)
et al
(USA)
Joints)
The mechanical
by workers
is still
at Bell
wrapped
full
wrapped
74
joint
model
stress relaxation as a
WRAPPED
SINGLE
BOUND JOINT
JOINT
4=1
i^J"
DOUBLE
MATERIALS
TYPICAL
WRAPPING
14-32
BOUND JOINT
TWIN
WRAPPED JOINT
POST
WIRE
which
Sufficient deformation
is
engendered
is
tightly
many notches
in the
joints.
wrapped around
The wrapping
The
during wrapping.
stretched wire
SOURCE:
vol
1,
which
'Solderless
Introduction:
a review' by
caused remains
which
is
in the
bent
stress
it.
Structure
McRae
&
Tools by
R F
Mallina
1953
is
wire,
is
p 17 (1974)
SEE ALSO:
Part
tensile strain
is
Part 3 Evaluation
&
TRANSISTORS
(Floating
Performance
tests
by
permanent connection by
WP
R H Van Horn
Zone Refining of
Silicon)
Keck,
Emeis and
HC
Theurer (USA)
An improved
sufficient quality
could be fabricated with good yields. This was a novel variation of zone
by P
H Keck
R Emeis
and independently by
and
H C
Theurer. This operation employs a vertical system and uses surface tension to support a stable liquid
ohm-cm
resistivity
is
this
method.
SOURCE:
p 1028
R L
Petritz Proc.
IRE
(May 1962)
SEE ALSO:
'Crystallisation of silicon
from
by P
H Keck
and
E Golay Phys
silicon
a crucible' Z. Naturforsch.
vol
9A
175
p 67 (January 1954)
J.
Metals vol
8,
p 1316 (October
1956)
1954
TRANSISTOR
The
When,
in
1954, he
hit
power handling
the
N H
(Interdigitated)
N H
is
Fletcher (USA)
way
was seeking
areas, Fletcher
means
to increase
to
His discoveries were applied by other firms to most transistor types over the next decade, but his
company
realised
SOURCE:
'Solid
own
his work.
by
in the die'
E Tatum
power
Electronics p
by
transistors'
N H
1955)
1954
In
success,
it
Regency (USA)
first
Although not
commercial
introduced the transistor into the consumer market and gave transistor makers the impetus
they needed to develop mass production techniques. That, coupled with an awakening of interest by
the military, increased transistor sales meteorically in the mid-fifties.
SOURCE:
germanium
'Silicon,
Electronic Engineer p 30
1954
&
silver
the
25th anniversary'
transistor's
C P Kocher
by
The
(November 1972)
SOLAR BATTERY
Chapin,
GL
S Fuller and
Pearson (USA)
As an outgrowth of work on
Pearson
in
into electricity.
an
Chapin,
S Fuller and
G L
satellites
uses.
SOURCE:
Mission Communications
C Mabon
(Murray
Hill,
NJ:
1955
CRYOTRON
A
D Buck
however,
The
it
was not
until
rod
wound with
becomes
niobium wire At
the
niobium wire
is
1935;
on the existence of a
critical
magnetic
field
above which
liquid
when
in
1955 that Buck demonstrated a practical device which he called the cryotron.
first
(USA)
niobium
is
critical field
of
itself.
The
it
creates
is
sufficient to
smaller than that in the tantalum wire so that a small current can control a larger one, thus producing
a current gain in the device.
SOURCE:
B Lax and
SEE ALSO:
'The cryotron
a superconductive
computer component' by
D Buck
Proc.
IRE
vol 44,
176
1955
Braunstein (USA)
Radiation produced by carrier injection has been observed from GaSb, GaAs, InP and the Ge;Si alloys
at
K.
The
maximum
at
close to the best estimates of the band gaps of these materials; consequently, the evidence
radiation
SOURCE:
1956
due
is
recombination of electron-hole
to the direct
germanium and
Reis (USA)
at the
at
GE
S Fuller and
in
that the
pairs.
DIFFUSION PROCESS
The next major advance
energies
is
laid the
the
first
to
silicon transistors.
Diffusion techniques have proved to be one of the best controlled methods for preparing p-n junctions.
Because the
common
semiconductors
in
at rates
which can be
varied by adjusting temperatures, close control and reproducibility of the impurity distributions can be
achieved.
The
to
electrical
ability to
may be
a fraction of a
maintained.
be fabricated.
SOURCE:
R L
Petritz Proc.
IRE
SEE ALSO:
'Diffusion processes in
Control of composition
germanium and
by
silicon'
C
N B
Reis and
in
S Fuller. Chaper 6 of
Hannay.
(New
York:
1956
D A McLean
began
to
and Power announced the development of the tantalum solid electrolytic capacitor
this capacitor
began
to
SOURCE:
began
in literature
in
1956, studies of
to spread.
technique' by
Hirata and
Parts,
Hybrids
&
No
3,
SEE ALSO:
D A McLean
1956
The
first
mm
square tapering to 5
was
to stabilise the
known
mm
square over 20
mm
Beutheret (France)
The
in
anode temperature
as calefraction.
SOURCE:
7,
pp 7-47
(1976)
SEE ALSO:
1956
Flowsolder dipping
unit,
Thomson-CSF
vol
24 (1956)
conventional
flat
wave of molten
A Concise
solder
is
pumping
created by
Date Order-
Ill
the metal
developed
in
It is
claimed
which
from
is
circuit
figure 11.24).
Figure 11.24.
systems of wave-soldering.
& A
F C Barnes Electronic
Strauss
CAPACITOR
A semiconductor junction
(USA)
SOURCE:
1956
Two
No
345, pp 494-6
when biased
electrical
in the reverse
When
away from
(November 1956)
uncompensated
charge of
this
(non-conducting) direction
is
which
a capacitance
moved
The width,
SOURCE:
for
UHF' by L J
Giacoletto and
O'Connell
(UK/USA)
(TAT-1)
25 September 1956 was an auspicious date for international telecommunications being the day
transatlantic telephone cable
The
history of the Atlantic cables started in 1858 with the laying of the
life
that the
first
first
By 1956
there
were 28
As
was concerned
the
main problem
were
in the
was
felt that
the repeaters
using 51 American
the water for
its
made
this
repeaters.
in
Then
first
life
repeaters, the
made
in
Nova
in
Scotia.
in
Newfoundland,
where again
to
Canada.
takes to
Newfoundland.
in the transatlantic
while from Clarenville the cable becomes a 60-circuit single cable system,
Newfoundland
it
For the cable's 36 telephone channels two cables are used, one for each direction,
section
were
course of preliminary experiment. In 1946 a repeatered link was laid between the United
By 1920
connecting
A Concise
178
In the
link.
Although
New
family of
TAT
cables,
Kingdom-Canada
to
it
is
telegraph
divided to
York.
in
latest in the
as a United
hop
historical
later the
TAT-6, sports over 100 times the capacity while TAT-7 and TAT-8
SOURCE: "TAT-U
1956
20 years
old'
1956 and very soon afterwards large bulk crystals (several centimetres
grown by
in
to
have a saturation magnetisation of 1750 gauss, and, unlike the previously available
materials, to
SOURCE:
No
SEE ALSO:
Sci. Paris,
by
Collins and
vol 242, p
new breed
oersted
at
10
ferrite
GHz.
F Bertaut and F
Forrat C. R. Acad.
382 (1956)
Telephone Laboratories
in
be
TRANSISTORIZED COMPUTER
Bell
A B
to
be cubic, to be essentially an
insulator, to
1956
734 (1976)
first
in
New
Bell Laboratories
(USA)
York, the place where the transistor was invented in 1947, builds
Electric quickly
SOURCE:
The Timetable of Technology (London: Michael Joseph, Marshall Editions) p 153 (November
1982)
1956
RADIO PAGING
Multitone (UK)
Concurrently with the development of two-way radio communication, there has been a remarkable
100000 paging
of the
to
first
MHz
450
bands.
Development
is
now
The
in the
Company
at St
Thomas's
few ounces.
of mobile radio' by
1975)
1956. Later the technique changed to v.h.f. radiating system using frequencies in
in
first
The
services.
One
London
Walker (UK)
to
all
early workers
Inventors sought to
employing push-pull
arrangements,
plates
in
is
at a
DC
voltage,
of fixed perforated electrodes across which the audio programme voltage was applied.
seem
two capacitor
overcome
if
confined
all
a pair
But linearity
A Concise
F V Hunt of Harvard
Professor
The
voltage.
principle
move about on
to
Walker and
DTN
in a
that gives
Williamson discovered
low
the
if
it
is
There
situated.
is
it
the
which
field in
179
diaphragm amplitudes,
charge on
however,
electric
Date Order
first to
in
part of the
a tacit assumption,
is
in practice,
causing charge
distortion.
conductive to allow
to
it
be
reasonable time, but not sufficiently to allow any significant moving about of charge
It
damage occurring
then
The
became possible
plastic
to
at
at
bass
many
first
1957.
Recent improvements by P
Walker have been largely concerned with making the polar radiation
characteristic of the loudspeaker vary less with frequency than in the earlier designs,
line.
and
in a
smooth
is
The wavefront
radiated
located behind the loudspeaker, but since the actual radiating area
is
is
then as
if
from
a point source
volume
levels
can be produced.
SOURCE: Communication
SEE ALSO: Walker P
from P
1955)
Walker P
Walker P
No
'New Developments
and Williamson
in Electrostatic
DTN
Loudspeakers'
'Improvements Relating
J.
to Electrostatic
815, 978. (Application dated 20 July 1954. Complete filed 19 October 1955. Complete published
8 July 1959)
Hunt F
1957
MA:
Vidicon.
BBC
SOURCE: The
TV
Plumbicon
In Britain the
bases
Philips (Holland)
camera tube,
all
its
colour
in
a greatly
improved version of
TV
its
TV
predecessor, the
design.
1982)
1957
The
UF
Gianole (USA)
memory was
invented
in
1957 by
U F
Gianole
of Bell Laboratories. Plated-wire memories require no standby power, are non-volatile, inexpensive to
SOURCE:
Mission Communications
environment.
C Mabon
(Murray
Hill,
NJ:
1957
is
well
Ashworth
known
that
nichrome
is
Film)
the material
R H
most used today
Alderton and
F Ashworth (UK)
in thin-film resistors.
Alderton and
stressed the importance of the following parameters: the source temperature, the degree of
180
vacuum maintaining
the vapour phase
350C and
than
in the
They
system, and the temperature of the receiving surface during deposition from
vacuum
the
in the
if
They
torr.
results are
still
is
greater
maximum
production of nichrome films. Alderton and Ashworth measured the reistivity as a function of
in the
SOURCE:
Electronic
1957
history, science
SPUTNIK
8,
R H
Bennett
p 205 (1957)
(USSR)
1 Satellite
First artificial
satellite.
SOURCE:
and technology' by
International
SPUTNIK
Launched
(USSR)
2 Satellite
November
1957. Study of ultraviolet rays and X-rays from the sun. Study of cosmic rays.
Medico-biological study of the dog Laika. Transmitted for seven days. Decayed on 14 April 1958.
SOURCE:
International
1957
TRANSISTORS
was
the
J Frosch (USA)
for silicon
Frosch of BTL. He observed that a thermally grown oxide on silicon impeded the diffusion of
SOURCE:
p 1030
SEE ALSO:
L Derick
1958
first
Field Effect
commercial
employed by CFTH,
was
Petritz Proc.
IRE
Frosch and
J.
TECHNETRON
The
R L
(May 1962)
germanium
volts, a gate
(FET)
FET was
S Teszner (France)
produced
a General Electric
alloy semiconductor.
in
France
Company
It
had
in
affiliate.
leakage current of 4 microamps, and a low gate capacitance of 0.9 picofarads. The low
some
tubes, and
its
its
was
be operated
at a
it
to
few megahertz.
SOURCE:
'Solid state
an
old-timer
comes of
age' by
1968)
1958
W C Dash (USA)
'pedestal'
to avoid
mound
The support
is
In this
at
the
is
the
an inductively
held on top of a solid silicon support by surface tension and electromagnetic levitation.
sectored to inhibit electromagnetic coupling to the pedestal.
seed
is
A Concise
growing
crystal
is
withdrawn
WC
SEE ALSO:
1958
Dash
at a rate
its
cm
per minute
the start to 3 or 4
at
from dislocations' by
crystals free
Dash.
Appl.
J.
Phys.
vol 30,
L
sequence came the tunnel diode,
form
to
first
Esaki (Japan)
now (USA)
Again with
a p-n junction
regions that, in equilibrium, the continuity of the Fermi level across the junction would result
mm
J.
impedance
growth.
TUNNEL DIODE
First in chronological
Date Order
in
low forward
in
The device
bias, progresses
in
an
fairly
SOURCE:
'Semiconductor devices
in
by
No
10,
Mackintosh The
p 603 (1958)
1958
FIELD-EFFECT VARISTOR
This device, closely related
makes
it
over wide
high,
Bell Laboratories
limits.
making
It
SOURCE:
1958
first
based on the
is
very
field effect
'A Field Effect Varistor' Bell Labs. Record vol 36, p 150 (April 1958)
impedance
Its a.c.
is
SEE ALSO:
it
(USA)
Ampex (USA)
Ampex, was
moving
at
American
a speed of
only half an inch wide; the recording being done on three tracks, two for storing the video signals and
special
machine
before transmission,
in
black-and-white as well as
An
is
live, film
is
can
programme
for
homes and
Ampex
third
mm
film with
system a British-German
venture, works with a fast-rotating (1500 rpm) disc and a pickup, providing a
SOURCE: A
could be
Two work
replay unit plugged into the television set; one system uses
programme of up
it
on videotape
Whether
devised as
are recorded
equally high.
two
to be
programmes
monochrome
or colour
to 12 minutes.
History of Inventions by
Larsen (London:
Dent
&
Publishers)
p 330 (1971)
1958
EXPLORER
Launched
(USA)
Satellite
belt.
Batteries. Transmitted
up
to
23
May
1958.
Decayed on
31
March 1970.
182
SOURCE:
International
VANGUARD-1
(USA)
Satellite
SOURCE:
Year Programme.
Transmitted
until 12
'far out'
Permitted the
density of the
February 1965.
International
US Army
('Micro-Module' System)
By 1957 the goal for packaging had shifted from automation to miniaturisation. Working with the
Army Signal Corps, RCA suggested an approach that was similar to Tinkertoy's but with smaller
wafers. Using wafers 310 mils square, spaced 10 mils apart,
RCA
with an epoxy resin to increase mechanical strength and provide environmental protection.
With
RCA
as the
prime contractor for an $18-million contract, the Signal Corps promoted micromodule
as a standard package.
programme
4-3 Mc IE AMPLIFIER
for the
micromodule (see
figure
1.25).
CIRCUIT.
NEUTRALISING
INPUT O-
NEUTS/kLISING
OUTPUT
O OUTPUT
teOpFfJ
(HIGH)
INPUT
(HIGH)
OUTPUT
(LOW)
H"
INPUT
(LOW)
F AMPLIFIER
MICROMODULE
f=
0-36
- 3-75 v
(O-36'M
-oVc
INPUT O
1|
>
-O OUTPUT
3?
2-2/-F
I-8K
:39K
b+l-25v
0-3G
was
the
first
attempt
at
circuit assemblies.
density,
module was
treated as a
A
single component.
shaped
The programme
SOURCE:
packaging and
SEE ALSO:
materials' by
R L Goldberg
Satellite
Launched
October 1958.
11
RCA
DA-36-039-SC-76968
PIONEER- 1
its
Camden, NJ
(USA)
Moon
SOURCE:
in the early
price.
November 1972)
p 126/7 (23
1958
183
parts.
Date Order
in
to earth
and burning
in the
43 hours. Batteries.
for
atmosphere.
International
SCORE
(USA)
Satellite
Launched
December
18
communication
SOURCE:
satellite.
1958.
Signal
First
International
MOSSBAUER EFFECT
The Mossbauer
bound
effect
in
the
Mossbauer (Germany)
in solids.
accuracy
is
RL
gamma
the recoiless
made
the
transitions
Mossbauer
and the
and
relative ease
SOURCE:
1958
LASER
&
Reinhold
AL
Schalow and
C H Townes (USA)
of Radiation)
interest
aroused by masers
it
was not
1957
until
was
1958 on the principles of laser action Schalow and Townes suggested potassium
effort
was devoted
this failure
to
predicted.
it
announcing
his
Maiman's own
first
in
The reasons
later
ALO3) although an
laser
was
would be based on a
for
behave as
internal report at
to give
jubilation
to
any hope
gas. Great
was
ruby, achieved
which he prepared
remarkable result was rejected by Physical Review Letters and an historic scoop of
journalism was achieved by the journals Nature and British Communications and Electronics
scientific
Some months
few years
first
later the
announcement
helium/neon laser was successfully operated and there followed over the next
laser transitions in
SOURCE:
No 10,
45,
A Gambling
SEE ALSO:
A L
Schalow and
C H Townes
Phys.
Rev.
vol
112,
A Concise
84
Quantum
Electronics edited by
C H Townes (New
Columbia
York:
1958
T H Maiman
PACEMAKER
The
A
was invented
cardiac pacemaker
in
The pacemaker
Senning (Sweden)
is
implants
first
heart.
In
It
was given
a cardiac
NOTE: The
first
was only
&
Macdonald
version, the
of the
IN
Meanwhile
COLOUR
1960.
in
Ampex (USA)
name
VR
Ampex.
1000 B.
It
It
was presented
was followed
1963 by a transistor
in
10.
in
in
19S9
in
JVC
in
VR
heart.
operation to be
first
Co.) p 96 (1990)
first
was the
child.
self-contained pacemaker
VIDEO RECORDER
The
it
Press,
SOURCE: 'Making
1958
young
in
pacemaker when
developed the
first
first
in
in
1959
first
their
VR
650
in 1964.
&
Press,
INTRINSIC
PHOTOCONDUCTORS
Telluride
10/z
Macdonald
W D Lawson, S Nielsen, E H
(Cadmium
Putley,
S Young (UK)
compounds CdTe
and HgTe, and of the mixed compounds CdTeHgTe have been prepared. X-ray and cooling-curve data
have established
that coefficient
that
HgTe
is
(~
100).
HgTe
with a very low activation energy (0.01 eV) and a high mobility ratio
infrared radiation out to a wavelength of 38/x, but the
in position
in
pure
CdTe
mixed
crystals
SOURCE:
Nielsen,
1959
E H
Putley and
S Young
J.
circuitry
interconnections are
all
is
opaque
is
to
made from
crystals of
the
mixed
HgTe-CdTe' by
Lawson, S
semiconductor
Bell Laboratories
(USA)
is
based on
its
chemical
A Concise
and
structural stability,
to protect
and adjust
and on
its
and
resistors.
resistors
form
185
in nitrogen,
have independent
interest as
SOURCE:
IEEE
'Developments
SEE ALSO:
vol 3, part 6,
1959
D A McLean N
in
Schwartz and E
Tidd
March 1964)
D A McLean IRE
pp 87-91 (1959)
MICROELECTRONICS (INTEGRATED
J S Kilby (USA)
CIRCUIT-PATENT)
it
is,
therefore, a principal object of this invention to provide a novel miniaturised electronic circuit
fabricated from a
SOURCE: US
SEE ALSO: US
1959
No
Patent
Patent
LUNIK-1 (Mechta)
3 138
No
743
filed
6 February 1959
SOURCE:
wherein
all
S Kilby)
(J
(USSR)
In solar orbit.
Moon
moon. Emission of
(J
Satellite
circuit are
No
magnetic
field
km
detected
when
Batteries.
International
DISCOVERER- 1
(USA)
Satellite
Stabilization defective:
Decayed
early
March 1959.
SOURCE:
International
PLANAR PROCESS
At Fairchild, Dr Jean
mesa
transistors.
A Hoemi (USA)
But instead of mounting the base layer on top of the collector, the traditional mesa
it
down
was
mesa and
far
more
reliable
first
planar transistor
the protected p-n junction. In 1959 Fairchild started marketing planar transistors and shortly thereafter
SOURCE:
'Silicon,
germanium
&
new
integrated circuits.
silver
C P Kocher
The Electrical
COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN
Military (USA)
in the
1960s
in the
context of
US
programs.
The term
be used
mode and
to arrive at a finished
form of the
design.
After
It
its
adoption by military,
CAD
enables an object (for example, a car) to be drawn in three dimensions and to be examined
in a
A Concise
86
number of
great
in
Date Order
theoretical circumstances,
CAD
plays an
SOURCE:
(New
1960
Inventions
HD
NEURISTOR
may be
neuristor
The
Mark Young
is
it
everywhere along
its
length.
channel includes certain triggerable (active) processes arranged so that when any section
line or
of line
Crane (USA)
is itself
manner
is
generally referred
it is
it
propagates.
SOURCE:
'Neuristor
H D
by
(October 1962)
SEE ALSO:
AD240306
'Neuristor studies' by
H D
Rept.
Tech.
No
1056-2
'An integrable
MOS
neuristor line' by
Kulkarni-Kohli and
Newcombe
Proc.
IEEE p 1630
(November 1976)
1960
FEMITRON
The term
and Dyke.
in particular
it,
first
W P Dyke (USA)
Microwave Amplifier)
(Field Emission
field
SOURCE:
'Field emission
SEE ALSO:
J
No
microwave
p
5,
a reappraisal' by
amplifier:
5 1 (September
P Barbour, L E
'Field emission, a
Garrett and
newly
W P Dyke Proc.
IEEE
field
&
977)
vol 51,
by
emission cathodes' by
P Dyke IRE
M Charbonnier,
pp 991-1004 (1963)
Trans, vol 4, pp 38, 45 (1960)
Fontana and
Shaw
Trans. Amer.
Inst.
"The carbon
1960
by F S Baker
et al J.
Appl.Phys. vol
SUB-MILLIMETRE PHOTOCONDUCTIVE
DETECTOR
E H
fitted
cm x
.0
cm
faces.
at
mm
and 4
a black polythene
0.5
cm x
The magnetic
0.5
cm x
field
and 4.0
0.1
0.5
Putley (UK)
(n-Type InSb)
filter at
pp 2105-15 (1974)
7,
0.1 to
mm. The
filter in
1.0
cm
was applied
light-pipe
the helium to
was
fitted
remove short-wave
radiation.
to opposite
and of the incident radiation. The radiation was directed along the long direction of the sample. For
the majority of these experiments the radiation
was modulated
at
800
c/s
a tuned
When
was reduced
the temperature
at
below
to
minimum
1.5
mm
SOURCE:
and lO"
at
Date Order
187
x 10~ 10
in
0.5
at
mm,
5 x
10"
4 mm.
impurity photoconductivity
Phys.
No
Soc.
491
(1
COMPUTERS (CD
CDC
The
1604
is
The
Corporation.
1604)
first installation
was made
The
in
number system
internal
bits.
and 15
a three-bit index
Arithmetic
are provided.
is
Indirect addressing
and
in the parallel
synchronous mode
built-in
is
word length of 48
is
(is,
includes paper-tape typewriter, punched cards, magnetic tape (up to 24 units) and a
667-1000
lines-
per-minute printer.
SOURCE.
Dyne
1960
'The evolution of computing machines and systems' by Serrell, Astrahan, Patterson and
Proc.
Photocircuits Corp.
sandwiches produced
are being
in
made by
many
new development
complicated interconnections
among
will
31
have uses
closely spaced
New
York.
The
in circuits
component
leads.
Tuf-Plate plated-through-holes.
Photocircuits Corporation,
(USA)
typical six-
SOURCE: 'On
1960
the market
PC sandwich six-layered
COMPUTERS (HONEYWELL
The Honeywell 800
is
p 90 (8 April 1960)
unit' Electronics
Honeywell (USA)
800)
special instructions.
The
installation
first
many
was made
as 8 distinct
in
December
1960.
are
structure
These 48
59 basic
is
transistors,
bits,
or 12 decimal
There
Eight index registers are available for each of the 8 programmes which can be run concurrently. Other
special-purpose registers are available. Arithmetic
Up
to
is
performed
in a
Addition requires 24
synchronous parallel-serial-parallel
/xs,
Up
to
Input-output equipment
64 magnetic tape
units
SOURCE:
Dyne
Proc.
'The evolution of computing machines and systems' by Serrell, Astrahan, Patterson and
188
1960
CIRCUITRY
Various (USA)
came
Linear ICs
own
into their
op amps,
Starting with
in the 1960s.
grew
steadily
two manufacturers
Texas
linear monolithics
in
acceptance
first
more
first
were
selling models.
an industry accustomed
its
development led
Talbert.
limited
stories in
sorts.
design into a monolithic form, the standard approach, Widlar played the linear microcircuit
different set of rules: use transistors
the 702,
to the 709,
to
least
Fairchild, in 1964,
collaboration between
significantly,
At
1960s.
Then
its
place.
game by
with impunity,
He
Even where
exploited the
monolith's natural ability to produce matched resistors and only assumed loose absolute values.
SOURCE:
1960
E A
integrated circuits' by
has been
It
some time
for
at this
November 1972)
GaP
is
passed
flow.
We
consider alloyed or point-contact junctions on n-type GaP. Then the light emitted with forward bias has
a
spectrum which
is
a comparatively
which has
is
a very
is
Beyond
reached.
would seem
It
and orange
down
to the absorption
is
small until a
light is emitted
edge or beyond
forward direction
is
radiative recombination of injected carriers via impurity levels, while that in the reverse direction
by
to emission
'hot' carriers
SOURCE: 'Breakdown
and
light
1960
COMPUTERS
The
UNIVAC
a central processor, a
SOURCE:
1960
in
Launched
to
due
1956).
was designed
as a
The term
read-punch
unit, a
installation
was made
in
600 lines-per-minute
January 1960.
'The evolution of computing machines and systems' by Serrell, Astrahan, Patterson and
Proc.
TIROS-1
first
is
system. The
Dyne
6,
printer.
emission
No
McKay
due
(USA)
Satellite
April 1960.
First
meteorological
satellite.
Sent
22952 photos up
to 17
SOURCE:
Table of
Artificial
Satellites
International
ECHO-1
(USA)
Satellite
solar cells
SOURCE:
and
satellite.
batteries.
International
COURIER-IB
189
(USA)
Satellite
communication
satellite.
SOURCE:
International
TRANSIT-IB
(USA)
Satellite
Decayed on
SOURCE:
First navigation
Transmitted
satellite.
12 July
until
1960.
Solar cells.
5 October 1967.
International
EPITAXIAL CRYSTAL
GROWTH
HH
H Christensen, J J
& H C Theurer (USA)
Loor,
Kleimock
Until 1960 the semiconductor industry followed a pattern of starting with a crystal as pure as needed in
the initial stage, and each step
added impurities
new method of
Laboratories announced a
was not
it
semiconductor industry.
until the
Its
in a controlled
levels.
1960 announcement
unique advantage
grow very
the ability to
is
was
fully
at a
grown
number of
grasped by the
purity.
SOURCE:
R L
Petritx Proc.
IRE
advances
Theurer. Presented
at the
'Epitaxy
approach
a fresh
by
in diffused devices'
IRE/AIEE
semiconductor
to
H H
Loor,
Christensen,
J J
Kleimock and H
PA
(June 1960)
1960
Bell
Labs (USA)
communications began
first
place in Morris,
111
first
equipment
is
now found
is
in the
proceeding rapidly
One
many
PBX
Suppl,
No
flexibility,
US
made
possible
entities.
A E
Joel Jnr.
IEEE Spectrum
IEEE 107
'Electronic
in
SEE ALSO:
their
switched electronically, as well as more than 48 percent of the world's electronic central
Proc.
and saw
SOURCE:
US
in 1963).
installed electronic
lines that are
in the
20, p 257
p 33 (August 1976)
Keister,
Ketchledee and
C A
Lovell
(November 1960)
A Depp
and
M A
Townsend IEEE
1960-
CIRCUITRY
Various (USA)
(Logic Circuits)
1964
Much
of the early activity was involved with digital logic families. Almost from the beginning, a host
of semiconductor manufacturers were attempting to establish the dominance of one logic family over
the other or
suit
of a competitor.
A Concise
90
At the
took
it
(RTL) seemed
Then
it.
in
way
to be the
diode-transistor logic
in
(TTL) emerged
Transistor-transistor logic
off.
to
(DTL) appeared
in
Sylvania's Universal
in
series in
1964.
SOURCE:
1961
integrated Circuits' by
TAPE CASSETTE
It
was
in
was unveiled
in Berlin,
of charge so as
SOURCE:
(New
to
November 1972)
Philips (Holland)
company
1961
E A
mono
Germany
first
in 1963. Philips
first
cassette recorder,
its
patent free
Inventions
Mark Young
B K
The
principle of the
is to
they transfer
SOURCE:
method
Ridley and
new way
in
T B Watkins (UK)
semiconductors
is
discussed.
a high
enough 'temperature'
to a higher
in
semiconductors' by
B K
Ridley and
T B
In
the conduction
electric fields
it
C Hilsum (UK)
it
a small energy,
minimum where
they will
have a power mobility. The conductivity of a homogeneous crystal bar can therefore decrease as the
field is
increased and
it
is
semi-insulating GaAs.
SOURCE:
It
The
conditions needed for obtaining negative resistance are examined, and calculations
made
for
GaSb and
C Hilsum
IRE
Proc.
vol 50,
No
2,
p 185
(February 1962)
SEE ALSO:
H Kromer
(March 1958)
indium phosphide:
State
&
'Three-level oscillator: a
Lett,
1961
vol 6, p
1,
No
new form
1,
of transferred-electron device' by
Rees and
Hilsum and
some
The
H D Rees
Electron.
the
resulting technology has been found to posess advantages over vapour-phase epitaxy in
applications
film interface.
Nelson (USA)
apparatus and procedures have been developed for the epitaxial growth of
liquid state.
277 (1960)
H D
(September 1976)
In this connection,
it
is
epitaxial films
at the substrate-
damage of the
substrate are
removed when
material
is initially
is
dissolved from
thus obtained.
Since
liquid-phase epitaxy also favours the achievement of high doping and a steet concentration gradient
at
the p-n junctions, the process has proved itself eminently suitable for application in the manufacture
A
of
Ge
GaAs
tunnel diodes.
As
consequence,
this
p-n junction
perfectly planar
is
An optimum geometry
Date Order
laser diode,
formed on
it
191
an additional
is
is
is
in
GaAs
flat
p-n
SOURCE:
'Epitaxial
by
laser diodes'
SEE ALSO:
Nelson
'Epitaxial
RCA
state
and
its
'Properties
H
1961
Kressel and
Nelson Physics of Thin Films vol 7 (New York: Academic Press) (1973)
VENUS-1
(USSR)
Satellite
May
Minimum
1961.
distance to Venus
100000 km.
in the
second half of
SOURCE:
Reached Venus
station.
Magnetic
cells, batteries.
International
1961
VOSTOK-1
(USSR)
Satellite
one
orbit
SOURCE:
and
1.8
First
hours
in
manned
satellite.
Returned
km
USSR
to earth in the
south-east of
Moscow.
International
ELECTRONIC CLOCK
According
moving
P Vogel
parts
which comprises an
means arranged
distributing
to
&
Cie (Switzerland)
at
pulses delivered by the oscillator, a counting device arranged to be controlled by the oscillator for
delivering signals of a frequency of n cycles per hour, where n
is
cycle
per minute, an electronic switch arranged to be controlled by the distributing means for delivering
signals corresponding to the state of the counting device said signals being associated with hours and
minutes successively,
SOURCE:
made
in the
MERCURY-ATLAS-4
Launched
13
USA
SOURCE:
docks'
(USA)
Satellite
stations).
on 13 September 1961.
in or relating to electronic
performance (tracking
orbit
Application
1961
a cabin with a
Cabin recovered
dummy
in the Atlantic
260
km
east of the
Bermudas
after 1st
Batteries.
International
OSCAR-1
(USA)
Satellite
for 18 days.
A Concise
92
SOURCE:
in
Date Order
International
1961
MINICOMPUTER
It
is
12-bit
a
Digital
machine of
this type,
first
15 000.
the
MSI and
SI logic,
strides
(USA)
in
1961
1500,
i.e.
Many
sizes.
memory
of integrated circuits,
Inc.
Equipment
to
become
over
the introduction
little
at
software
have been made with the addition of extras, such as disks and
magnetic tapes which allow the provision of operating systems running high level languages.
SOURCE: 'How
1962
SATELLITE
The
first
satellite,
and
the
(Telstar
earth satellite
was launched by
the
USSR
new form of
lb satellite
is
expected to remain
the
first
communication
batteries,
(a
in orbit for
some 200
I,
now
years;
cells,
and
July 1962, 16 European countries were exchanging live television with the United States and
Telstar 2, launched on 7
satellite.
May
way
commercial communication
Early Bird.
SOURCE:
1962
I,
By 23
successfully transmitted high-definition television pictures across the Atlantic on 10 July 1962,
170
running of a business' by
Various (USA)
I)
successors promise a
its
silent,
at
to the
MERCURY-ATLAS-6 'FRIENDSMP-7'
astronaut John
H Glenn
Jr.
& Power p
13 (January 1969)
(USA)
Satellite
Benson Electronics
capability in space.
First
and
SOURCE:
International
1962
OSO-1
(USA)
Satellite
SOURCE:
I860 solar
in space.
Transmitted
cells.
International
RELAY-1
Satellite
Launched
13
Measurement of energy
components.
microwave communications.
satellite to test
levels of space radiation. Study of radiation effect on solar cells and electronic
teleprinter circuits
SOURCE:
(USA)
8215 solar
cells, batteries.
Experiments conducted
until
February 1965.
1976 (Geneva:
International
A Concise
1962
MOS
(Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor)
CIRCUIT
Who made
the
MOS
first
INTEGRATED
1962
RCA
the
at
SOURCE:
1962
MOS'
first
'DUANE' RELIABILITY
by
MOS
first
succeed in
to
GROWTH THEORY
in
T Duane (USA)
T Duane
on
this subject
has proliferated.
However, these
had no
efforts
statistically
on
actual data
developed theory
growth curves.
obtained from
first
time
late
mils.
50 x 50
October 1962.
However,
F P Heiman (USA)
'The
in integrating a
They reported
Hofstein and
integrated circuit?
Group
193
became
has been
controlled conditions at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in the years 1940 to 1949.
SOURCE:
'A theory of
Reliability
SEE ALSO:
growth
reliability
in structural
systems' by
H B Chenoweth
Aerospace vol
2,
Proceedings Annual
T Duane IEEE
Transactions on
p 563-6 (1964)
1962
B D Josephson (UK)
JOSEPHSON EFFECT
In spite of the fact that the history of the
(1962) for
its
Josephson effect
is
quite long,
it
is
attributed to
Josephson
by Dietrich (1952) and by Giaver and Megerle (1961) have been given without definite conclusions or
doubt about
1963) for
first
in
(known
published results.
The
current discontinuities
in
is
of the Josephson junction, introduced by the macroscopic quantum absorption effect, thus became
the generally accepted fact in physics.
In
Josephson
d.c.
effect).
Further,
first-order
discoveries
based on the Josephson effect have been: the Mercerau effect or macroscopis quantum interference,
frequency multiplication (Mercerau
measurements (Langenberg
ratio
paper
in
et al
et al
is
The
e/h
crucial
clear and firm experimental evidence that the Josephson voltage stability exceeds the best Weston-cell
batteries used as national primary voltage standards.
SOURCE:
'An analysis of the inflexion point structure of Josephson absorption effect current
Ranko Mutabzija
Int.
Finnegan,
Giaver and
No
superconducting devices' by
TF
I
J.
3,
B D Josephson.
Wireless World p
D N
by
499 (1952)
Denenstein and
steps'
p 241 (1977)
A Concise
194
C C Grimes
R Hahn
W Meissner
and
B D Josephson
DN
J
Physics
Langenberg,
E Mercerau, R C
vol
Lett,
An
B N
Lambe and A H
which each
SOURCE:
Cie (Switzerland)
MICROELECTRONICS
SOURCE:
as the
Yung Tao
1/8 inch
(Flat-Pack)
modern
selected points at
made
Application
in
circuit
Tao (USA)
It
was
1/4
leads.
packaging
and materials'
R L Goldberg
November 1972)
p 127 (23
SEMICONDUCTOR LASER
is
GaAs
beam
upon
light,
the
beam beyond
this
Evidence
p-n junctions.
emission
at
November 1962
connected together.
electrically
the
&
P Vogel
electronic timepiece, comprising an oscillator unit; a frequency divider unit and a time display
by
274 (1964)
Lett,
1962
p 251 (1962)
ELECTRONIC WATCH
unit, in
1962
1,
Parker and
Jaklevic, J J
1962
Z. Phys.
The stimulated
threshold.
believed to occur as the result of transitions between states of equal wave number in the
is
SOURCE:
J
SEE ALSO:
R O
Nathan and
1962
No
9,
p 366
G E
Hall,
Fenner,
GaAs
Kingsley,
November 1962)
(1
is
increased.
p-n junction.
As
We
is
the narrowing of
line
is
We
SOURCE:
R N
junctions' by
vol 9,
from a forward-biased
is
Lett,
Lasher (USA)
77
GaAs
Soltys and
Burns, F
MARINER-2
Dill Jr
and
p-n junctions' by
No
1,
fields,
p 62
1,
(1
Nathan,
P Dumke,
November 1962)
(USA)
Satellite
GaAs
its
particles.
Flew by
trip to
the planet
390000 km from
momentum
earth.
and scanned
9800
it
on 14 December
W)
batteries.
SOURCE:
195
International
MARS-1
(USSR)
Satellite
Launched
November
1962.
SOURCE:
106
at
Mkm.
km
of planet. Solar
cells.
International
ARIEL-1
(UK)
Satellite
until
satellite
November
SOURCE:
International
RG
Sweet developed
Sweet (USA)
electrostatically deflecting a
high-speed stream of small ink drops to produce high frequency oscillograph traces
signal-recording system. Each drop
is
The drop
amount
that
of the charge.
is
As
charge and
its
is
is
in a direct-writing,
its
normal path by an
moving
of the polarity
is
formed
that
form
in a character generator.
An encoded
Character images
charging signals necessary to deflect drops to the appropriate character matrix positions.
No
CA
by
Buehler,
R G Sweet
Stanford
(1964)
R G Sweet
by
jets'
jets'
by
2 (January 1977)
Rev. Sci.
Inst,
vol 36,
131 (1965)
'Fluid Droplet Recorder' by
R G Sweet US
1963
Lewis and
frequency appear
is
described of a
When
Communications
SYNCOM-1
vol
shown
new phenomenon
in
B Gunn (USA)
semiconductors' by
B Gunn
Solid State
p 88 (1963)
(USA)
Satellite
specimen current.
A D Brown US
the applied electric field exceeds a critical value, oscillations of extremely high
in the
SOURCE: 'Microwave
1963
by
in figure 11.26.
lost contact
W)
battery.
Syncom-
A Concise
196
in
Date Order
Figure 11.26. Syncom-3 (courtesy Mark Williams, Space Technology Consultant, and Hughes Aircraft).
SOURCE:
Table of
Satellites
Artificial
International
1963
ELECTRONIC CALCULATOR
The
first
Bell
under licence
in
in
Punch Co (UK)
components wired
to printed circuit
1963 by a British firm, the Bell Punch Company. The machine was produced
America and
in
Japan, where the advantage of cheaper Japanese labour for the hundreds
in the
1960s. Integrated circuitry was, of course, the perfect technology for the calculator, and
but
technologies.
The
first
By
integration
American company
from a warehouse
in
to
make
calculators
was
MOS
five or six
company
Valley.
Commodore
make
supplier,
was
the
Canadian
firm,
Bowmar.
for
making
in
to enter
what was
MOS
a particularly
Chicago. The company bought chips from Texas Instruments and, using cheap
component
MOS slower
its
first
to
become
to Silicon
compact
calculator.
technology
among
by
not to
in price
1971 to $40 or $50 the following year, the profits of these small entrepreneurial
A Concise
in
Date Order
197
The
situation had to
market
change as
became
it
lay.
staringly obvious
where the
it
had
or,
SOURCE:
in
Revolution
new
viability of the
product,
it
calculator provides
in the
is
if
small firms
indeed, whether the calculator would ever have gained the acceptance
Miniature
The History
&
new
earlier
exploding
profits in the
it
has
of age
ALSO:
1963
in
by
Valery
DH
new
Among
many
Scientist Calculator
Mattox (USA)
New
World-wide
(1975)
ii-iv
types such as screw threads, bearings and tubes can be coated in one
compact pin-hole-free
structures are
is
can be produced;
is
for periods
up
30 minutes
to
New
in
1963
to
in the
remove
with a rotary
commences.
United States by
In the
just like a conventional evaporation one, in that the bell jar is evacuated
is
pump and
pump
that long
Mexico, the true potential of ion plating had not been appreciated
is
down
friction
no problem;
5
After the pressure reaches about 10"
admitted through a needle valve until the pressure rises to about 2 x 10~ 2
torr.
torr,
first
argon
is
is
kept
constant by controlling the needle valve and partially opening the baffle valve to the diffusion pump.
In the case
is
carried out
first
kV
to
kV
is
and the argon ion discharge remains so long as the cathode voltage or the argon pressure
to fall too low.
The bombardment of
is
SOURCE:
1963
coat of
many
is
When
colours'
describing a
and Ultrasonics
in
my
in
department
New
Scientist p
588
(9 June 1977)
H Rowen
and E
in a post deadline
paper presented
at
not allowed
is
is
the 1964
Sittig
in
(USA)
December 1963
Symposium on Sonics
Dr Ehrhardt
Sittig,
who worked
filed
an application describing an interdigital electrode structure for balanced (vs unbalanced) excitation of
work by
wave
White's
devices.'
198
SOURCE:
NJ dated 20
Hill,
July 1977
H Rowen USA
NOTE: Lord
White's paper,
EK
device'
Rayleigh
Sittig
No
Patent
14
summarised
elastic-wave propagation in
flow,
is
cadmium
computed
(in a piezoelectric
The
sulfide.
elastic
and the
cadmium
drift field in
Some
semiconductor) are
the
for propagation
continuous
as follows.
power
December 1967
in
289
first
stress-free
in 1967, is
USA
field to
No
Patent
November 1966
wave delay
'Elastic
Date Order
Letter
SEE ALSO:
dated 29
in
sulfide is reported
circuits.
to
be low
Amplification with a
transducers on piezoelectric crystals are given, together with experimental results on several passive
surface-wave devices.
SOURCE:
'Surface elastic
No
amplification' by
propagated along the plane surface of an elastic solid' by Lord Rayleigh Proc.
vol 17, p
4 (November 1885)
L Synge
(November 1956)
'Surface waves in anisotropic elastic media' by
V T Buchwold
Reader and
Shaw IEEE
Trans,
on Microwave Theory
Series 2 edited by
D P Morgan
Gerard,
The technology of
ESFI
MOS
such
as:
The
principal advantage of
absence of
technology
in 1963.
except
silicon,
TECHNOLOGY
Various (USA)
beginning of practical
SIS,
IEE Reprint
(May 1976)
SILICON ON SAPPHIRE
lines
J H
MTT17, No
Smith,
(Peter Peregrinus)
1963
Techniques vol
&
SOS
The technology
insulators),
is
known by
SOS, SOSL
(silicon
different abbreviations,
on
spinel), etc.
in the active
on
and
ac.
The
through the silicon film to the sapphire reduces electrode capacitance by several orders of magnitude
in junction area.
many
maximum
in electrode
and interelectrode
SOURCE:
'Recent
SOS
R S Ronen and F B
it
for
Micheletti Solid
SEE ALSO:
and
Early publications on
Mueller and P
(1964)
SOS Technology
e.g.
Robinson 'Grown-film
silicon transistors
J.
Manasevit
A
1964
NIMBUS- 1
satellite to
to provide
improved pictures of
by means of automatic picture transmission (APT) and to evaluate the high resolution
local clouds
infrared radiometer
batteries,
SOURCE:
199
(USA)
Satellite
W)
Date Order
in
(HRIR) system
for
23 September 1964.
until
International
1964
VOSKHOD-1
(USSR)
Satellite
spacecraft.
SOURCE:
V Komarov, K
three-man crew:
First
km
Feokistov,
International
1964
PACKET-SWITCHNG-COMMUNICATIONS
Packet-switching
demands
different
at
There
it,
it
on
its
network
may be
from
To make
way according
a connection
to the address
and kept so
the
and instructions
to
normal
carries.
it
is,
serial.
and send
communications
of
look
kind
P Baran (USA)
is
essentially
Such a requirement
is
not necessary with a packet-switched system or network. In this latter case you
transmit your data to the network, which then takes over, either sending
it
on or holding
it.
At the conceptual
thus
it
until the
becomes
approach to telecommunications.
To have
other words, there should be not just one path in or out for a packet, but several.
can be
far
is
how many
this sort
In
then
of network, the
With
What would
now
in the
commercial Telenet network (also American), Europe's interbank, Swift networks, Euronet, and the
SOURCE:
1964
GEMINI-1
Launched
of the
R Malik New
606
(8 September, 1977)
(USA)
Satellite
GEMINI
Scientist p
The
GEMINI
Batteries.
SOURCE:
International
A Concise
200
1964
'IMPATT' DIODE
RL
C deLoach
Johnston and B
(USA)
R L
Johnston and
Read
Jr,
directly
when
DC
voltage
diodes
applied to them
is
SOURCE:
IMPATT
are
IMPATT
discovered the
by an
effect
semiconductor devices
Mission Communications
B C deLoach
to operate
that generate
(IMPact
proposed earlier by
WT
microwaves
in the
design of
cost.
C Mabon
(Murray
Hill,
NJ:
SEE ALSO:
vol 37,
1964
Tech.
H K Gummel
TRANSISTOR MODELLING
Since the original paper by
Gummel
(USA)
Gummel was
the
to solve the
first
semiconductor
partial
appeared
integral formulation
in
an improved form
in the
for
scheme and
scheme.
Gummel
difference formulation.
finite
No
4,
iterative
vol
1,
(1976)
scheme
ED-1
state
pp 455-65 (1964)
1,
Finite Difference
York:
Wiley
&
1964
de Mari Solid
Sons
Inc.)
pp 101
et
pp 1021-53 (1968)
G E
Forsythe and
R Wasow (New
seq (1970)
Read diode
oscillator'
by
D L
Scharfetter and
H K Gummel IEEE
TRANSISTOR
The overlay
Army
11,
pp 33-58 (1968)
Crank Nicolson
Supplements
from
and Scharfetter, also using a 1-dimensional implicit scheme, but introducing a new and
important spatial
SOURCE:
two
His
to tackle
the time-dependent 1-dimensional system. This required the use of a finite-difference formulation
by
J.
p401 (1958)
RCA
(Overlay)
Electronics
Command,
Ft
in military
at
100
MHz
at
RCA
under
a contract
transmitting equipment.
Monmouth, New
(USA)
The
first
at
100
tube
from the
vacuum
MHz
at
and 0.5
MHz
at
400 MHz.
SOURCE:
'Solid state
RF power
honors' by
transistor'
by
D R
SEE ALSO:
'The overlay
new
UHF
power
D R
Carley, P
L McGeough and
A Concise
1964
MICROELECTRONICS
(Beam Lead)
in
Date Order
201
Lepselter (USA)
SOURCE:
packaging
its
case.
R L Goldberg
and materials'
November 1972)
p 127 (23
lead technology' by
XVL, No
vol
2,
1964
TELEMEDICINE
Various
(USA
et al)
1964-69,
in
The
first
stage
telecommunications technology.
two-way transmission
the feasibility of
of diagnostic information and clinical encounters via microwave links and video equipment.
Starting in 1964, the
out
Hospital,
In
TV
link
away
12 miles
interactive
first
a closed-circuit
1967, an interactive
TV
under financing by
TV
was
link
installed
Institute,
State
VA
expanded
(later
to a
Massachusetts General-Bedford
funds).
While
Nebraska
the
telemedicine
administrative purposes,
programme
used
link
in
to
the
system
Massachusetts General
use telemedicine
in
consultation
and
first
psychiatric
for
physical diagnosis that were found to provide effective treatment over the interactive
TV
The
telepsychiatry.
stage
was characterised by
field.
knowledge
and experience among the participants, and by Government support and sponsorship of research
and demonstration programmes.
Technology Division
111.;
of Medicine
New
York,
NY.
refer patients to
Home
Janover
111.;
Lakeview
Sinai School
home
that usually
Boston City Hospital, and the Miami-Dade project between Dade County and Jackson
INTERACT,
in
Fla.
of the appropriate organisational and environmental settings for telemedicine implementation, manpower
but although
some evaluation
The
initial
projects were
document those
to evaluation of telemedicinels
to society as a
started during
this
period,
there
were no
benefits.
evaluation efforts did not reveal conclusive results, but a comparison between the telephone
and interactive
TV
encounters showed the former to be of shorter duration and more efficient for some
A Concise
202
The
third,
an innovative
or
mode
telemedicine has to
later,
in
1973 and
become
characteristic feature
its
Two
of medical-care delivery.
factors
must be
method of evaluation
i.e.
telemedicine has
programmes
It
become
economic
its
to survive, they
have had
viability
to
how
make
to
it
its
own; and
medical-care
itself.
To
for
may be
difficult to obtain
pay for
it
on
in the
be heavily subsidised.
make
is
is
recognise potential benefits, including greater opportunities to interact with other physicians, to consult
with specialists without worrying about the possibility of closings their patients, to have more free time,
and
work of
to supervise the
lie in
SOURCE: 'Coming
1964
by
Allen
1964
benefits to
it
1976)
B Rogers (USA)
p 127 (23
The
SOURCE:
clinic.
MICROELECTRONICS
remote
at
It
does today.
packaging
and materials'
R L Goldberg
November 1972)
Autonetics (USA)
made
is
at the area
where the
drill
penetrates
through the copper pad exposing a cylinder of copper equivalent to the diameter of the drilled hole
times 0.0044 (as times thickness of one ounce of copper). This small area of exposed copper can also
it
adhesion of the copper to the electroless copper deposit. Therefore, a smoothing process was developed
at
more
that the
at the
copper any smeared epoxy, provides for a more reliable interconnection than the standard T-joint.
SOURCE.
Quintana
AFS
1964
WORDPROCESSOR
One
IBM (USA)
dominant manufacturer of
electric typewriters,
is
IBM,
already a
when
it
introduced a magnetic-tape typewriter. This unit could store information on magnetic media for later
modification and automatic retyping.
SOURCE:
1965
SYNTHESIZER
Despite a few earlier attempts, the history of sound synthesis (the creation of sounds from electric
pulses) did not begin until the early 1950s, with experiments carried out at the University of Bonn,
Through
first
Robert
Moog (US)
(in collaboration
was
set
filters,
up
the
Because
1951
in
at a
station.
this
was
the necessary
all
SOURCE:
(New
1965
Inventions
equipment
when
the
word
was
'synthesizer'
first
in the
used.
Mark Young
THE MOUSE
The mouse
is
However,
in 1983.
was
it
at
is
Its
Englebart (USA)
it
possible to interact
used was popularised by Apple with the Lisa and the Macintosh models
the little-known
was
mouse
on
the
203
in
in
his or her
hand on
a small
box or mouse.
used to measure movements which are then transmitted to the computer via a lead
of the mouse. These movements are translated to the cursor on the screen:
mouse
is
have
to
if
the
mouse
is
the
tail
pushed
to
and so on. This revolutionary input device, originally found only on Apple computers, was adopted by
IBM
in 1987.
Press,
Macdonald
&
WIEGAND WIRE
Wiegand (USA)
that
it
is
possible, along the exterior 'shell' of the wire, to produce a coercive force significantly greater than
By
external conditions, the direction of magnetisation in the core of the wire can be the
to that in the shell.
And
same or opposite
is
Short lengths of wire exhibiting the Wiegand effect can serve as the heart of magnetic pulse generators
that
have distinct advantages over similar devices, including non-contact operation and a
facility for
same
regardless of speed of operation; they offer any combination of pulse-generation direction and polarity,
that
is,
And such
95F
SOURCE:
direction and
to a point
millivolts in the
to
E Wizen
by P
Electronics p 100
effect
pushing
its
way
into
new
Olsen,
RF
Jack and
EO
Fuchs (USA)
at Bell
is
Laboratories.
relatively free of
it
The
in
embedded
particles
and surface
scratches.
smooth
in
wire improves
its
properties in
some
instances.
For example, a
of metal plated onto a wire. The wire finish should be as smooth as possible so that the film can be
deposited evenly.
A Concise
204
it
SOURCE:
it
drawn through
it
The
wherever
as cavitation
it
'scrubs'
the dies.
new drawing
in the liquid
known
1965
SATELLITEINTELSAT
The
first
internationally
(International)
owned
It
INTELSAT
satellite,
Inc.
is at
was put
I,
an altitude of
22400
primary power 45
lb)
could be maintained
it
was
to ascertain
in a
West
of the high path loss of 200 dB; however, the Earth stations employed
in spite
now well-known
the
Firstly,
was placed
INTELSAT
It
it
was
ms was
85-100
Secondly,
a great success.
ft
it
to
operationally acceptable.
used for
is
all
internationally
owned
satellites today.
SOURCE:
'Fixed communications' by
No
10,
p 547
(October 1975)
1965
P Weckler (USA)
ARRAYS
The
forming image sensors from arrays of silicon photo diodes on a single silicon chip
possibility of
that
It
was
them
To circumvent
in to a single
problem was
that
P Weckler
this
problem,
it
was necessary
function.
in
1965 that
this
on an integrated
The
SOURCE:
first fully
some
years,
and
No
4,
it
now
serial
to include a
multiplexing
No
3,
1965
second
8,
SEE ALSO:
to multiplex
of detecting the minute photocurrents produced by the necessarily very small diodes.
achieved by m.o.s. transistors. The one step necessary to complete the picture was
shift register
is,
No
some
number of diodes
could be included on the silicon, but by the number of output leads necessary to form connections
to these diodes.
by
many
PROTON-1
(USSR)
Satellite
solar
cosmic
rays.
in
theeneray range up
to 10
14
eV. Investigation
of nuclear interaction of ultra-high energy cosmic rays up to 10 12 eV. Determination of the absolute
intensity
origin.
A Concise
spectrum of
on
11
gamma
in
Date Order
205
Decayed
rays of the galaxy with energies over 50 million eV. Solar cells, batteries.
October 1965.
SOURCE:
International
1965
ELECTRONIC TYPEWRITER
IBM
launched the
72BM
IBM (USA)
typewriter with a
1965.
In
the
first
first
Andrew Gabor
first
company
Olivetti
SOURCE:
(New
1965
72BM was
The
in
Inventions
They featured
is
and Discoveries 1993 edited by Valerie-Anne Giscard d'Estaing and Mark Young
Military (USA)
universe.
game
This concept
is
industry; however,
its
is
It
best
in a
The concept
is
synthetic
the video
simple enough.
On
images
electronic
VIRTUAL REALITY
It
first
movement of
transmitted to the computer, which consequently interprets and modifies the surroundings.
It is
thus
SOURCE:
(New
1966
Inventions
K C Kao
and
G A Hockham
for the
As
Advancement of Science,
August 1964,
early as
in
attenuations of 2
light travelling
the author speculated on the use of light and glass fibres in the
telephone network, instead of electric currents and wires, but developments did not
be low and
(USA)
use a fibre consisting of a glass core having a high refractive index surrounded
to
Mark Young
bundles were
fragile.
in 1966.
start in
earnest until
made
was expected
resulting in fibre
Such
bandwidth of
and capable of being incorporated into simple but effective forms of cable. The
a single fibre is
is
much
greater,
considerably smaller.
little
Thus
SOURCE:
No 10,
45,
SEE ALSO:
'Dielectric-fibre surface
1966
vol
BIOSATELLITE-1
13,
waveguides
pp
K C Kao
and
G A Hockham
(USA)
Satellite
by
151-8
To determine
life
on various
life
206
effects of radiation
on organisms
in weightlessness.
SOURCE:
Due
it
was
International
1966
ATS-1
(USA)
Satellite
to
advance the
fields
and ground), meterology (photos, transmission of weather facsimile) and control technology. Number
of scientific experiments to measure the orbital environment of the
22 000 solar
satellite.
cells
(185
W)
batteries.
SOURCE:
International
1966
LUNAR ORBITER-1
(USA)
SURVEYOR
moon
10 856 solar
SOURCE:
APOLLO
spacecraft; monitored the meteroids and radiation intensity in the vicinity of the
and
moon;
in
cells, battery.
International
1966
NITRIDE-OVER-OXIDE SEMICONDUCTORS
Corporation, the
US
thus reaffirming
GE's
In
silicon dioxide in
GE
GE
Horn (USA)
GE's claim
is
eliminates the contamination by alkali ions that previously caused widespread failure of the tiny devices.
In another application of the invention, these nitride-overoxide layers are
transistors
The
GE
used
in
standard bipolar
reliability
the
as a surface
invention.
original
GE
patent application
problems between
instability
GE
was
filed
scientists
on
Dr Dale
a discussion of
semiconductor
suggested silicon nitride over silicon dioxide as a passivation technique for overcoming these problems.
The
idea
was
tried
SOURCE: GE
thereafter.
(GE Research
&
NY
1966
TIROS-1
(USA)
Satellite
satellite
Environmental Survey
Satellite.
9100
TIROS
May 1967,
Part of the
Operational System (TOS), Advanced vidicon camera system (AVCS). Switched off on 8
solar cells, batteries.
SOURCE:
Table of
Artificial
Satellites
International
207
GA
Wiessenstern and
Wingrove (USA)
The
flip-flop
in
1906 by
Wiessenstern and Wingrove. Since that time nearly every semiconductor manufacturer has experimented
with various forms of flip-flop bonding for the purpose of assembling integrated circuits, and possibly
some
To
this day,
no successful method of
flip-chip
SOURCE:
SEE ALSO:
No
vol 57,
9,
US
S Wingrove
Patent
No
Weissenstern and
L F
SURVEYOR-1
(USA)
Satellite
13 July 1966.
SOURCE:
W)
the
moon on
150 photos up to
batteries.
1976 (Geneva:
International
electronic
components
started in
C0
(USA)
lasers.
Two
first
in
SOURCE:
B Cozzens
1976)
1967
SOYUZ-1
(USSR)
Satellite
V Komarov,
SOURCE:
killed.
spacecraft. Re-entered
24 April 1967
Solar cells.
International
masking
(a)
Dolby (USA)
possible (compression), followed by complementary attenuation during playback (expansion), and (b)
by the masking
effect
whenever
is
not possible.
Since masking
it
is
is less
The
noise reduction
hush-hush or swish of
splits the
audio spectrum into four bands and compresses and expands each of these
range (80 Hz, lowpass), for the mid-audio range (80 Hz-3 kHz, band-pass), for
(3
in
kHz, high-pass).
may be
low.
A Concise
208
From another
incoming signal
itself to the
in
SOURCE: Dolby
SEE ALSO: 'An
its
Dolby
J.
15,
p 383 (1967)
&
July 1968)
1969)
part
1967
ION
(An introduction
to the
(May 1970)
BEAM COATING
KL
Chopra and
Randlett
(USA)
The
history of Ion
Beam
Coating (IBC) covers a period of more than ten years beginning with metallic
showed
that essentially
properties
like'
was
field resulted
ion.
Although ion beam milling has been accepted for several years as the most desirable technique when
and production
micron or submicron
installations, ion
beam
deposition
is
just
real
now
being accepted
flexibility in thin
film
High resolution microfabrication process with electron beam or x-ray lithography require
fabrication.
improved deposition technology. The answer may be ion beam coatings both
for research
and production
R Thompson.
Jr Solid State
applications.
SOURCE:
'Ion
beam
A new
coating:
of thin films' by
K L Chopra
and
S Aisenberg and
R Chabot
J.
S Aisenberg and
R Chabot
J.
Spencer and P
H Schmidt
J.
E
1967
'ROTATOR' CIRCUIT
This paper presents a
new
15,
DC
No
7,
vol 8, p
ion
beam
368 (1971)
sputtering'
NETWORK
is
Castellano and
Chua (USA)
They have
whenever
P H Schmidt, R
p 39 (1972)
new
whose
by a prescribed angle
The
rotator
is
capacitances.
T-network of
lattice
Operational
laboratory models are reported, and experimental data agree remarkably well with theoretical predictions.
The
sensitivity,
power
rating,
and
stability
in detail in this
paper and practical stability criteria are given. They are shown to be indispensable building blocks for
realising multi-valued elements
A Concise
SOURCE:
'The rotator a
Chua
in
Date Order
IEEE
Proc.
vol 55,
209
No
9,
p 1566
(September 1967)
1967
TRAPPATT DIODE
Transit
The
Time Diode)
mode was discovered
trapatt
J Prager,
KKN
Chang and S
Weisbrod (USA)
in
It
of high-efficiency solid-state microwave oscillators and amplifiers. Dc-rf conversion efficiencies as high
60%
35%
as
as
GHz, and
X-band frequencies.
when
breakdown voltage
is
An
fall
wake
its
state,
and
As
into a
the carriers drift slowly out of the active region under low-field conditions, the electric field within the
diode recovers.
the cycle
When
much lower
is
J J
SEE ALSO:
Purcell
IEE
Solid-State
IEEE
vol
vol 55, p
586 (1967)
company
in
which
in a thermister
characteristics are
property of having an
which drops
to a
OFF
initial
line
there
is
a delay time
/h
happens
its
high resistance
/^s,
state,
SOURCE: 'Amorphous
is
a mirror
image of
No
1,
in
These devices
around 100
when
in a
megohms,
it
allowed to
along region
is
below
fall
(d).
a switching voltage
minimum
and
holding value,
device behaves
SEE ALSO:
sandwiched between
is
as a
11.27(c).
V, h typically
Prager,
amorphous material
in figure
first
ON
much lower
shown
Ovshinsky (USA)
by
at ultra frequencies'
Oxley,
type package.
sandwich using
C H
p 24 (September 1976)
1,
No
drift velocity.
Howard and
by
to essentially zero,
waveforms produced
SOURCE:
The
repeated.
is
Allison and
Thompson The
p 12 (January 1976)
phenomena
in
disordered solids' by S
R Ovshinsky
Phys.
1968
IRIS (ESRO-1)
ESRO
Satellite
First
SOURCE:
cells, batteries.
Decayed on
(Europe)
satellite.
May
Measurements of
the
1971.
International
210
in
Date Order
thermistor rackagc
carbon electrodes
rv
Early discrete switches.
1968
way
to
more successful
solid state
memory
memory
MOS
in
applications,
MONTOS
is a
RCA
schemes
may show
that
(metal-oxide-nitride-oxide-
MONOS
active, passive
Labs.,
a negative voltage,
GT & E
Westinghouse,
Sylvania (USA)
to
Hung C
Lin,
their
all
manager of advanced
techniques development.
The
transistors
MOSFETs
made with
standard
The
by placing
And
MOS
between
lateral
non bipolar
most
memories but as
and
vertical
MOS
elements.
Paul
MOSFETs
other development, a complementary MOS-bipolar structure, gets around the fact that
and p channels
who
Richman,
with
in the
same
its
not used
more
logic
often.
is
so
There
much
is.
It
substrate.
the
complementary
MOS
circuit
at
the
International Electron Devices Meeting in 1968, says that their difficulties with the extremely resistive
only source
Richman
ICs.
The
is
a chemical firm
RCA
RCA's method
in
GT & E
is
Germany.
approach
is
the
first
simplified
MOS
careful control of the diffusion process and results in a rather high threshold voltage.
Neither
GT & E
Richman hopes
complementary
SOURCE:
slow
pits, filling
them with
critical
circuits.
that the
MOS
new
fabrication
method
will
MOS
'Electronics review
ICs.
for
But
which
A Concise
1968
THE 'TRINITRON'
A new
colour
CRT employing
gun
beam
21
Sony (Japan)
gun was developed by Sony Corporation. The single
beams
at
The
unique arrangement of the electron optics of the gun permits modulating the electron scanning velocity,
giving rise to further improvement of the picture image.
number of
shadow mask,
a
CRT. Since
incorporated in the
is
shadow mask,
the
CRT
A new
The
sensitive to terrestrial
is less
whose
magnetism and
vertical curvature is
almost
SOURCE:
'The
Trans, vol
BTR-14, p 19-27
SEE ALSO:
Electronics
&
largest,
1968
Ohkoshi
this
from Moire
patterns.
The
14 degree
&
free
it is
&
Ohkoshi
S Miyaoka. IEEE
S Yoshida,
Ohkoshi
&
S Miyaoka
'25V inch
produces
(July 1968)
TRINITRON
stripes
'TRINITRON' a new
'The
transparency than
infinite,
that
beam
phosphor
vertically continuous
a high resolution
from 5V"
slits
TRINITRON
S Miyaoka
BTR
Ohkoshi
&
'BARITT' DIODE
GT
Wright (UK)
Wright described a new negative resistance microwave device based on the principle of barrier
In 1968
at
BARITT
diode.
level.
same
year, independently,
Ruegg
presented a paper on the simplified large-signal theory of a similar punch-through structure giving
10-100
at
10
GHz. These
an estimated
theoretical
pnp
structures
and
in
power
npn
in
silicon structures,
20%
BARITT
in
in
metal-semiconductor-metal
diode structures and pointing out the reliable and low-noise operation of the device
at
moderate
levels.
SOURCE:
'Large-signal
analysis
of the silicon
pnp-BARRIT
diode'
by
SEE ALSO: G T
H
1968
Wright
Elect. Lett,
vol 4,
543 (1968)
Noyce (USA)
An insight into Noyce's style of technical leadership is provided by Gordon Moore, a chemical physicist
who was one of the eight founders of Fairchild Semiconductors, and who quit in 1968 to join Noyce
in starting Intel, where he is now president and chief executive officer. 'Bob was certainly the idea
man in the group. can think of two things that at the time impressed me even more than what he did
I
with
all
the base.
One was
the use of
aluminium
said,
'Why
make
remember
struggling
212
'So
aluminium and
tried
worked
it
Bob suggested
electrical contacts.
1968
SOURCE:
'MUTATOR' CIRCUIT
The
4>
was
it
circuit'
by
barriers.'
NETWORK
L O Chua (USA)
or q
i,
v curve
is
new
v, <p
i,
or q
v,
<fi
new elements
or q
i,
is
<p
i,
or q
characterised by
v curve can be
v,
is
v,
curve can be reflected about an arbitrary straight line through the origin. The scalor
the property that any
linear two-port
port
good
something
really thought
there
it
beautifully.
Then
a horizontal
is
it
shown
that
v curve can be
Laboratory models
are given.
of mutators, reflectors, and scalors have been built using discrete components. Oscilloscope tracings of
typical mutated, reflected
and scaled,
are in
remain
to
SOURCE:
'Synthesis of
stability
new
v, 4>
i,
at relatively
and q
The experimental
Chua
results
problems that
practical
circuits.
Proc.
IEEE
vol 36,
No
8,
SEE ALSO:
J.
1968
RC
No
1,
Murata
Int.
p 33 (1977)
In
NHK
1968 the
far
NHK
in the
in
development of
image comparable
and
that is to say
to that at the
new system
in this
called Hi-Vision
cinema images of
in
this
under the Eureka programme a high definition system with images of 1250 lines
existing networks (Pal Secam
NTSC) and
in particular
As
sets.
a counter-attack
that is
D2-Mac
However
compatible with
will take another ten years before high definition television systems, be they
it
The
first
place
Research
NHK
Macdonald
&
the
Arpanet (USA)
US
academic
of California
at
institutions
Los Angeles
were linked by an
experimental computer network, ARPAnet, funded by the Advanced Research Projects Agency
of the
US
took
Press,
INTERNET
Towards
Japanese Hi-
fully operational.
at the
1969
this military-inspired
(ARPA)
in the history
of
A Concise
213
communications. Out of the ARPAnet has emerged the extraordinary phenomenon of the Internet
computer network
at a rate that,
The
first
is
that
is
it
broken up into conveniently sized chunks of data, which are then augmented
is
to the
network for
transmission.
Packet switching has two distinct advantages over the circuit-switching regime used
telephony. First,
to a connection if
Secondly,
it is
it
is
is
in
is
conventional
only allocated
is
one transmission
DoD
funding for
ARPAnet.
Aside from being a packet-switched network, the Internet
is
been able
to
grow so
fast.
It
why
This explains
it
The
networks and X.25 wide-area networks. These technically disparate subnetworks are bound together
by the
intellectual glue
generally
An
known by
TCP
TCP/IP.
network
layer, of the
computers
at either
end of the
that IP functions
have
to
at
be provided within
its
lie
ahead
dominant
its
most
Conventional wisdom holds that the multimedia future will be created around telecoms networks and
the standards of the
is
that
necessarily so'.
stage
DARPA
10 000 000
stage 2
stage 3
enterprise
Internets
universality
1990:
1
</>
000 000
ARPANet
ceases
100 000
1986:NSFNet
10 000
created
1989:
first
public
commercial Internets
1000
created
100
10
1
1968
1973
1979
1984
1990
SOURCE:
1995
Internet.
2001
'ain't
214
1969
in
Date Order
match
random-length
50 or 75 ohms which
to the
aerial to a transmitter
is
transfer.
The
ideal
way
make
end of the
match impedances
to
is
to earth.
It
is
a small step
and the
it
(UK)
ratio.
and 2 turns
power
M Gordon
Eur Ing
first tap,
coil.
This was the basic matching unit but a variable capacitor was added, together with a 5 way, 2-gang
switch so that as well as the variable-ratio transformer with the capacitor across the primary one could
have a
parallel network, an
SOURCE:
G3VA,
1969)
241, 242
A H
MAGNETIC BUBBLES
R F Fischer, A J
P Remeika and L G Van
Bobeck,
Perneski, J
(USA)
Uitert
RSGB) (May
magnetic material usually consists of arrays of discrete localised volumes of material, defined as
its
all
upon them.
In
some
cases,
is
its
their net
materials.
magnetic anisotrophy of
this material. If
in a thin
an increasing magnetic
state,
field is
at
plane of the plate in figure 11.29 then the unfavourably oriented domains (with respect to the applied
field)
may be made
'magnetic bubbles'
in the direction
to shrink
if
and then
SOURCE:
SEE ALSO:
Perneski,
1969
No
Van
Uitert
of
IEEE
Trans, on Magnetics
A H Bobeck, R F Fischer, A
MAG-5, pp 544-54 (1969)
(UK)
Satellite
SOURCE:
at a certain position
like
memory.
P Remeika and L
SKYNET-A
they are observed in polarized light under a microscope; they can be displaced
stabilized
7236
satellite to
be placed
in
synchronous orbit
Launched by NASA.
International
1969
PARCOR
A new
NTT(Japan)
synthesis, in
(PARCOR)
coefficients
in 1969.
A Concise
Date Order
in
215
NO EXTERNAL
MAGNETIC FIELD
LARGE EXTERNAL
MAGNETIC FIELD
SMALL EXTERNAL
MAGNETIC FIELD
Figure 11.29. Oppositely oriented magnetic domains shown with and without an applied external magnetic
field having indicated polarity and direction. (After Bobeck and Scovil.)
In order to obtain a
it
is
PARCAR
at
every 125
Then
the deviation
/xs
through a
coefficients
PARCAR
analyzer.
value
real
is
PARCOR
PARCOR
coefficient)
bits/s.
of the
PCM
method and
is
the
PARCOR
PARCOR
method
is
Speech synthesis
very efficient.
The
The
is
informations obtained during a certain time (one frame 15 ms) are the
(5 bits to a
speech as accurately
were introduced.
measured.
PARCOR
The extracted
coefficients.
coefficients of 8 x 5
bits.
it
When
is
40
bits
eight
Speech
the
PARCOR
is
superior to the
synthesizer
is
composed
many
telephone circuits.
compared with
PARCOR
coefficients has
method
is
flexible
expected to produce
new
speech response
services such as
the automatic speech recognition and the perception of speaking voices, etc.
SOURCE:
F
Record of
partial
(In
Japanese)
SEE ALSO:
216
Conference Record 7
'New speech
No
1969
12,
Int.
PARCOR'
pp 58-78 (1973)
principle
is
new
signal
at
F L
be delayed
As
2,
(In Japanese)
Sangster and
is
same frequency
the
Teer (USA)
cascade of capacitors
in a
sample present
completely removed, only half the number of capacitors actually do store information
is
any moment,
at
In the past only rather complicated circuitry has been proposed for this function,
so that even in
A much
simpler solution
presents itself
when
was no chance
for an inexpensive
sample transfer
signal
leads to a
much
is
what
compact design.
is
SOURCE: 'Bucket-Brigade electronics possibilities for delay, time-axis conversion and scanning' by
F L J Sangster and K Teer. IEEE Journal of Solid State Circuits vol SC-4 No 3, p 131 (June 1969)
1969
MICROELECTRONICS
CDI
In
Bell Laboratories
(Bipolar)
Ferranti (UK)
suggested
by
c.d.i.
which seemed
cm
circuits
n + diffusions were
at first.
made through
in a
is
The
SOURCE:
it
SOURCE:
Res. Dev.
The
in the
of then had
make
down on top of
now buried n +
them. The
layers laid
flat
No
9, p
grown
in the holes to
surface.
(April 1973)
B T Murphy V
Glinski,
Gary
Jr, is
this beta
below avalanche
SEE ALSO:
57,
Hall voltage.
cm
and
1969
all
c.d.i.
made, as well as any second emitter for a Shottky diode. After the oxide
same
Lyle
in
p-type silicon into which n-layers were diffused. These were later to be
formed
the s
of being
IV which was
down
to offer prospect
Plessey's research centre at Caswell, and the Dutch Locos process developed by Philips.
at
All of these
(USA)
No
3,
utilising
Vinal
IBM
J.
H Cushman
Electronic Design
News
A Concise
1969
Agusta,
Date Order
in
R D Moore
and
G K
Tu
(USA)
Since the
in a
first
SOURCE:
silicon technology
memory
field
due
to the speed,
latter.
memory
'Nonvolatile semiconductor
probably
memory
ah of
devices' by
J J
Chang
IEEE
Proc.
vol
64 No
7,
p 1039
(July 1976)
SEE ALSO:
'A 64
bit
memory
B Agusta ISCC
chip' by
Digest of
by
store'
R D Moore and
Ayling,
G K
1970
TUNG-FANG-HUNG (CHINA
Launched 24 April 1970.
SOURCE:
1) Satellite
Republic of China.
International
1970
market.
was
It
The
first
In
it
its
for
Philips (Holland)
home
970
opposed
to tapes).
in 1970.
in
VCR
an apparatus aimed
at
mass market.
the
were the
&
Co.) p
to
first
17 (1990)
its
own
(i.e.
suitable
viewers) in 1973.
SOURCE:
1
is
(as
NOTE:
JVC
were developed
Private
UNIX
(USA)
The Unix operating system grew out of research done
of California
at
Dennis Ritchie.
Berkeley.
supercomputers. The
name Unix
this rather
sums
3
in the
seemed
System
and Xenix.
set to
become
it
Bell
first
microcomputer
that
that they
were setting up
seems
it
is
multi-task
is
to
its
Unix System
SOURCE:
its
itself
at
for
It
a foundation
in
May
the
1988.
monopoly
version
own Unix
AT&T
was building
Bull.
up.
The Book of Inventions and Discoveries Associate Editor Valerie-Anne Giscard d'Estaing
Press,
Macdonald
&
Co.) p
17 (1990)
A Concise
218
1970
moving the
moving
the charge
minima.
potential
Consider the application of an increasingly positive voltage to the gate of the m.o.s. structure shown
figure
1.30(a).
As
is to
(i.e.
i.e.
holes) from the semiconductor immediately beneath the gate (figure 11.30(b)),
Vth makes
form
at the
in
there
is
1.30(c)).
excess of
V,h
1
it
in an m.o.s. transistor,
1.30(a).
This
is
an inversion
that
carriers to
in
number of minority
v<
ELECTRODE
OXIDE-*-:
-/DEPLETION LAYER
p-TYPE SEVICONCCTCR
(b)
CO)
a ""<>
.r.-.Y.y.Y.
INVERSION LAYER
(c)
c.c.d. electrode
the influence
SOURCE: 'Charge
& Electronic
Radio
coupled devices
No
1,
applications' by J
D A Benyon
The
semiconductor devices' by
S Boyle and
G E
J.
1970
Spiller,
Castellani,
Feder,
were made
produced the
first
is at
least as
good
in 1970.
First
as that of electron
beam
they
devices using proximity printing with x-rays and demonstrated the high resolution
SOURCE:
Romankiw and
SEE ALSO:
Spiller,
Fedor.
Topalian,
Castellani,
Feder
IBM
Report TR22,
A Concise
IEEE
Strauss
discs
much
is
by
level'
MAG-9,
Smith Electron.
vol
Lett,
A H
rapidly
in-device
becoming accepted
when
in
many
first,
was
obscure one
a pretty
In
at that.
its
original
form
was
it
IBM
IBM 3300
370/155 and 165 and formed part of the controller for the
it
communications systems.
a read-only device and enabled diagnostic programs to be introduced quickly, to identify faults
and help
Indeed,
to
was not
it
1973
until
that
it
because
was
by accident.
and
Danylchuck, F
The
1970
IBM (USA)
yet the very concept of floppy discs appears to have started almost
for the
Bobeck,
p 474 (1973)
And
it
it
to
IBM
much
SOURCE:
1970
mask
in
Spears and
p 102 (1972)
Rossol and
1970
DL
NATO-1
Satellite
wideband
data, telegraph
SOURCE:
Telecommunication
18W
data).
(12
May
1976)
(International)
satellite.
longitude.
and facsimile
11
International
1971
initially
making
it
now
BTAB
modified
possible to gang
bond
this
S Fraenkel (USA)
foil
to conventional
S Liu and
at the
The
potential for
volume
production and cost savings motivated the development of essential equipment, materials, processes
and tooling. However, because of competitive and proprietary aspects, much development was carried
out independently and thus often duplicated.
SOURCE: 'BTAB's
future
an
(BTAB)
applications' by
CA
RF
Unger,
Burns and
Kanz
27,
R G Oswald
and
R Rodrigues
Iizuka
V K Nguyen
and
Ogura
(Canada)
is
proposed.
novel radar which, unlike conventional radars, determines the distance by the spatial distribution of the
scattered
wave
purpose of mapping
in other fields.
The
but
it
A Concise
220
Such
Date Order
in
The programability of
computer subsystems.
eliminates the necessity of either pulsing, or frequency modulation of the transmitting signal. Superior
performance
ice.
results obtained
from the
field
operation of the
system.
SOURCE:
Weedmark
Proc.
IEEE
Iizuka,
Ogura,
V K Nguyen
and
Ogura. Presented
Yen, Van-Khai
M28-M33 (December
its
at the
No
vol 17,
10,
1971)
H Ogura
and
Iizuka.
Proc.
IEEE
(Lett.)
Gilbert (USA)
is
known
as a domain.
within the device, subject to an external signal. Using this concept novel devices,
from
directly
is
is
CARRIER-DOMAIN MAGNETOMETER
A
10, p
1971
No
of the electrical properties of ice and HISS down-looking radar for measuring ice
Iizuka,
pp 429-30 and pp
vol 61,
vol 64,
their
a magnetic-field sensor in
One form of
field
normal
to rotate together
The
whose functions
arise
first
(c.d.m.) based on this design has been fabricated and operated by the authors, and brief details of
its
SOURCE:
and
GG
'Novel magnetic
'Novel magnetic
1971
Manley,
GG
field
domain
pp 608-10 (1976)
first
6,
field sensor'
by
N Manley
principle'
(Ref. 2: p 183)
Bloodworth and
Y Z Bahnas
No
p 183)
field
1:
2,
(1976) (Ref.
3:
p 183)
was introduced
in the fall
an 18-carat gold case bracelet. Touch a button and the light-emitting diodes showed the time.
(It
took
SOURCE:
1971
FAMOS
(Floating-Gate Avalanche-Injection
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor)
Frohman-Bentchkowsky (USA)
INTEGRATED
CIRCUIT
Famos
Frohman-Bentchkowsky developed
made
is
at Intel
Corp.
essentially a silicon-gate
in
MOS
is
Dov
1971.
field-effect transistor in
which no connection
is
voltage of
28
221
the electrons.
Data
stored in a
is
cell
is
has generally been considered more reliable than nitride storage mechanism used
in
at
MNOS
In
But a
memories
carriers tunnel
of stored charge
partial loss
Famos memories, on
is
is
one per
is
excellent.
SOURCE:
1971
DSCS-1
(USA)
Satellite
Launched
November
for
satellite
narrow beams for ground controlled direction beaming for high-volume communications.
1300
carrying
circuits.
SOURCE:
International
1971
3M
Co. (USA)
popular IC package was the ceramic chip-carrier. About one third the size of a comparable DIP,
originated in 1971
at
the
3M
to a
a pattern of gold
It
was
it
bumps on 40-
or 50-mil centres.
gold base pad inside a cavity within the ceramic. The small hermetically sealed package
SOURCE:
1971
SALYUT-1
(USSR)
Satellite
command
23 days
Decayed on
in Salyut.
SOURCE:
scientific research
The
latter
units.
spent
October, 1971.
International
1971
first
reported by Keen.
Keen (UK)
It
the oxidised silicon and a tin oxide coated glass slide, a thin film of negative nematic liquid crystal.
On
is
is
present everywhere.
particularly violent
making location
of a defect easy.
SOURCE:
and
R A
'Polarity
SEE ALSO:
Keen Electron
Lett,
vol 7,
No
15,
p 432 (1971)
AK
Zakzouk.
W Eccleston
222
1971
MICROPROCESSOR
In 1971
MEHoff(USA)
developed the
for Intel,
first
4004. Hoff brought together the elementary functions of a computer on a single electronic component
(an integrated circuit).
It
&
Macdonald
Press,
MICROCOMPUTER
For three years a great revolution has been taking place
first
(USA)
Intel
Intel, these
in digital electronics.
range of applications, including process control, data communications, instrumentation and commercial
systems.
The key
to this success
SOURCE:
is
due
enhancement
when
that occurs
in a
No
8,
p 17
1,
(1976)
1972
VIDEOGAMES
First to
Magnavox (USA)
market a video game consumers could buy and take home was Magnavox,
their original
and boundaries of
when
Inc.)
was assured
Atari
is
to
home
the add-on
TV
game
chips.
was expected
to
sell
to enter the
market came
announced production of
New
favourable.
in
its
to other entrepreneurs.
AY-3-8500 TV-game
companies anxious
for
that
were constructed
$1000-$3000 each
TV
coin-game products
version
games and
its
aspects of consumer
Since then,
produce and market Hockey Pong for the 1975 Christmas season.
consumer acceptance of
now
all
in the evolution of
teamed up
By working
had no automatic
Magnavox's game
TV
However,
in 1972.
it
first
video
opportunity
(GI) Hicksville,
home
but.
retail.
was
NY,
swift and
SOURCE:
'Electronic
SEE ALSO:
Gamesmanship' by
J.
No
10,
p 38
(October 1976)
1972
LANDSAT-1 (ERTS-1)
(USA)
Satellite
Satellite.
United States and other major land masses with multispectral, high spatial resolution (60 m) images of
solar radiation reflected
will
be used
in agricultural, geological,
SOURCE:
International
A
1972
MICROELECTRONICS (V-MOS
Because of the work of
California,
semiconductor technology
itself in a big
that will
Date Order
way
to
faster
223
J Rodgers (USA)
American Microsystems
is
technique)
in
V-MOS
an
Inc., in
Santa Clara,
n-channel metal-oxide
static
designs and
processes.
The engineer
in
TJ
is
was
to
MOS
push
technology to
limits so
its
MOS
engineering
in electrical
at
Stanford University
His goal
it
random
SOURCE:
1972
to alter
AMI's
In late 1971,
precious metals
made
at
Owens-Illinois
Grier,
Grier (USA)
Inc.,
on non-noble conductors
manager.
Grier decided to concentrate on creating a workable nitrogen-fired copper paste. There had been earlier
research on copper pastes, but these compositions used 100-micrometre copper particles to produce
He went
to 3 to 5
and vehicle
that
/zm copper
could survive
firing at
screenable copper paste that had good peel strength and conductivity.
predicted that the
SOURCE:
1972
new copper
paste
would be
it
At
EMI (UK)
organ;
binder
X-RAY SCANNER
The
a glass
The
make imaging of
the brain
brain
to
is
this
a relatively
show up
its
vital
structure.
some
and the
EMI
In
is
is
used
is
detected and converted to an electric signal after passing through the patient.
in the reference
mode
to
number
the X-ray source and detectors traverses linearly across the patient, a large
is
it
is
movements
is
repeated
or printed as a
map
bone structure
is
overcome.
map of
map on a
of the anatomy.
anatomy so
that the
out the
skull or
224
SOURCE:
1972
in
Date Order
W Bardsley, G W Green, C H
Holliday and
we
In this note,
DT
J Hurle (UK)
may be of
strictly,
advantages can be claimed. Put simply, the method comprises 'weighing' the growing crystal by means
of an industrial weighing
cell
pull rod
is
The
and
is
The
electrical signal
rotated
by
low
friction pin
its
upper end
power
cell is
The
travel.
initial
is
compared with
is
cell,
in that direction
to
by
is
Normally, some of the ambient gas escapes through the gas bearing, but
signal.
is
predetermined
pull rod
been
automatically controlled by introducing a non-linear element in series with the potentiometer output
circuit.
SOURCE:
DTJ
and
SEE ALSO:
Cockayne,
Growth
1972
J.
'Developments
W Green, D T
was
the
Hurle,
GC
Joyce, J
Roslington, P
in the
J
first
SOURCE:
all,
Intel
from
the 1103
Tufton and
Bardsley,
H C Webber J.
Crystal
in a
'Special
low-cost
report
MOS
(USA)
stampede
to
semiconductor memories.
memory could be
semiconductor chip
369 (1974)
vol 24/25, p
1024 BIT
supplied on a single
configuration.
semiconductor
RAM's
by L Altman
1972
Hart and
satisfy
Slob (Holland)
Processing has to be simple and under good control to obtain an acceptable yield of reliable IC's
containing about 1000 gates.
The
must be so high
that operation at a
is
is
a very
used resulting
in a
V). This,
is
combined with
An
the possibility
of choosing the current level within several decades enables use in very low-power applications. With
a
normal seven-mask technology, analog circuitry has been combined with integrated injection logic
2
L).
SOURCE:
SEE ALSO:
at the
IEEE
new approach
No
5,
memory
to LSI'
K Wiedman
and
H H
Berger. Presented
225
P Dyment, L A D'Asaro, J C
B I Miller and J E Ripper
North,
(USA)
Proton bombardment as a means of isolation
It
was
fibreoptics, with
25 /im square
40
to
devices.
in 1972.
used
fibres, are
number of semiconductor
for a
first
High peak-power
where
is
for applications
SOURCE.
'Deep proton-isolated
Devices vol
3,
No
1,
and proton range data for InP and GaSb Solid-State and Electron
lasers
(January 1979)
SEE ALSO:
operation'
Dyment, L
D'Asaro,
North,
Miller and J
lasers for
300
IEEE
Ripper Proc.
c.w.
vol 60,
pp 726-8 (1972)
1972
VIDEODISCS
Philips (Holland)
a dramatic
September 1972.
demonstrated
in 1970.
that
It
was
had been
Because the Teldec disks had grooves and mechanical tracking, they suffered
disks held 30 to 45 minutes of colour material and instead of grooves had submicrometer pits
molded
SOURCE:
1973
DRY ETCHING
The
Mitsubishi Electric
Co
(Japan)
its
rf
shows
It
MHz)
that gas
was
used was
CF4
The
etching mechanism was principally considered to be a chemical reaction between silicon and the fluorine
However, the
radicals in plasma.
known
not
in those days.
in
terms of improved
was expected
It
to play
and
1973
by gas plasma' by
Abe,
Sonobe
C F Quate (USA)
fifty
can be as
which was
much
to
produce
The key
microscope
that
development of
microscope
optical microscopes.
waves
in
some
solids
as seven times greater than the velocity in water, resulted in the production of a lens
beam of sounds on
field,
its
Whilst such
a lens
Professor Quate recognised that the axial focus was enough for the
realisation of a mechanically-scanned
microscope
in
which
the
a completely
new
field
point.
the direct imaging of biological specimens and the examination of silicon integrated circuits and other
solid objects.
226
A Concise
'Seeing acoustically' by
R K
Mueller and
vol 52,
p 28 (February
1982)
D B Webb
No
1,
p 17 (January 1982)
D A
LOGIC-STATE ANALYSER
Sinclair,
10, p
H K
Smith and
C H House (USA)
(Displaying Binary
LOGIC-TIMING ANALYSER
(for
Recording,
Moore (USA)
So Charles
Biomation Corp.
were the
circuits
right;
in Cupertino, California,
Moore of
that
such electronic tools for studying, designing and troubleshooting complex digital logic
first
and systems.
The 160 1L
is
HP's 180
256 logic
stores
were
states
oscilloscope.
SOURCE:
for
innovation
testing
1973
SKYLAB-1
(USA)
Satellite
and work
in
make
Objectives:
to
determine man's
ability
space for extended periods: to extend the science of solar astronomy beyond the
SOURCE:
Table
of
Artificial
Launched
Satellites
Between
1957
and
1976
(International
1974
Various (Worldwide)
IT (Information Technology)
New
The impact of
at this
time.
this
way work,
is
study,
do research, and
more
direct
becoming increasingly
in the field
bills,
of health care,
possible.
applications with electronic networks will require a restructuring of our traditional approach to strategic
It
will also
mean
a considerable
change
in the
way we
interact
Moreover,
it
has the potential to overcome the marginalising effects of distance and geography.
It
could
enable regional economies to be revitalised, and consumers and businesses in rural and remote areas to
activity.
227
For each individual citizen, the information society also means greater choice and new opportunities,
SOURCE:
1974
& T Magazine No
17,
(July 1995)
ability to
Bell Laboratories
making
to
the
lines,
masks
(USA)
Without
One of
the
first
Exposure System,
it
SOURCE
1974
in 1974.
at
laser interferometer.
W R Cady and W
S P Yu,
TRANSIT-TIME TRIODES)
Tantraporn (USA)
transit-time effects in
microwave
in recent publications.
We
have
previously described the basic principle and large-signal theory of the controlled-avalanche transit-time
triode
also reported
is
some
to discuss
initial
more
of
CATT
GHz
region.
The
from the avalanche-multiplication process and those whose importance has become clearer
SOURCE:
vol
1,
No
1,
in
Eshbach, S P Yu and
p 9 (September 1976)
microwave devices' by
oscillator'
Carroll Proc.
by S P Yu,
vol 10, p
1974
PRESTEL
Mr
collector'
by
Winstanley and
516 (1974)
System
S Fedida (UK)
early 1970s.
It
combines
at the
control panel calls up a 'page' of the information required by a subscriber on to a television screen
using a telephone line link routed into a computer data bank. The simplicity of operating the system
provides the potential for the mass marketing of information on a wide range of general and technical
subjects.
SOURCE:
'1979 MacRobert award for software system inventor' S Fedida The Radio and Electronic
WESTAR-1
No
1/2,
p 10
(USA)
Satellite
First
satellite
placed in synchronous
New
to
14400 one-way
Los Angeles.
SOURCE:
International
A Concise
228
1974
16-BIT
The semiconductor
industry's
single-chip microprocessor
16-bit,
first
PACE
Called
National (USA)
(for processing
handle 16-bit instructions and addresses, and either 16-bit or 8-bit data.
MOS
silicon-gate
n-MOS
two power
requires only
be introduced by
to
p-MOS
It is
is
supplies,
+5 V
12
and
fit
will
PACE
soon
is
better
10-microsecond
on a single
chip.
fabrication.
SOURCE:
1974
show
'National to
BAR CODES
16-bit processor
Ad Hoc Committee
of the Grocery
Industry (USA)
historic
moment came
development
for
store in Troy,
Ohio
at
8.01
am
first
a 10-pack of Wrigley's
first
Chewing
store to be fully
Gum
in his
white lines printed on the packaging of groceries and other merchandise, signalled a
in the
company's
new
stage in the
UPC.
went on
was formed
to
to
committee, the
was
way
the
in
Ad Hoc Committee
of the Grocery
decide whether a code was needed and once they had established the need, they
to read
it.
From
these specifications
is
it
first,
affected very rapidly, not just one firm or sector but the whole of a
and
The
1960s.
States,
was not
in the
US
a 'free
Ad Hoc
food industry
in the
to
SOURCE:
to order
'Packaging history:
1970-75' by
The emergence of
1,
code (UPC)
in the
United
Publishers) (1994)
1975
THE GYROTRON
A G Gapanov
made
of
of the
it)
static
magnetic
field.
(which
Hence
it
is
is
was
in
laid
et al
(USSR)
sometime previously,
the
first
sometimes called
All
devices mentioned here are based on developments arising from the concept of the cyclotron resonance
maser.
The impetus
who hoped
for the
to
in the
microwave energy
at the
If sufficient
nuclear-energy
field,
this way, then temperatures approaching those required for fusion could be reached.
required
magnetic
fields
is
in the region of 10 to
fields
of 2.0
used
to 4.0
in
20
MW
The power
field,
by adsorbing
is
50 to 100
GHz
in
level
for typical
for
magnetic
A Concise
SOURCE:
A V
priority of
1975
'The gyrotron' by
LOCMOS
in
Date Order
229
et al Radiofizika 18,
cm-mm
et al
24 March 1967
p 280 (1975)
No 223931
KD10
(Official bulletin
(Locally Oxidised
Complementary
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor)
INTEGRATED
of
SM USSR
(1 1)
with
p 200. 1976)
Philips (Netherlands)
CIRCUIT
LOCMOS
is
an
acronym
locally-oxidized
for
CMOS,
range which
LOCMOS
Features of
speeds.
is
invented
by Philips Research
CMOS
that costs
process
full
4000 ranges,
4000 include high noise immunity, standardised outputs and increased system
gain,
due
to buffering, gives
5V power
propagation delay are independent of input pattern and reduced sidewall capacitance results in higher
speed.
SOURCE:
1975
'Mullard announce
VIK1NG-1
LOCMOS
(September 1975)
(USA)
Satellite
Objectives:
Mars
in
June 1976.
SOURCE:
International
1975
MICROELECTRONICS
For the
first
combined
a laser with
Reinhart and
components such
components
R A Logan
(USA)
electronic circuit.
The
devices, integrated optical circuits measuring usually about 6 by 15 mils, operate within the structure
of a semiconductor injection
laser.
This type of circuit represents an alternative to hybrid integrated optics where components
fabricated from different material systems are interconnected on a base.
optical circuit 'contains'
Franz
new
the required
A Logan
components within
the
contrast, the
same
Hill,
often
new monolithic
single crystal.
New
circuit.
SOURCE:
1975
many of
By
integrated optical circuits: another step forward' Bell Labs. Record p 349 (September 1975)
SILICON ANODISATION
The discovery
R Cook
(ITT) (USA)
integrated circuits.
on
a chip, thus
in
dielectric
needed
to isolate
was discovered
quite by chance.
An
the
A Concise
230
have been
to
transformed into a porous dielectric layers. Further experiment revealed that the dielectric on the silicon
surface could be tailored to almost any desired thickness simply by adjusting the anodising process.
SOURCE:
'Anodizing silicon
R Cook
is
Electronics (13
4096-BIT
In
development,
significant
Fairchild
The
The
access memory.
as fast as today's
oxide-isolated
Isoplanar
L random-
4096-bit
first
4-kilobit
it
will
summer.
late this
SOURCE:
1975
its
the industry's
result:
part has a
n-MOS
(USA)
Fairchild
'Fairchild develops
first
4K
RAM
to use
2
I
Cu
Burgess,
is
C A Neugebauer, G
R E Moore (USA)
from 250
Foil thicknesses
foil.
Flanagan and
to
BeO
The gas
inert gas
for
bonding
it
is critically
for
bonding
is
important.
is
of copper.
SOURCE:
G
1975
Flanagan and
R E Moore
VHS RECORDER
The
VHS
JVC
format (Video
The
1976.
VHS now
Home
F Burgess,
N A
Neugabauer,
(May 1975)
JVC
in
(Japan)
holds a dominant position in the world market, with more than 80 per cent of
sales.
variation of the
VHS
model, the
VHS-C was
launched by
JVC
in
1982.
It
the portable video and uses reduced size video cassettes which can be re-read on a traditional
for
VHS
JVC
VHS HQ
1985
Japan with an increase of horizontal lines on the image from 240 to 400.
In
in
launched the
(High Quality).
Super
Press,
Macdonald
&
IBM (USA)
LASER PRINTER
The
first
by
IBM
in 1975.
to
expand
printing: a laser
In
In
1988 a technological agreement was made between ten Japanese companies (such as Sony and
1975
In July
VHS
it
into the
beam
was not
until
1984
ND2
world of microcomputers
It
onto a
It
roller,
works on
rotation.
SOURCE:
(New
Inventions
Mark Young
A
1975
J-I
Date Order
in
Nishizawa (Japan)
has been developed to the various high power devices with the high efficiency. Figure
top surfaces of cathode electrode of the two SIThys. These are able
350 A. The
one
large
is
231
the small
SIThy (34
SIThy
that is
to turn-off at
mm^
is
1.31
4000V
200 A,
composed with
1975,
in
shows
the
within one or
mm$)
diode.
Figure 11.31.
been adopted
GTO
Toyo
Electric
as the
Mfg.
Co., Ltd.
the
this
electric
case 2000 Hz, brings more smoothness and better controllability to the
train.
SOURCE:
Professor
Dr
Tohoku
University.
1975
Sony (Japan)
company Sony,
the
in 1975.
new
Press,
Macdonald
&
RC
Dixon
et al
Betamax format,
SPREAD-SPECTRUM COMMUNICATION
TECHNIQUES
communications.
version of the
spread-spectrum system
is
many
is
one
in
(USA)
particularly
is
for
e.g. direct
The
its
bandwidth)
is
SOURCE:
is
Private
communication from
Systems by
RC
At the
coding, privacy
satellite
spread over
UK
PPM'
is
based on
A Concise
232
Shannon
'Poisson,
1976
&
MICROELECTRONICS
(16384
Random
bit
Access
(USA)
Intel
Memory)
has arrived.
'Enter the
16384
RAM"
bit
by
memory
B Coe and
in
Its
which
cell to
is
RAM.
SOURCE:
memory
bit density is
G Oldham
114(19 February
Electronics p
1976)
1976
RCA
RCA
at
(USA)
deposited from a glow discharge in silane (SiH 4 ). These solar cells utilize
been fabricated
in heterojunction, p-i-n,
Discharge-produced a-Si has optical and electronic properties that are ideally suited for a solar
The
material.
/xm
is
cell
<
0.7 /j.m
is
absorbed
in a film
thick.
SOURCE:
'Properties of
Pankove, P
amorphous
DL
Zanzucchi and
silicon
Staebler
RCA Review
by
D E
D E
by
cells'
Carlson,
C R
Wronski,
Carlson and
C R
Lett,
vol 28,
p 671 (1976)
1976
Mostek introduced
its
static
Poly
RAM
Mostek (USA)
designs in that
it
MK4104,
a 4-K-by-l-bit static
The design
The power
is
roughly
resistivity
loads
is
that
part
transistor loads
laid
RAM. The
MOS
down
typically,
to less than
normally occur
at
5000 megohms,
nanoampere per
which automatically
elevated temperatures.
Moreover, the
polysilicon loads allow data retention in the cells even at greatly reduced supply voltages.
SOURCE:
1976
COMPUTER
A
a
RAM'
major goal
all
that
Intel
fits
Corp. (USA)
Such
computer, consisting of a
central-processing unit, read/write and read-only memories, and parallel and serial input/output interface
components, could
manufacturers.
satisfy
single board
to three
problems
that
computers.
economic.
Extra board assemblies are costly in themselves and need related equipment, such as
A Concise
Compactness and low power consumption
in
Date Order
233
all
key computer functions reduces power consumption and provides a higher functional density than
conventional subsystem designs. This
new
LSI devices
class of
programmable input/output
interface
SOURCE:
1976
R Garrow,
Johnson and
MARISAT-1
Maerz Electronics p 77
(5
February 1976)
(USA)
Satellite
satellite
positioned at
15W over
the Atlantic
Ocean.
SOURCE:
International
MICROELECTRONICS
A
Philips (Holland)
(Versatile Arrays)
simple variation of standard silicon-gate technology has produced extremely versatile arrays that make
novel analog-to-digital converters, analog type displays and light-pattern scanners. The arrays consist
MRI:
V Whelan, L
March 1976)
Houndsfield (UK)
is
ultrasonic, fluoroscopic
set
MRI
is
a medical imaging
field to distinguish
between various
types of soft tissue. Computerised axial tomography can provide 'slices' of patients' anatomy and yield
valuable diagnosis, enabling physicians to visualise anatomic structures of live patients. This was the
first
equipment
SOURCE:
Electronic Inventions
(Bristol:
Institute
of Physics
Publishing) (1997)
1977
GE
Corp. (USA)
For the industrial marketplace, the Research and Development Center of General Electric Corp,
Schenectady,
NY,
first
CCD
The
than
measuring 240 by
all
at a
relies
80
them
to an
in
chip
bits.
mils, but
in fact,
it
it
millivolt, digitising
Chip operation
is
MOS
The
bit.
site
to
another,
with
SOURCE: 'CCD's
1977
is
first
available in abundance instead of cobalt and nickel, which are scarce and expensive.
It
has higher
A Concise
234
Date Order
in
magnetic energy than the ordinary 'alnico' type magnet which contains cobalt and nickel and has good
mechanical strength and machinability, allowing
it
to
be shaped and
drilled.
in 1967;
was
succeeded
to
SOURCE:
1977
distributed at random.
more than
consists of manganese,
which
it
maximum
is
energy product of 7
MG
Oe.
'First anisotropic
POCKET TV RECEIVER
What
which
'isotropic' type, in
(UK)
Sinclair Radionics
first
pocket television
was launched
set
London
in
in
miniature electronic
The
The
500000 12-year
of a
result
2-inch screen,
is
now
production
in
at Sinclair's
set is
new assembly
picture which,
when viewed
at a
SOURCE:
at
it
oz.
Yet,
12
at
feet.
Review vol
3,
No 4,
p 74 (July/August
1977)
1977
TRIMOS
+ MOS)
(Triac
Another innovation
in
power
at
developed a way to put signal and power devices on one and the same piece of
Called Trimos, the
new technology
which has
silicon.
in crosspoint switching,
output stages,
Trimos
MOS
is
actually a
transistors are
channel of each
D-MOS
drain.
MOS
Contact
technology
made
is
two high-voltage D-
to the source
and diffused
The shared
gate
its
on
state, the
less than 10
it
out of
its
on
MOS
state or inhibiting
pass currents
transistor,
it
can be
from triggering.
Without such a bypass structure, the Trimos device typically has turn-on and turn-off times on the order
of 200 nanoseconds, and
SOURCE:
1977
FLAD
its
'Trimos combines
triac,
MOS
1000
devices' Electronics p 42 (2
March 1978)
Institute for
Physics, Freiburg
(FLAD). Invented
work with
(Germany)
in Freiburg,
uses a layer of plastic material appropriately doped with fluorescent organic molecules.
ambient
The
FLAD
dissipates the
same power
at the
its
In this layer,
digits.
be
much
A Concise
AG
FLAD
produce the
will
FLADs
will
display
be used
in
in
Date Order
235
first, initially
SOURCE:
1977
March 1977)
Electronics p 55 (17
MICROELECTRONICS H-MOS
Intel
To achieve
their
method
for
two reasons.
neither
new device
First,
called
H-MOS,
(USA)
Intel has
it
structures not
complex
schemes
circuit
products). Second,
yields and
in
fits
it
would make
(either requirement
methods grow more refined and electron-beam wafer-fabrication techniques stand ready
to take over.
Pashrey,
K Kokonnen,
E
1978
MOS
at
in fabricating
devices in laser-annealed polysilicon on silicon dioxide. Not only will the devices have the speed
all-silicon construction
dimensional circuitry.
Unannealed polysilicon
Carrier flow
poor device
Armed
is
made up of randomly
is
impeded
across.
at best.
so the
each grain-to-grain boundary and the resulting low mobility would yield a
at
number of
interfaces
is
The
is
enhanced.
With
much
larger dimensions
have
To
build what
On
substrate.
polysilicon film.
a stepping
Then
calls silicon-on-insulator
it
this,
it
grows a
The samples
motor moves
the polysilicon
it
polysilicon gate
to
is
MOS
/^m-thick oxide layer and then deposits a 0.5 /zm film of undoped
then go onto an
translation stage,
which
is
selectively etched
is
in
down
to the
It
also
gate
is
used
SOURCE:
match
SOS
in
performance' by John
November 1979)
1978
ISL
J Lohstroh
et al (Philips)
(Holland)
at
high
speed for medium-scale parts like the 7400 family, and integrated injection logic, which merges
transistors specifically for the high packing density
be found
can
in ISL, a
parts
flip-flops,
in
in
large-scale integration.
at
Memory Group
oscillators,
and the
like.
compared with
a limit of about
33
if
the
1.32).
in
'kit'
An ISL
MHz
of Philips
about 3.5 nanoseconds (half that of low-power Schottky and a quarter that of
as
What
needed
in a
D-type
for a similar
flip-flop toggles
2
I
comfortably
at
60 megahertz,
A Concise
236
CURRENT
SOURCE C
-j
OUTPUTS
i.
SHALLOW
pRING
Nw
A p ring
. _
INPUT
^
^ METAUZATION
0, (LATERALor.pl
downward npn
SCHOTTKY OUTPUT
Sfl METALIZATION
transistor inherently
SOURCE:
adds a
vertical
pnp
device.
pnp one.
logic.
in Philips'
1978)
1978
W Ruehle, V
IBM (USA)
LIGHT BUBBLES
Mobile
'light bubbles',
magnesium-doped
which appear
When
that
voltage
appear
is
to
in
to
The
A Onton
Marello and
IBM
in
Conference
ac current
is
applied
film.
applied to a pair of intersected electrodes, the intersected area will emit light bubbles
move
in discrete steps
and
move
faster
when
The
alternating-current thin-film electroluminescence, or actel, lasts as long as an hour and can be used to
done
SEE ALSO:
'Electrical
to be
33 (6 July 1978)
practical,
SOURCE: IBM
1978
light or
totally fibre-optic
Bell Laboratories
powered by
light carried to
it
(USA)
to reality, but
it
is
more than
major
technological advance.
the
fibre cable.
The
biggest
headache here, according to De Loach, was the conventional telephone ringing mechanism.
So
new
ringer
was designed
that
worked
tone generator with a thin piezoelectric active element. 'This device has
De Loach.
'For example,
its
overall efficiency
from
It
uses an electroacoustic
some exceptional
specs,' says
is
more
than 33%'.
rest
This power, as well as the ringer drive, comes from a Bell-developed photodetector, which converts
light to electrical pulses.
A Concise
It
is
double-heterostructure device
with
some of
GaAlAs
either
layer,
the highest
of gallium aluminum
layers
56%
is
237
arsenide
couples light to
switching, the phone sends signals back to the central office at a 0.9 /im wavelength.
The
laser light
coming from
SOURCE:
'Bell
is
95%
on for about
It
operates in a
is
pulse-width-
bandwidth capability.
fibre's
data.
generate
to
light.
is
of the time.
It
easily controllable.
is
1978)
SEE ALSO:
1978
OMIST
A G
Nassibian,
(Australia)
RB
and J
Calligaro
G Simmons
(Canada)
Recently a novel metal-tunnel oxide n/p + silicon device with
l/V
much simpler
being of a
oscillators
RAMS
and
which
structure
ROMS.
is
to
digital
and analogue
This device has an advantage over the conventional analogue light-sensitive devices
digital-optical switch.
When
states.
is
in that
it is
a true
In optical systems,
SOURCE:
and
G Simmons
Solid-State
and
1978
vol 2,
No
vol 23,
5,
AG
by
Nassibian,
R B
Calligaro
H Kroger
pp 397-9 (1973)
NEC
(Japan)
Electronic parts manufacturer Hosiden Electronics and Nippon Electric
a 60-pole
new
inventions
now make
it
in clocks
full
to
go with
it.
The
use hands).
Since the clock face has been turned into a fluorescent display tube,
filters.
vacuum tubes with anodes coated with phosphor, and they use
light emission.
first
It
new
its
dependability, long
life
The
it
is
easily visible.
It
MOS
it
has
life.
in
which
low voltage low power consumption and high response speed making
possible to achieve a
now
is
it
accompanying drive
circuitry
now
238
SOURCE:
now go
electronic' Journal
1979)
1978
Philips (Netherlands)
by Philips.
500000
It
first,
allows high-density recording and retrieval of up to 10'" bits of data, equivalent to about
cm
disk.
times compared with the most advanced magnetic disk pack systems currently available. The system
offers direct read-after-write with
random
similar techniques
come
The
to
x 10 y
VLP
The
real
used
is
of the AlGaAs
DH
mm
its
develops a pulsed light output power equivalent to that of a large gas laser and
its
associated modulator.
25
TR
S Nadan,
'Consumer
1978
to 5
Kohler,
tapes'
by
GC
Kenney,
and
electronics: personal
mag
by
plentiful'
Wiedenhof and J
Waalwijk
(Philips) (Holland)
Philips Research Laboratories in Eindhoven, have designed a different system of frequency modulation
Using
quality of detection
is
tamed
FM
is
the
this
method
maximum
a very
narrow spectrum
that
is
digital transmission.
of
its
Eindhoven
1978
two years
in the last
that could be of
LSI devices.
It
is
some of
the
major importance
of today's
or polycrystalline material.
In this
some
new
beam
of this process
is that
technique
The main
practical
advantage
the laser spot limits irradiation to specific areas and the short pulse limits heating
LCP.
R A
Kaplan,
MG
Cohen, and
that
Intel,
bubble-memory systems
memory
are a reality
1978 saw
the introduction
was
A
with
first
operated
7110
its
1978
is
bits
239
which when
bit loops,
The organization
has an access
it
ns.
SEE ALSO:
256 4096
SOURCE:
Date Order
in
at a
of about 10
Clover and
many
kilometers.
Bryson,
INTEGRATED OPTOELECTRONICS
Today
In fact, fibres
bits
can
bits
Yariv
was
first
Combining
lasers
lasers,
means
(USA)
et al
Amnon
Yariv of the
California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. Research efforts since then indicate that the time
is
ripe
SOURCE:
integrated optoelectronics' by
Bar-Chaim,
Ury and
IEEE Spectrum
Yariv
p 38
(May
1982)
SEE ALSO:
by
1979
Gunn
P Lee, S Margalit,
Ury and
oscillator
Lett,
thin,
on a semi-insulating GaAs
vol 32, p
Bell
806 (1978)
Laboratories/MIT (USA)
The
and germanium
is
made of any of
makes
Ge
fine
layer
make
is
is
thick
to
compensate
may
latter,
be
them photosensitive.
which often
an almost perfectly
flat
optical surface
reflections
and refractions
that
To make
4300
enough
substrate'
30 seconds.
Then
in a
room-temperature potassium
light, usually at a
Kai notes that the upper layer has more than twice the contrast of conventional
amorphous material
UV
SOURCE:
finely
resists
and
that the
resolution.
available
is
minimum
sources.
'Two-layer
resist
1979
Sony (Japan)
For improved sensitivity and resolution, the new camera uses two imager chips, one
green signal and the other to generate the red and blue signals.
chip
is
energy
and green
Sensitivity
is
to generate the
most of the
images.
are offset horizontally by one half the horizontal pixel pitch, and sophisticated signal-
processing techniques are used to increase resolution to a value almost as high as what could be obtained
with a single chip having twice as
resolution of
280
many
The measured
is
Thus
measured
optical
vertical resolution is
350
lines
from 492
pixels.
240
SOURCE:
'Color
TV
CCD
camera using
first sale'
1980)
SEE ALSO:
1979
.6
by 2.2
cm
square. But
its
(0.6
by 0.9
Dundee
at
in)
is
from complex
far
it
be described
means of overcoming
to the potential of
in a
paper
measures
LCDs
amorphous
at
low
thin-
thin-film transistors as a
electrical
is to
by researchers
RSRE
less than
The
cost.
a
mm
silicon
10
on-
at the
England, 15-18 September 1980, together with one from Plessey's Allen Clark Research Centre on
device physics of amorphous silicon transistors
SOURCE:
LCD
'British address
work
RSRE.
Electronics p 67 (28
August 1980)
SEE ALSO:
1979
IBM (USA)
on an electrode
It
is
was discovered
in
which
a laser
beam impinging
has also been discovered that with the aid of the laser
it
is
to greatly
beams can be
laser
readily
focused to micron-sized dimensions and scanned over sizeable areas, the enhancement scheme makes
it
possible to plate and etch arbitrary patterns without the use of masks.
SOURCE: 'Laser-enhanced
No 2, p 136 (March 1982)
mechanisms and
applications'
IBM J.
von Gutfield, E E
Tynan,
Lett,
Tynan and L
T Romankiw.
1979
No 472 Electrochemical
Los Angeles, CA)
Extended Abstract
about eliminated by a
new
dubbed an echo
The chip
& T in
its
canceller
way by
could by
far,
satellite will
von Gutfield, E E
(USA)
satellite
itself
telephone network. So
that
Soc.
Bell Laboratories
communications by
change.
at
Bell Laboratories.
satellite circuits
used by
AT
satellite.
one-way transmission
for
when
transmission paths
is
by sampling
circuit
for
becomes too
AT &
electronically as
it
it
high.
The new
T.
occurs,
241
making
other.
It
digital
a replica of
it,
is
No
vol 68,
1979
FLOTOX
8,
Vg
Man Mohan
Famos
PROCESS
Intel
On
IEEE
(USA)
structure except for the additional tunneloxide region over the drain.
Vd
at
coupled to a positive potential. Electrons are attracted through the tunnel oxide
gate.
Berkley Proc.
to
With
capacitively
is
the other hand, applying a positive potential to the drain and grounding the gate reverses the
SOURCE:
G
1979
EE-PROM
'16-K
COMPACT
on tunneling
relies
means
for both
for byte-erasable
program storage' by
memory
cell.
S Johnson,
DISC
Philips (Holland)
The invention of
the
company Sony,
CD
the
was
first
developed
result
joint licensing
in 1979.
The
and
series
is
coded
in
is
The conventional groove has therefore disappeared and has been replaced by millions
known as pits: approximately 4 million per second. The sound is reproduced by a laser
1.
of microcells
side.
The
CD
music
was
first
marketed
records and
tapes
in
in
terms of unit sales and values. In the space of a few years, the
its
applications are
many and
varied.
CD
brought out the prototypes of decoders that enabled fixed images, which had been stored on
alongside an audio signal, to be viewed on television. In 1985 the extensive storage capacity of
was applied
to computers.
speed, which
SOURCE:
it
CD
players
now have
New
York p
Siemens (Germany)
at
Siemens
AG
in
prototype colour ink-jet printer that can produce characters of seven different colours
per second in both directions across normal paper.
whose single-colour
and yellow
ink.
Mark Young
38
printer
CDs
CDs
Facts on File
1979
makes
has
In
ink-jet
The
at
the rate of
200
Proper mixing of these inks yields the colours blue, magenta, cyan, and black. Colour
in a
floppy-disk
One of
is
Siemens engineers
say,
was
A Concise
242
in
Date Order
If
customer reaction
is
in the
become dry
nozzles yet
will
It
make
SOURCE:
1980
printer' Electronics
SYSTEM
(Japan)
large screen colour display system for use in outdoor video system has been developed and introduced
Many
in full daylight.
systems have been installed for various outdoor video services such as
in sports
video display
stadiums, racetracks,
or as an advertising media. However, these previous systems consist of an array of incandescent lamps,
in
To overcome
The LET
is
life.
these problems, Mitsubishi has developed the high brightness light emitting tube (LET).
a small flood
in diameter)
LET
blue for each tube, and works for a single picture element in the screen. Brightness of the
bits for a
TV
is
8000
picture tube).
Kurahashi,
Yagishita,
p 319 (1980)
SEE ALSO: 'An outdoor large screen colour display system' by K Kurahashi, K
H Kobayashi SID Symp, Digest of Technical Papers vol 12, 13, (p 132)
and
1980
Yagishita,
Fukushima
(1981)
IBM (USA)
The device
is
basically a dual-collector open-base lateral bipolar transistor operating in the avalanche region, and
is
compared
to
traditional
fields
It
Several
hundred experimental devices have been designed, fabricated, and tested over the past two years.
Many
structural
was found
to
for devices
and some process parameters were varied. The magnetic sensitivity of a typical device
be proportional
to substrate resistivity.
is
differential
is
20000
tesla.
per
The bandwidth
field
known
is
substrates.
sensitivity of
The output
magnitude and
30 volts per
polarity.
to
tesla
was measured
signal
MHz. The
sensitive area
is
calculated to be on the order of 5 amp. This communication describes the basic structure, fabrication,
SOURCE:
1980
256K
transistor.
No
3,
Vinal
IBM
J.
DYNAMIC RAM
NEC-Toshiba Musashino
Electrical
Inc.
consumes 225
but only 15
milliwatts of active
mW
levels of polysilicon,
processing to build
RAM. The
mW
device
is
1.
NTT
in just
power and 25
its
RAMs.
in
double
that.
160-
molybdenum
NEC-Toshiba's chip
mW
a 256-cyc!e/4-millisecond refresh.
already being
shown
in a
Joint Electron Device Engineering Council's standard with the eighth address line
on
A Concise
pin
1.
The oblong
two
split into
243
measuring 191 by 338 mils, contains two 128-K arrays. Each array
die,
further
is
28-by-5 12-bit sections, separated by 512 sense amplifiers that run the length of the chip.
due
failure
to
NTT-Musashino's
RAM
electron-beam
with
built
is
molybdenum word
interconnection levels:
writing,
direct
aluminum
lines,
NTT's
die
bit
is
dummy
SOURCE: iSSCC:
it
three
cells
(Japan)
Researchers
Nippon Telegraph
at
&
advances
to
more
the
efficient
in
The main
be made
will also
signal
rf signal.
was aligned on
a photodetector
recently
opened by
laser,
No
am
output.
The spurious
signal depth
to
filtered out.
300MHz)
The system
is
window
and easily
The
and T Kimura
frequency modulated by an
Y Yamamoto
Improvements
The
die.
and
a gallery of gigantic
S Saito,
which
and
extra cells, connected via four pairs of spare bit lines and
SUPERHETERODYNE
mixed
processing,
first
dry
lines, are
1980
The
sense circuit.
lines,
and
is
expected to be improved
is
claimed to have
in the future
SOURCE:
SEE ALSO:
1980
MCZ
November 1980)
Sony (Japan)
Growths)
Sony has developed
new method
for
uniformity and lesser defect generation, which greatly reduces the wafer warpage and distortion, through
the application of a high magnetic field in the silicon pulling process.
The new
to
silicon crystal
'MCZ
(magnetic-field
meet the requirements of the coming age of ultra-high-density semiconductor devices, including
CCDs
and super-LSIs, which integrate tens of hundreds of thousands of elements into several-millimetre-square
chips. Sony's
MCZ
method
is
the world's
first
of
its
kind,
which applies
a high
magnetic
field,
instead
of zero gravity, to mass produce very high-quality crystals of silicon for industrial applications.
SOURCE:
'Sony develops magnetic-field method for high-quality silicon crystals' Journal of the
A Concise
244
1980
Date Order
in
(UK)
"Tomorrow (14 February) weather
is
probably the
The
first
cable
made by STC,
Results of the
Monarch
Loch Fyne
in
at
STC which
be monitored by
trial will
It is
STC
need experience of a
to take
The housing
is
USA
in
at 'all
STC
is
two regenerators
competition from
and Japan.
to eight.
be looking
will
armoured
Inveraray, Scotland.
will
it
be
will
lifted
and the
SOURCE: 'PO
1981
first
W Gates (USA)
MS-DOS
IBM
In 1981
asked Microsoft
(a small
MS-DOS
it is
the producers of
CP/M.
is
used by
it
MS-DOS
that Bill
all
IBM
Gates
and delivered
it
to
to
who was
16-bit operating
IBM (who
call
same
it
system
PC-DOS).
is
compatibles.
first
advised
IBM
to
go
1981
he christened
microcomputers, since
The
it,
Bill Gates,
at
expanded greatly)
since
owner
first
step
on
Research,
by IBM, thus
Press,
&
Macdonald
HYDROPLANE POLISHING OF
SEMICONDUCTORS
V Gormley
J Manfra,
Calawa (Massachusetts
A R
Institute of
Technology) (USA)
A new
polishing
technique
for
mechanical defects, faster polishing, and, by implication, improved yield and throughput.
hydroplane polishing by
in
its
developers
at the
may
nm
to within 0.3
pm
Called
pm
up
to
In the
new
continually replenished etchant solution; the wafers thus hydroplane just above the disk's surface.
30
flat
The
molecular-beam
epitaxy.
SOURCE:
SEE ALSO:
1981
flat, fast'
Electronics p
the cladding
new
fibre is the
T Suganuma
presence of an 80-by-26
pm
(Hitachi) (Japan)
elliptical jacket
surrounding
its
A Concise
Date Order
in
245
temperature coefficient of expansion far above that of the support. Thus as the fibre drawn from the
down from
which
2000C temperature
the
fabricated, differences in the thickness of the jacket material exert anisotropic forces
it is
The
at
on the
the short axis of the ellipse, has the higher index of refraction.
is
wave of
less than
is
that
And
light
km,
the polarisation, as
measured by the
is,
fibre
ratio
would
mechanical pressure on the core, can reduce the ratio to about 3 dB.
SOURCE:
SEE ALSO:
1981
wave of
light'
Grasso,
Mezzasalma and F
Neri (Italy)
The
is
new method
consisting in
which operates
at
lower pressure
SOURCE:
1982
new
'A
A M
Grasso,
Communications
State
TRACK AUTORADIOGRAPHY
FISSION
Since the
error'
'soft
was diagnosed
AERE
No
9, p
675 (1982)
(UK)
1978,
in
vol 41,
memory
manufacturers have sought a method of detecting the minute amount of naturally-occurring radioactive
impurities which,
if
present in
VLSI
circuit materials,
sensitive
technique
y
.
part of the
VLSI
charge which
Because of
circuit
fission
track
of component
fissile
failure.
in
any
may change
this,
risk
memory device
235, the
as
It is
known
concentrations as small as 2
This provides manufacturers with a quality control enabling them to assess raw material,
The
in
isotope present as
0.72% of
materials.
natural uranium;
exploits uranium-
material are coated with a polyimide film solid state nuclear track detector (s.s.n.t.d.) and irradiated with
polyimide film
is
fission
DIDO. On
irradiation, the
on the
s.s.n.t.d.
U-235 undergoes
Afterwards the
chemically etched to develop the fission tracks which can then be examined by
optical microscopy.
From
to 2 parts in
10
little
for
it
is
as
amount of
to
0.0002 particles/cnr/hour.
checking V. L.S.I,
circuits'
A Concise
246
1982
Texas Instruments
Inc., is
developing what
it
on-sapphire substrates for high-density, high-speed complementary-MOS integrated circuits (see figure
11.33).
REGION OF
EPITAXIAL
REGROWTH
MOLTEN
SILICON
SILICON
SUBSTRATE
that
above the
insulator region,
making a device-quality
single-crystal layer.
SOURCE:
1982
C-MOS
AMORPHOUS PHOTOSENSORS
Sanyo
Electric recently
first
succeeded
Sanyo (Japan)
developing photosensors made of amorphous semiconductor
in
time in the world, and announced that they would be released in spring. Based upon
development of the amorphous photosensors, Sanyo also developed one-chip full-colour sensors and
intends to expand their application to line sensors. In the case of visible light total spectra photosensors,
the
PIN amorphous
is
silicon
made by forming
on
into a resin
package
it
on
and molding
after
made by providing
sensor,
it
appropriate
filters;
even
in the
can be made as a single chip, taking advantage of the large electric resistance between the
it
lead wires.
SOURCE:
1982
BUBBLE-JET PRINTING
Canon has made
the printing
seconds
The new
the
name
major breakthrough
system of the
at least
future.
It
is
'bubble-jet' operates
suggests,
it
technology which,
it
is
claimed,
is
likely to
become
many new
on completely
ejects ink
different principles
from conventional
ink-jet systems.
As
printers.
Canon
in ink-jet
120 times faster than any other International Standard facsimile ink-jet printers.
Canon (Japan)
was
was discovered by
accident. In
Canon's research
and
A Concise
restricted to using either a single nozzle, or
from
in
Date Order
247
five to
be completed
jet' ejects
spectacular
at
speeds.
The
1982
be possible
SOURCE: Canon
in the future,
CAMCORDER
Show
Electronic
3 h
in
the
first
Tokyo
in
&
Macdonald
ATG
equivalent of
ATG
marketed
HARD
DISC
In 1985 the
its
texts, photos,
up
store
to
Macdonald
&
is
the
IBM PCs
equipped with an
cm, 0.985
Many
in, thick.
1985,
fragile.
of 10
MB.
The Hardcard,
Press,
at the
awkward and
Macdonald
&
Sony (Japan)
the
first
This model was solely for professional use. Since then digital video recorders have
facility.
which
as
May
bytes,
CARD
this,
recording
designed
Press,
Before
In
It is
text.
it is
(France)
documents:
1985
Japan
is
at the
Press,
1985
it
In
it is
Sony (Japan)
1984
effects
It
is
it is
possible
the speed of the tape with faster and slower options, etc.
SOURCE:
The Book of Inventions and Discoveries Associate Editor Valerie-Anne Giscard d'Estaing
1985
Press,
Macdonald
&
CD-ROM
Philips (Holland)
Philips and
a thousand times
hi-fi
SOURCE:
it.
a diskette.
Developed
Its
in
disadvantage
1985, the
is
It
in collaboration with
CD-ROM
Sony
is
began
on
it
inventions and Discoveries 1993' edited by Valerie-Anne Giscard d'Estaing and Mark Young
Facts on File
New
York p 218
248
1985
WINDOWS
Microsoft (USA)
first
for
it.
The Windows
like the
November 1985 by
time in
was adopted
Microsoft.
may make
interface
possible for
it
IBM
Macdonald
&
multi-task
is
specifically designed
Zenith (USA)
command
is
even easier
first
tactile
screen system,
mouse or
all
do
to give a
Macdonald
Press,
&
latest in
is
at the
It
is
IBM (USA)
The device
light pen:
is
Miller
modules not
Press,
technology, which
The
required
It
by IBM. Windows
TACTILE SCREEN
In
1986
it
Macintosh.
1985
Built
it.
on a
his students
silicon chip,
which earned
which narrows
fine needle,
to a single
atom
at its point,
STMs
A
a
and
typical
human
lower
STMs
moves
hair.
fro,
is
the size of
it.
somewhere
shown
1989
that
scanning probe
Using
atoms
piles of
little
lot
in
xenon deposited on
To prove
tips
to see
STM
where the
But the
piles are.
company's logo
in
35 atoms of
rely
Electrons 'tunnel' between the needle and the surface to create a minute electric current as the tip
to
is
Cornell University.
at
Heinrich Rohner and Gerd Binnig of IBM's Research Division a Nobel Prize in 1986.
on running a
it
that
move
it
full-size
flatten
STM
them;
was
still
a logical
in read
mode,
full-scale probe.
The
little
in the
next 10 years
is
putting thousands of
them on
moving
parts
on a
to take
And
MacDonald
something
MacDonald.
with
all
the
believes that
like a
hundred
or a thousand of your normal computer disks and put them onto a chip the size of your fingernail,' he
says.
SOURCE:
that their
breakthrough
is
NOTE: Two
articles
just the
Pease
Private
New
May
1995)
SOURCE:
first
in 1982.
DAB
DAB
the
is
result
DAB
that
BBC's Research
including the
collectively
is
known
as
Eureka 147
&
part of
initiative.
249
Audio Broadcasting)
(Digital
can be used
a rugged,
It is
in
efficient
terrestrial
SOURCE: BBC
SEE ALSO:
Electronics
Engineering Information
was
and developed
in
(i.e.
They
picture.
is
40 minutes of
(Digital
SOURCE:
produced simultaneously on
compact
six
Audio Tape), an
stereo.
The
CDV
is
CDVs
New
which hold
all
a light
Matsushita (Japan)
at the
exact
Press,
moment
Macdonald
first fibre
programmes and
&
is
a
is
is
ready to record
is
(AT&T), and
British
Telecom
(France,
UK,
TAT-8, has linked the United States with Great Britain and
The
DGT
(France),
total cost is
and data
estimated to be
220
million.
Press,
Macdonald
&
VIDEO WALKMAN
audio predecessor,
mm
It
The pen
required.
an 8
CDVs
its
maximum
The Book of Inventions and Discoveries Associate Editor Valerie-Anne Giscard d'Estaing
Like
audio-digital cassette.
SOURCE:
CDVs
York p 2 1
programming using
The
last for a
The new
Philips
a television screen
inventions and Discoveries 1993' edited by Valerie-Anne Giscard d'Estaing and Mark Young
Facts on File
This
shown on
DAT
the
It
offer
1988
in
Philips (Holland)
sound and
1988
commencing
by
Private
In 1987 there
1987
digital
first.
SOURCE:
1987
COFDM
'The
NOTE: BBC
the
Sony (Japan)
this is also a
1.1
Sony
invention.
Marketed
in
it
A Concise
250
Press,
Macdonald
&
Insite
Moreover,
diskettes.
is
due
to the
New
York p 2 1
Philips (Holland)
strives to
it
sits in
The
March 1991.
PLASTIC ELECTRONICS
behave
fully
inventions and Discoveries 1993' edited by Valerie-Anne Giscard d'Estaing and Mark Young
Facts on File
1991
is
it
SOURCE:
(USA)
Insite Peripheals
It
total
that
the trolley.
De Leeuw
has developed plastic coatings that could be incorporated into smart packaging that would,
for example,
tell
in a shoplifter's pocket.
The
in a
or even
Conventional plastic polymers, for example polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyvinyl chloride, are
They
insulators.
all
De Leeuw
heated
these materials in a furnace to just below their burning point and then added organic solvent to the
residue.
This process knocked off the side branches leaving the long central molecules.
are used as a printing ink the molecules line
showing
is
up and
applied. Last
When
these materials
the
first
demonstration of his
LCD
screen.
would be printed on
card or plastic. This two-layer structure would behave like a field-effect transistor, where the current
flows through the coating
If the
coating
is
when
domino
applied.
is
effect sets
Depending on
in line.
up a characteristic
packaging
in
De Leeuw
cards.
SOURCE:
is
this
field.
minimum
much cheaper
paint'
New
Scientist p 18
PHOTONIC CRYSTAL
the
first
to
slab of a
sets
mace
photonic crystal.
(1
is
payment
30 cents, while
July 1995)
Eli
is
It
his
1991
each
of milk and a packet of cheese. The oscillations would be triggered by bathing the
an electromagnetic
He
FETs
He
Yablonovitch (USA)
it
in the
simplest
way imaginable.
New
in
Jersey,
became
drill
to bore three
of long, slanted holes through the top surface of the block, Yablonovitch chose Stycast-12, which
it
is
transparent to
A Concise
Date Order
in
is
used
power
in
to build
components
There
is
SOURCE:
Tricks of the
LASERCOM Laser
New
light'
Scientist p
TV
satellites
Lasercom
will rely
on a
The
satellites.
bits per
California, calls
satellite-to-satellite
modules known
all
optical chips,
beam bouncing
a billion
fastest radio-based
second.
its
down
orbiting relay
is
different signals
But
digital
many
crystals,
Information 'bridges' could be built in space using infrared lasers, with each
bits
light.
But processing
optical systems.
containing devices
1995
And whereas
the work.
line,
as yet
do most of
on a single
still
an optical system.
microwaves.
less
251
Traditional systems
The
as transceivers.
come down
to Earth at their
destination.
The
its
satellites will
which
is
will carry
in place
as
by 2000.
much
data as
lasers.
As
well as carrying
The
secure.
more
difficult for
Bloom,
the
Lasercom
for the
beacon of the
sunlight,
satellite
next in
satellite in
According
While the
to
Bloom,
feel
all
satellites, the
more
radio signals, so
the
line.
of the beacons.
To
cut
down
The
to track
this will
broad daylight.
lasers should transmit clearly in space, their
to
on radio
satellites
Bloom
this
we now
like
project manager.
between
links
between the
at
its
journey.
to penetrate thick
One
option
is
cloud
to rely
links.
says that the system can be configured to prevent the radio links from becoming information
'bottlenecks'.
Each
satellite will
simultaneously.
If a satellite
or a transceiver
is
it
to
communicate with
several others
test
of Lasercom
when
it
broadcast several
video teleconferences simultaneously by laser between the Naval Research and Development Laboratory
on Point Loma
in the
the
A Concise
252
ThermoTrex
is
now
company founded by
satellites.
in
Lasercom
test for
be
will
Bill
will
US
be launched aboard
military satellites.
SOURCE:
1995
New
INTER-SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
Two US
satellites
US
have passed a message to each other without the aid of a ground station
the
first
time this has been done. Direct satellite-to-satellite communication could reduce the military's reliance
on ground
stations,
The
test
make
to
jamming during
US
'crosslink'
a war.
satellites.
officials say.
The Milstar
to relay secret
Pentagon
come under
fire
after
satellites
Hawaii via a
in
as an unnecessary extravagance.
is
also
It
in a
To meet
this
conventional
war.
Other
from
satellites
can only talk to each other through ground stations, so any message has to be broadcast
a satellite to a
makes ground
who
stations a
That
prime target for enemy bombing, says Leonard Kwiatkowski, the general
Normal transmissions
eavesdropping.
to
But crosslinked communications several thousand kilometres above the Earth are out of reach to
eavesdroppers.
satellites, to intercept
SOURCE:
1995
it,'
'Satellites talk
In
among
themselves'
New
since
The
RCA,
bit
in the
first bit
receiver.
The standard
VHS
US
is
cassette used by
is
in
VCR
VHS
bit
stream recorder
receiver.
first
VHS
expected
to
be
in
US
bit
DIRECTV
new
technology
in 1977.
major development
VHS VCR
signal
Thomson (USA)
RCA DSS
DSS
RCA's DSS
Inc.
the
Hitachi (Japan),
VHS
between the
he says.
a prototype of a
right
VHS
bit
titles
on
VHS
receivers with digital interface will be able to time-shift record superior quality digital picture and sound
in addition to regular
Thomson and
analog broadcasts.
DSS
new
in
spawn
new
SOURCE:
A Concise
1995
MEMORY
BIOLOGICAL
CHIP
253
(Japan)
One
may be
much
information as today's silicon chips, which are approaching the limits of miniaturisation. This dream
has
moved
that
behaves
The
in electronics
Two
rectification.
and storage
like a diode.
one direction:
in
make
process called
unit in microchips.
biological diode
was
by
built
is
at the forefront
of
biocomputing.
in
Hyogo
called
it
so Mitsubishi says
To
test
at Mitsubishi's
R&D
Advanced Technology
Centre
synthesised the protein from cytochrome c552, a natural protein, and flavin, a vitamin, and
it
can
still
new device
synthetic, both
is
its
components occur
in nature,
be regarded as biological.
like a diode,
mica
several of the
substrate.
individual molecules with a scanning tunnelling electron microscope, applying various voltages between
When
make
the microscope
charged compared
when
to the gold,
it
mimics
in the
in the flavin to a
to
of an electronic diode.
that
says electrons were found to be flowing from the flavin side of the molecule to the iron-rich
haem group
place,'
was applied
Ueyama
a voltage
in the
side.
haem
from
a higher place to a
lower
he says.
flavocytochrome molecule
is
memory
RAM
chips, storing
researchers, Mitsubishi
is
still
a long
able to use a
huge challenges.
Creating a useful circuit
Weizmann
Abraham Shanzer
and 'off
settings.
development as
SOURCE:
1995
is
researchers led by
move
'a
in
micrometre across
most
to give 'on'
more
efficient than
human
normal
hair.
It is
Its
made of
output
is
Ho
et al
(USA)
measured
in microwatts, but
lasers, for
it
lasers.
Rehovot, where
Song-Tiong
is
in
New
Science
GLASS LASER
is
Institute of
beam
intense.
But
every photon that becomes part of the laser beam, tens of thousands radiate uselessly
in other directions.
254
The
trick has
suppressed in
at
been
all
is
Illinois, is far
its
silica
down
In
of
art
The photonic
Northwestern University,
there
on the new
to build
Date Order
in
is
light
it
Inside,
carries.
is
the axis.
Embedded
Ho
made
arsenide.
photonic wire, wrapped in a U-shape around the edge of the laser ring.
is
wire are
in the
it
quantum
known
effect
as
tunnelling allows a small fraction of the photons to bleed out of the source laser into the second wire.
This way, 70 per cent of available photons are forced into the laser beam. The high efficiency means
As
that less
onto their chips, and look to optical as well as electronic processing of data, they need to minimise
heat generation.
SOURCE:
more
by
Pease
New
Scientist p 23 (23
October
1995)
1995
The
format
is
(International)
which the
first-generation
9X CD-ROM
fast
DVD
player, setting a
new benchmark
And
DVD
although a
CD
DVD
is
the
same
CD's
size as a
CD,
CD
wavelength of 635
to
player's does.
1995
and
DVD
DVD
DVD
matches
that of a
upward of
do
In contrast,
players
CD
DVD
pits
DVD
650 nanometres.
DVD
is
In order to
SOURCE:
can.
data spiral
To read
data spiral.
CD
its
of each
1 1
data tracks are only 0.74 micron apart, whereas 1.6 microns separate
that has a
for performance.
groups
rival
by the agreement
among
of international companies.
this,
it
CD
CD
data tracks.
kilometres long
So
more than
player's readout
beam must
one
employ
player.
lens
the
information layer.
A E
Bell Scientific
American p 28
(July 1996)
Computer chips
the
far
more
intricate
and powerful than those available today may be on the cards with
Integrated circuits are usually manufactured by photolithography, in which the circuit pattern
in a
made by
cutting
away
'stencil'
is
polymer
is
printed
resist that
areas of the protective layer using ultraviolet light, which limits the smallest
To
The
wavelength of the
light.
smaller features, manufacturers could turn to X-rays, which have a shorter wavelength.
Unfortunately, compact, high-energy X-ray sources are not yet available and polymer resists for use with
X-rays are
still
being developed. So
until
A Concise
which a
in
approach
Now
beam
shown
beam
that a
is
US
when
But
this
Atoms
is
255
They have
resist.
nanometre mark.
to reach the 10
In
atoms known as
neutral metastable atoms, however, electrons can get trapped in higher energy states,
cannot decay.
developed a
The
the
made of
resist
When
atoms.
When
a material that is
damaged segments
deposits
it
damaged by
its
energy
state.
spare energy.
the energy
The
researchers have
resist is a layer
by an
film.
The argon
electrical discharge
Beams of
When
of energy.
regions.
The
each other
in the
same way
magnetic
light's
quenches
it
1996
finest chips'
by
Lewotski
ATOMIC HOLOGRAPHY
Three
and troughs
in the brightest
SOURCE:
energy
their internal
in the resist.
New Scientist
NEC
breakthrough
p 21 (25
November 1995)
Tsukuba (Japan)
in the art
of printing. Scientists
at
NEC's Fundamental Research Laboratories in Tsukuba, Japan, have written their company's name using
a beam of neon atoms. The resulting logo is the atomic equivalent of a hologram, and the technique
that created
According
it
quantum mechanics,
to
all particles,
New
beams of electrons
is
20
circuits.
More
beams of atoms
to
is
just like
beams of
light
('Atoms through
April, p 30).
holograms, such as the security image on credit cards, light waves pass through the
transparent areas between patterns of dark lines. This arrangement acts as a diffraction grating, causing
the
waves
create
To
to interfere with
more intense
light.
The
'NEC when
they
all,
nanometres
mask,
six
it
Fujita
pattern
was calculated
hit a surface.
to diffract the
neon atoms so
would write
But with a
finer pattern
letters
were
now
that they
were made of just 52000 atoms, accumulated over two hours, the researchers
Institute
image.
silicon nitride
at the
that
result is a recognisable
with researchers
In
one another so
The
circuits.
The
optical lithography
used to etch circuits are limited by the wavelength of light to a resolution of around
150 nanometres.
says
it
with atoms'
New
Scientist p 19 (17
August 1996)
A Concise
256
1996
Date Order
in
Labs (USA)
Bell
Thousands more components could be packed onto chips much sooner than chipmakers expected, thanks
beam
to an electron
New
Jersey.
Its
will
components
fabricate
in today's
SCALPEL,
that
micrometres wide
just 0.08
semiconductor
silicon
SCALPEL
beam
system works
in a similar
way
atoms across.
The
as they
roughly 250
is
now
in use:
must be created on the chip. But instead of blocking the beam with opaque materials
some
areas of the
mask
the
number
The unscattered
in diameter.
some
places to
them through
magnetic
unaltered,' he says.
lens,
which focuses
it
on an aperture
just
160 micrometres
electrons pass through the aperture, but the vast majority of those that
hole.
second lens then focuses the beam onto the chip substrate below. Just as
bombard
in
an electron
the
SCALPEL mask
'Features 0.35
remove materials
in
conventional lithography,
to create patterns.
The second
lens
can focus the electrons into an image one quarter the size of the original mask. This means that the
mask can be
which makes
relatively large,
the electrons
it
it
is
like
Funding
like a pencil,
its first
was provided by
Beard
set for
15
August 1996)
seconds).
The
computers
rely
thousand times as
of laser
company
Some
Scientist p 18 (3
a sister
Projects Agency.
Advanced Research
New
full
Bell's parent
SUPERFAST SWITCH
built
chips with
by absorbing
distorted,' he says.
AT&T, which
SOURCE:
1996
result,
make
of
previous attempts to
in
An
easier to manufacture.
light.
fast.
It
operates by
at
pumping an
in trillionths
the
(10~
12
)
in Illinois is a
it's
the
first
Each
bit
from zone
to
The
first
laser pulse,
which has
is
moved
wavelength of 416
nanometres, pushes the electron from the storage zone to the central, priming zone. The second pulse,
with a wavelength of 480 nanometres, shunts the electron within just 400 femtoseconds into the
it
could be read.
final
A Concise
For
this to
action
back
257
to
its
maximum
in
cliff.
two separate
One
make
possibility is to
the top
at
at
several years,
be fast-acting enough
to
'You are
SOURCE:
To make
stages.
This would allow more time for the electron's position to be detected.
The
flips
stability.
reading easier, he hopes to add a further zone that captures the electron in an energy 'well'
of the
Such an
circuit.
impossible with the existing molecule, because within 600 femtoseconds, the electron
is
is
The
light sources
must
he says.
light,'
18,
New
Coghian
Argonne
be possible for
left
to
p 8174)
Scientist
p 24 (28
September 1996)
1996
IBM (USA)
may
way
to
look smooth to the naked eye, but under the microscope, they reveal terraces like
Researchers
at
IBM
and
at
irregularities, creating
New
an
generation of semiconductors.
The
terraces of
atoms about
1.5
flat
For the current generation of semiconductors, the substrate does not have
compared
to the imperfections
be
crucial,
imagine
be absolutely
on
at
Cornell. 'You
would want
process practical.
contamination from
At
final,
The squares
The
to get those
in
Yorktown Heights,
its
is
is
are needed to
much
make
New
But
will
here.'
York, describe their levelling technique in Applied Physics Letters (vol 69, p 1235).
beam
because
electron
flat
to
the
it
into
smoothing
surface.
at
150
not as strongly held by the crystal lattice as atoms that are surrounded on
for about
terraces,
all
sides.
30 minutes.
As
the
atoms
evaporate one by one, the terraces gradually retreat towards the sides of each square, leaving a totally
is
SOURCE:
1996)
by Vincent Kiernan
New
Scientist p
24
(21
September
258
1996
(Denmark)
The
in polysilicon
underlying material by reactive ion etching (RIE). Three-dimensional structures can be obtained by
multiple exposure of the silicon mask.
The
fast
the technique to be used for the rapid prototyping of large scale structures.
silicon layer
CVD
polysilicon layer
was
by low-pressure
a silicon substrate.
CVD
on
(MOO nm)
CVD
onto
Alternatively, a 2
sputtering instead of
phosphorous-doped low-pressure
(i.e.
amorphous
of 488
silicon layer.
nm
light
Direct etching
Solid silicon, oxides and nitrides are not etched, even at high temperatures.
translated at speeds of
up
to
to
The sample
can
that
be interrupted by on-the-fly beam switching. There was no time for reflow or diffusion of materials
during the fast etching scan. The silicon layer could be locally removed in a single scan to expose the
The
much
Alternatively a
oxide
CF4/CHF3 plasma
3-D
in a single step.
RIE of bulk
by RIE using
that
higher etch rates for oxides than for silicon. Stepped oxide structures are produced by
iterative patterning
the
was then
silicon pattern
provides
The
silicon using a
.34).
to the
for
SF6 /0 2 plasma.
a)
b)Truly 3-D
structures
Stepped structures
/Poly-Si ora-Siv
Deposition
-Si0 2
-^
Laser
patterning
Reactive
ion etching
The process sequence for prototyping of large high-aspect3-D structures in bulk silicon. ^Iterative laser and reactive
ion etching, b) single-step pattern generation and transfer.
J.
ratio
rapid prototyping' by
vol 19,
Chapter 12
Electronics
transit
list
covering a wide
in
modern
field
become
diode
part of today's
TRAPPAT
electronics, e.g.
it
will
a-d
Analogue
a-Si
Amorphous
ACIA
ADA
ADC
ADS
ADP
AGC
to Digital
Silicon
after
Ada Augusta)
Analogue-to-Digital Converter
AIM
Avalanche-Induced Migration
ALGOL
ALU
AM
Amplitude Modulation
ANSI
AOI
AOI
APL
AQL
ASCH
ASIC
ASPR
Automatic
ASTM
ASQC
American Society
Arithmetic/Logic Unit
AND/OR
Institute
Invert
for Information
Satellite Position
Exchange
Reporting System
for Testing
and Materials
ATAB
ATC
ATE
ATM
ATS
AVC
AWACS
BARRITT
Time
(diode)
259
260
Electronics
BASIC
BBD
BCD
BCD
BGA
Bucket-Brigade Device
BIFET
BITE
BIT
BIOS
BJT
BORAM
Block-Oriented Random-Access
b/s
Bits per
Binary-Coded Decimal
Bipolar-CMOS-DMOS
Ball Grid Array
Built-in Test
Equipment
Memory
Second
BTAB
BW
Band Width
BYTE
8 bits
CAAP
CAD
CAL
CAM
CAM
Content-Addressable
CATT
CAT
CB
CCD
Charge-Coupled Device
CCIR
CCITT
Computer-Aided Design
Computer-Assisted Learning
Memory
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
Band
Citizens
(radio)
Int.
Int.
Telegraph
&
CCTT
CCTV
CD
Compact Disc
CDI
CDMA
CEEFAX
Teletext
CERDIP
CFC
CGI
CIRC
CISC
Common Gateway
CML
Current-Mode Logic
C-MOS
Complementary-Metal-Oxide Semiconductor
CMRR
COBOL
Common-Mode
CPU
CRO
CROM
Control Read-Only
CRT
CRC
Cathode-Ray Tube
CVD
Chemical-Vapour Deposition
CVT
d-a
Digital to
DAC
DAP
Digital-to-Analogue Converter
(BBC)
Chloro-Fluoro-Carbon
Interface
Cross-Interleaved Reed-Soloman
Complex
Common
Code
(for
CDs)
Instruction Set
Rejection Ratio
Memory
Analogue
Electronics
DART
DAS
DAT
DBS
DCE
DCE
Data-Acquisition System
Digital
Audio Tape
DCS
DDD
DECT
Digital
DFA
DI
Dielectric Isolation
DIP
Dual-In-line Package
DIL
Dual In Line
DMA
DMAC
Direct-Memory-Access Control
Direct
Memory Access
DMM
Digital Multimeter
D-MOS
DMS
DMUX
Demultiplexer
DOS
DPDT
DPM
Digital Panel
DPSK
DSSC
DSP
DSTC
DTE
DTL
DRAM
DVB
DVD
DVD
Digital
Video Broadcasting
Digital
Video Disc
DVM
Digital Voltmeter
DX
Duplex
EAROM
Electrically Alterable
EBCDIC
EBL
ECL
ECM
EDP
EFL
Emitter-Follower Logic
EIA
EMI
Electromagnetic Interference
EMC
Electromagnetic Capability
EOC
End Of Conversion
ES
Electrical Overstress
EPROM
ERDA
ESREF
Meter
Keying
Electron
Beam
Read-Only Memory
Lithography
Emitter-Coupled Logic
Memory
Analysis
EROM
Erasable Read-Only
ESA
Memory
261
262
ESD
Electronics
Electrostatic Discharge
ESS
EST
ETC
ETSI
EXTND
FAMOS
Floating-gate Avalanche-rejection
FAX
FCC
Facsimile
FCFS
FDDI
First
FDM
FDMA
Frequency-Division Multiplex
FET
FFT
Field-Effect Transistor
FIFO
FIT
FORTRAN
PGA
FPLA
Field
FPMOM
FMEA
Field
FTP
FM
Frequency Modulation
F-PROM
FSK
Field
First
MOS
Commission
Federal Communications
Come
Institute
Served
Failure
Mode
Out
9
hours
Effects Analysis
FTMIS
FX
Foreign Exchange
GaAs
GaAlAs
GDI
Gallium Arsenide
GDS
GIF
GIGO
Garbage
GSM
GUI
HAST
HALT
HCMOS
HDL
HEMT
HF
High Frequency
HIC
HiNIL
HITFET
HLL
H-MOS
HTML
HTL
High-Threshold Logic
In,
Garbage Out
MOS
High-MOS
FET
Electronics
IANA
IARU
Internet
IBE
Ion
IC
Integrated Circuit
ICE
In-Circuit Emulator
International
Beam
Etching
IDS
Input-Data Strobe
IEC
IEC
International Electrotechnical
IEEE
Institute
IGFET
2
I
Commission
ILB
IMPATT
InP
Indium Phosphide
I/O
Input/Output
IP
Internet Protocol
IR
Infra
ISDN
ISO
ITU
International
JEDEC
J-FET
JTI
Junction Isolation
KBIT
Kilobit
LAPUT
LAN
Light- Activated
LARAM
Line Addressable
LASCR
LASER
LCA
LCC
LCCC
LCD
LED
LEED
Red
Network
Telecommunications Union
Light-Emitting Diode
Low
LIC
LIFO
Last
In, First
LF
Low
Freqency
Out
LLCC
LNA
LOCMOS
LORAN
LPCVD
Low-Noise Amplifier
LPTTL
Low-power
LRU
LSB
LSI
Large-Scale Integration
MAC
Multiply- Accumulate
Locally Oxidised
C-MOS
Low
263
264
Electronics
MASER
MBE
Molecular
MCM
Multi-Chip Module
MCM-C
MCM-D
MCM-L
Multi-Chip Module
Dielectric
Multi-Chip Module
Dielectric
MCT
MDS
MESFET
MF
Medium Frequency
MFLOPS
MHL
MIMD
MIME
MIPS
MIS
MISD
MLA
MLB
MLE
MLS
MMIC
MMU
Memory Management
MNCS
MNOS
MODEM
Modulator/Demodulator
MODHIC
MOS
MOSFET
MOST
H?
Microprocessor
MPEG
MPU
MSB
Moving
MSI
Medium-Scale Integration
MSIN
MST
MTBF
Multiservice Terminal
MTD
Mass Tape
MTTF
MTTR
MUSA
MUX
Multiplexer
Beam
Epitaxy
Ceramic
Organic
Laminate
Module
Multi-Chip
Multilayer Board
Metal-Nitride-Oxide Semiconductor
Metal-Oxide Semiconductor
Pictures Expert
Group
Microprocessor Unit
Most
Significant Bit
Failures
Duplicator/verifier
AND
NAND
Inverted
NASA
National Aeronautics
NDRO
Nondestructive Readout
NF
n-MOS
gate
&
Space Administration
Noise Figure
OR
NOR
NRZ
Inverted
Non-Return
to
Zero
NRZI
Non-Return
to
Zero Inverted
NTSC
gate
Electronics
OAM
Operation
OBL
OCR
ODS
OEM
Original-Equipment Manufacturer
OLB
OPAL
OP/AMP
ORACLE
OTA
And Maintenance
(in
TAB)
PABX
PACE
PAL
PAM
Pulse-Amplitude Modulation
PAR
PASCAL
PAR
PBX
PC
PC
PCA
PCB
PCC
PCMCIA
Exchange
Computer Language
Programme-Aid Routine
Private Branch
Exchange
Personal Computer
Printed Circuit
Principal
Components Analysis
Printed-Circuit Board
Plastic
Chip Carrier
Personal Computer
Memory Card
PCM
Pulse
PCN
PDP
PGA
Code Modulation
PIA
PIND
Particle
PLA
PLC
PLL
Phase-Locked Loop
PM
PMG
Phase Modulation
p-MOS
PPI
Plan-Position Indicator
PPI
Programmable Peripheral
PPM
Permanent-Magnet Generator
Interface
PQFP
Plastic
PRACL
Quad
Flat
Package
(BBC)
PRESTEL
Teletext
PROM
PSPDN
PSTN
PTFE
PTH
Polytetrafluoroethylene (plastic)
PUT
QA
Quality Assurance
QAM
QC
Quality Control
Plated-Through Holes
265
266
Electronics
QFP
Quad
QMB
RACE
Flat
Pack
RADAR
RDF
RAS
RALU
Row
Address Select
RAM
Random-Access Memory
RDP
RFI
Radio-Frequency Interference
RIGRET
RIM
Resistive-Insulated Gate
RISC
Reduced
RMM
Mode
Read-Only Memory
ROM
in
Europe
Read-In
FET
Mode
Instruction Set
Computer
Read-Mostly
RTB
RTC
RTL
R/W
Read/Write
SAM
SAR
SAW
Surface Acoustic
SBS
SC
SCA
SCAT
SCR
SDH
SDLC
Sub-Channel Adaptor
SDMA
SECAM
SEM
S/H
Si
Silicon
SIL
Single In Line
SIMD
SIO
Si02 2
Serial Input/Output
SIP
SISD
SMA
SMD
SMART
Surface
Mount Assembly
Surface
Mount Device
SMPS
Switched
SMT
SMTP
Surface
SOIC
SOS
Silicon-On-Sapphire
SPICE
SSB
Wave
Semiconductor
Scanning Acoustic Tomography
Sequential Couleur a
Silicon dioxide
Mount Technology
Electronics
SSI
SSIN
SSSC
SSTC
SUS
Sx
Simplex
TAB
TBMT
TDD
TDM
TDMA
TEM
Transmitter Buffer
TFT
Empty
TLB
TMR
Triple
TOS
TRAPATT
TTL
T2 l
TTTN
TTY
Top Of Stack
Modular Redundancy
Transistor-Transistor Logic
Tandem
Teletypewriter
TWT
Travelling- Wave
UART
Tube
UJT
Unijunction Transistor
ULA
ULSI
UMTS
UNCOL
UNI
User-Network
URCLK
USART
Interface
USRT
UTCLK
UTP
Ultra-Thin Package
UUT
VCO
VCT
VDU
VHF
Voltage-Controlled Oscillator
Voltage-to-Current Transactor
Visual Display Unit
VHSIC
VIL
VLF
Very
VLSI
VMA
Valid
VMM
Low
Frequency
Memory Address
Virtual
Machine Moniter
MOS
V-MOS
VSOP
VSP
VTR
Video-Tape Recorder
groove
267
268
Electronics
WARC
WATS
WIMPS
WORM
Write
Windows,
Icons,
Once
WS
Working Set
WWW
World Wide
XOR
Exclusive-OR gate
YIG
Web
Chapter 13
List of
selection of books
Books on Inventions
is
given for
interest.
13.1
History of Inventions
Dent
&
Sons and
E F
New
York:
Roy
Publishers) (1971)
&
(1966)
'Inventions and Discoveries' by Valerie-Anne Giscard d'Estaing
'Science
&
Technology
in History'
Jawkes,
UK
Williams
(New
Nineteenth Century' by
in the
(New
13.2
History of Technology
'An Encyclopaedia of the History of Technology' edited by Ian McNeil (London: Routledge) (1989)
'Children of Prometheus: a History of Science and Technology' by James MacLachlan, Collegiate edn (Toronto,
Ontario: Wall
&
Emerson) (1989)
'Technological
Change
G M
in the
269
270
of Books on Inventions
List
History of Science
13.3
W Waltham (Cambridge:
by
'Men of Science
in
Cambridge University
L Darrow (New
H T
Pledge
Press) (1929)
(HMSO)
&
Schuster) (1944)
(1946)
History of Telegraphy
13.4
to Industrial Laboratory
Israel (Baltimore:
&
London:
Wm
'The Telegraph
(Jefferson,
its
Blackwood) (1899)
Skoon) (1884)
Coe
History of Telephony
13.5
Robert
1:
L Rhodes (New
'Who Invented
its
the Telephone?'
by
W Aitken
Coe
(Jefferson,
13.6
R A R
Years of Electricity' by
'Electronics
a Bibliographical Guide' by
'My
C K Moore
WA
and
Dummer
(Bristol:
Institute of
Life with the Printed Circuit' by Paul Eisler (Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Press) (1989)
271
13.7
in the
United States' by
&
Co) (1970)
Andrew F
Focal
Inglis (Boston:
Press) (1990)
'Broadcasting Technology
'Communications Miracle
Major Landmarks' by
the
56, p
Institution
of Electronic
303-310 (1986)
to the
Information Superhighway' by
Museum)
'Invention
&
'Pioneers of Wireless' by
Science
in the
R Appleyard
(London: Peregrinus
1994)
Wood
James
&
Co) (1927)
6 (1961 to 1995)
The
13.8
Beginning of
Communications' by
Satellite
History of Radar
E G Bowen
R A
13.9
Adam
Hilger) (1987)
History of Television
'Digital Television'
'Birth of the
13.10
(Bristol:
Press) (1948)
by
C P Sandbank
(John Wiley
&
R
Sons) (1990)
Sinclair (Wilmslow:
Sigma
Press) (1995)
History of computers
W Greenia (Sacramento:
R Williams (Englewood
that
Cliffs:
Prentice-Hall) (1985)
Made Computer
History' by
Mark
(New
York:
'Computer: a History of the Information Machine' by Martin Campbell-Kelly and William Aspray
Basic Books) (1996)
Computer
and
Communications
Industry:
the
Evolution
(New
of
Industrial
Giants
and
Global
272
List
'Landmarks
in
of Books on Inventions
Computing' by Peggy
Digital
Ceruzzi (Washington:
Smithsonian
'The Computer
(Cambridge,
Comes
MA: MIT
R Moreau,
translated by
Howlett
Press) (1984)
'The Making of the Micro: a History of the Computer' by Christopher Evans, foreword by
Tom
Stonier (London:
Gollancz) (1981)
H H
Computer Society
Press) (1995)
1962-1986' by Arthur L
Press) (1986)
'Understanding Computers
Illustrated
Chapter 14
List of
selection of books
Books on Inventors
on inventors primarily
given for
interest.
AMPERE
'Andre-Marie Ampere and his English Acquaintances' by
and
D L
R Holmann
BA1RD
'Baird of Television
'John Baird:
the
R F
Press) (1952)
BELL
'Alexander
Graham
Bell:
the
Man who
Mackenzie (Houghton
Mifflin)
1928)
'Bell,
'Genius
at
Bell'
R V
(New
York:
Viking Press)
(1982)
BERLINER
'Grevile Berliner,
Maker of
the
Microphone' by F
BRAUN
'Ferdinand Braun
(Heinz
Moos
Leben und Wirken oes Erfinders der Brauchen Roehre, Nobel-Preistraeger' by F Kurylo
Verlag) (1965)
CROOKES
'The Life of Sir Williams Crookes' by
Fisher
EDISON
'My Friend Edison' by H Ford
'Edison' by
(Ernest
Benn Limited)
(New
273
274
List
of Books on Inventors
FAHIE
Work of John Joseph
Fahie' by
FARADAY
'Faraday' by
R & R
'Michael Faraday
'Faraday,
Maxwell
Clark
his Life
&
Kelvin' by
&
Elec
(Brit.
EPA) (1991)
(Saffron Walden:
FESSENDEN
'Fessenden
FITZGERALD
'The Scientific Writings of the
late
Lamor
Press) (1902)
FLEMING
'Memories of a
Scientific Life'
HEAVISIDE
'Oliver Heaviside' by
Josephs (1963)
HENRY
'Joseph Henry
His
HERTZ
'Gesammelte Werke' by P E
translations (London:
in three
volumes) English
MacMillan)
'The Creation of Scientific Effects: Heinrich Hertz and Electric Waves' by Jed
Z Buchwald
(Chicago: University
LODGE
'Oliver
Lodge
'Oliver
Lodge and
iv.
310p.
for the
ill,
MARCONI
'Marconi, the
Man
and
his Wireless'
B L
by
Jacot
&DM
'My
Father, Marconi' by
D Coe
(Julian
HMSO)
(1974)
Hill) (1962)
Messner) (1935)
MAXWELL
'The Life of James Clark Maxwell' by
L Campbell
&W
(1948)
Department
ports;
21cm
of Books on Inventors
List
275
MORSE
'The Life of Samuel F
York:
B Morse,
(New
Appleton) (1875),
Prime (New
REIS
'Philipp Reis'
(1963)
RONTGEN
'Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen and the Early History of the Rontgen Rays' by
C Thomas)
(1934)
in
Wurtzburg on 8 November
RUTHERFORD
'Rutherford
Being
Cambridge University
'Lord Rutherford' by
S Eve (Cambridge:
Press) (1939)
Norman
TESLA
'The Inventions, Researches and Writings of Nikola Tesla' by
TC
Martin
(New
(1894)
THOMSON J J
'The Life of Sir
Thomson
O M
Sometime Master of
Trinity College,
Thomson and
'Joseph John
Thomson
an Unfinished Social and Intellectual Biography' by Paul Georg Spitzer (Ann Arbor,
THOMSON W
'The Life of William Thomson' by S P
VARIOUS
'Ten Founding Fathers of the Electrical Science' by B Dibner (Norwalk, CT: Bundy Library Publications) (1954)
(GILBERT GEURICKE, FRANKLIN, VOLTA, AMPERE, OHM, GAUSS, FARADAY, HENRY and MAXWELL)
Index
AA
gun
Atomic
radar, 142
Accumulator, 75
ATS-1
satellite,
Acronyms, 259
Audio
history, 18,
APL, 167
Aerials
206
22
Automobile electronics, 52
diversity, 128
Autoradiography, 245
13
Hertz, 95
AVC
Avionics, 27
125
circuit,
Maxwell, 87
radio
wave
Babbage, 76, 80
95
prop.,
Banking electronics, 56
Yagi, 126
Aerial matching unit,
Aerial
satellite,
214
BARRITT
192
diode, 211
Batteries
Alexanderson
alternator, 112
Clark
237
cell.
fuel cell,
Amateurs
89
82
nickel-cadmium, 100
Amorphous
liquid crystals,
240
nickel-iron, 100
Amorphous semiconductor
switch, 209
Leclanche, 88
Amorphous
232
magnetohydrodynamic, 82
zinc-mercury-oxide, 93
Angels, 36
Plants,
Army
radars,
34
49
ASDIC, 109
Weston standard
Beam
cell,
recorder, 231
Betatron, 148
automatic, 172
Biological
58
memory
Biosatellite-1,
micromodules, 182
printed circuits, 154
chip,
Boolean algebra, 85
Bubble-jet printing, 253
Sargrove, 158
Tinkertoy, 168
(radio),
Bucket-brigade delay
134
Bumped
276
Cable
circuit,
216
253
205
Astronomy
97
leads, 201
Betamax video
Assembly systems
list,
175
Volta, 75
Artificial intelligence,
date
87
secondary, 87
246
Index
244
fibre optic,
squegger
76
insulation,
119
circuit,
sheathing, 84
velodyne, 147
Capacitors
ceramic, 99
Clock
(electronic), 191
Clock
face,
Ley den
237
74
jar,
mica, 89
Coherer, 96
89
rolled paper,
Cold cathode
Camcorder, 247
Carbon composition
resistor,
94
tube,
COLOSSUS,
Carbon
99
film resistor,
153
Compact
Cardiograph, 131
Compact
disc video,
Communications
Cathode
rays, 91
date
list,
249
61
CATT, 227
CCD, A/D converter, 223
CCD, colour TV camera, 239
Ceramic capacitors, 99
satellite,
CD-ROM,
shortwave,
247
86
microwave, 129
155
1
18
single sideband,
10
Components
Circuitry
history, 6, 16
Computers
constant
RC
stand-off, 137
ACE, 156
APL, 167
dynatron,
Babbage, 76, 80
13
COLOSSUS,
flip-flop,
CDC
116
153
1604, 187
CRT
date
lists,
diff.
analyser, 131
Kirchoff, 84
digital
EDS AC,
EDVAC,
17
storage, 156
63
ASCC,
158
EN1AC, 152
14
graphics,
history, 44,
neutrodyne,
Hollerith,
14
PHANTASTRON,
150
regenerative, 107
rotator network,
SANATRON,'
145
160
208
150
64
47
96
IBM
IBM
IBM
650, 165
701,
166
superregenerative, 119
Leibniz, 73
277
278
Index
Leprachaun, 178
microcomputer, 222
microprogramming, 168
Dry
minicomputer, 192
DSCS-1
Pascal, 73
DVD
RAM
RAM
RAM
RAM
1024
bit,
224
4090
bit,
230
16 384
256
SAGE,
bit,
bit,
73
battery,
Dynatron,
Echo-1
circuit,
satellite,
ECME,
171
254
13
Echo cancelling
232
242
221
satellite,
240
188
158
Scheutz, 86
Educational electronics, 55
SEAC, 159
Electron
46
types,
beam
lithography, 227
Electrocardiograph, 95
Electrostatics,
188
Electronic circuit
Whirlwind, 155
Consumer
56
electronics,
satellite,
Copper oxide
rectifier,
Cracked carbon
189
Electromagnetic induction, 79
125
resistor,
Electromagnetism, 78
182
Electron, 98
Electrolysis, 81
224
Explorer
satellite,
181
Cybernetics, 146
Facsimile reproduction, 84
Cyclotron, 128
FAMOS integrated
Digital audio broadcasting,
240
DECCA
Ferrites,
circuit,
230
Femitron, 186
105
Ferroelectricity, 118
Diaphragm microphone, 87
247
247
Diode
(tunnel), 181
Filter (electromagnetic),
110
Diode detector, 92
Diodes
FLAD, 234
history, 188
Flat-pack, 194
Flip-flop circuit,
Discette
(VHD), 250
Discoverer
satellite,
16
FLOTOX,
241
Flow soldering
Index
Fourier analysis, 78
CDI, 216
concept, 169
C-MOS, 210
cell,
DIL
packs, 201
82
FAM0X, 220
Galvanic action, 75
Galvanometer
flat-pack, 194
79
(astatic),
Galvanometer (moving
207
flip-chips,
coil),
79
history, 6, 17
H-MOS, 235
Gemini
satellite,
199
laser,
LOCMOS,
253
Glow
MOS,
discharge, 87
Goniometer, 104
oscillator,
GYROTRON,
193
Gramophone, 94
Gunn diode
229
195
228
patent, 185
silicon anodisation,
H2S
229
silicon
Hall effect, 92
silicon
on sapphire, 198
HAMMING
code, 165
submicrometre
lines,
247
superfast chips,
257
Hard disc
card,
thin film,
Heterodyne
versatile arrays,
108
circuit,
field
239
86
233
V-MOS, 223
superconductivity, 130
224
History of components, 6
Hologram matrix
radar,
219
Holography, 160
Housekeeper
seal,
Hydrogenated
communications, 252
Inter-satellite
1
16
silicon films,
245
Inter-communication
Iconoscope, 120
Josephson
(satellite),
193
effect,
Induction motor, 95
Industrial electronics, 51
Kirchoff's law, 84
Ignitron, 124
Klystron, 144
Infra-red radiation, 75
Lamp
Lamp
Lamp
Lamp
LANDSAT
5,
226
Intelsat
Internet,
satellite,
GaSb, 175
20
(carbon filament), 92
(fluorescent), 101
(mercury oxide), 87
(neon), 105
LASER,
212
Integrated circuits
satellite,
Large screen
TV
222
projector, 146
183
aluminium
metallisation, 211
beam
201
Lasercom, 251
lead,
252
279
280
Index
Microfilming, 82
Microphone
Microphone (condenser),
Microphone
Microphone (diaphragm), 87
Leclanche battery, 88
Microphone
LED
Leyden
granule, 92
116
crystal,
Reisz, 87
Microprocessor, 222
188
94
jar capacitor,
carbon
Microscope
(electron), 133
LOCMOS
Microwire, 162
229
integrated circuit,
226
Logic-state analyser,
Minicomputer, 192
MODEM,
LOR AN,
Morse-code, 81
151
Loudspeaker
(electrostatic),
Loudspeaker (moving
Lunar orbiter
LUNIK
coil),
Mossbauer
22
Motor
91
206
satellite,
satellite,
Motor
233
Magnetic avalanche
transistor,
Magnet
233
242
plastic,
coil loudspeaker, 91
MS/DOS, 244
Multilayer PC
boards, 187
83
Mouse, 203
anisotropic,
electric, 81
185
anisotropic,
effect,
Moving
Magnet
166
Mutator
circuit,
212
117
Magnetic recording, 99
NATO
Negative feedback
Magnetic
tape, plastic,
Magnetism,
17
battery,
82
Neuristor, 186
Magnetron, 145
Neutrodyne
M AGISTOR,
Neutron, 132
MARS
216
194
satellite,
satellite,
Nimbus
14
battery, 100
satellite,
199
Mechatronics, 49
Medical electronics, 53
Magnetic avalanche
Noise (shot
transistor,
242
Nuclear
effect),
fission,
15
144
growth, 243
satelite,
Mercury (plated
Microcomputer, 222
Office electronics, 56
Ohm's law, 79
OMIST, 237
wire), 179
Meteor
173
MCZ crystal
circuit,
Nickel-cadmium
233
192
satellite,
MASER,
127
Magnetorestriction, 85
MARISAT
circuit,
Magnetohydrodynamic
Mariner
219
satellite,
129
Index
Optical fibres-plane polishing, 244
Radar
(civil),
Optophone, 76
Radar
history, 31,
ORACLE,
Radar (RAF), 31
41
Organ
(electronic),
Oscar-
104
191
satellite,
35
37
Radar (meterological), 36
Radar (navy), 35
Radio
Radio, amateurs,
OSO-1
satellite,
Overlay
192
transistor,
200
144
altimeter,
18
Pacemaker, 184
Radio (Heaviside
PARCOR
13
100
23
history,
Radio imaging, 38
Radio ionospheric propagation, 107, 123
Paper capacitor, 89
Radio meteor
PIN
Radio
layer),
129
scatter,
diode, 165
Phonograph, 90, 94
RADUGA
Random
satellite,
access
193
memory (1024
bit),
Photosensors, 246
Rectifier (ignitron), 134
Photovoltaic effect, 82
Rectifier (tungar), 106
Piezo electricity, 92
satellite,
183
Recording (video
87
Plastic electronics,
250
memory, 179
PLUMBICON, 179
Pocket TV receiver
Polar co-ordinate oscillograph, 141
tape), 181
246
Recrystallised silicon,
Relativity theory, 103
Relays, 81
Reliability
control,
DUANE
rel.
growth, 193
sampling inspection
tables, 153
227
Prestel,
standards, 108
Resistors
carbon composition, 94
carbon
Proton
satellite,
204
film,
99
laser trimming,
207
nickel-chromium, 179
oxide film, 130
Quantum
theory, 100
varistor, 181
Retarded
field oscillator.
Rheotome (waveform
15
plotter),
Robotics, 48
88
224
281
282
SAGE
Salyut
Index
Security electronics, 57
computer, 171
satellite,
Self-induction, 80
221
Semiconductor
Satellites
Ariel- 1,
194
laser,
192
Semiconductor data
ATS-1, 206
Biosatellite-1,
Shadow mask
205
list,
70
tube, 142
229
Silicon anodisation,
Courier-IB, 189
Discoverer- 1, 185
DSCS-1, 221
Echo-1, 188
Short
Explorer- 1, 181
Gemini- 1, 199
Skiatron, 148
IntelsatIris
204
1,
(ESRO
209
I),
Landsat-1, 222
Lunar Orbiter
Skylab
satellite,
226
Skynet
satellite,
214
I,
SONAR history,
206
Lunik-1, 185
Sound reproduction,
Marisat-1, 233
Mars-1, 192
Mariner-2, 194
Soyuz
Mercury-Atlas-6, 192
NATO-1, 219
Sputnik
Nimbus- 1, 194
Sputtering process, 86
satellite,
18,
22
207
180
satellite,
Oscar- 1, 191
Oso-1, 192
Pioneer- 1, 183
Proton- 1, 204
Raduga-1, 193
Salyut-
STROWGER
221
1,
230
telephone exchange, 96
76
Score, 183
Submarine cable
Skylab- 1,226
Superconductivity, 106
Skynet-A, 214
Soyuz-1, 207
Sputnik-1, 180
Surface acoustic
Sputnik-2, 180
Surface
Surveyor- 1, 207
Syncom-1, 195
Surveyor
Switch (QMB), 95
Tiros-
188,206
1,
flat
insulation,
wave
devices, 197
257
chips,
207
satellite,
Syncom
Tung-Fang-Hung, 217
Synthesizer, 202
satellite,
195
Vanguard- 1, 181
Venus-
1,
Viking-
1,
191
Tactile screen,
248
229
Tape
190
cassette,
80
Voskhod-1, 199
Technetron (FET),
Vostok-1, 191
Westar-
227
SAWS Surface
acoustic
wave
devices, 197
Telemedicine, 80
Telephone, 90
Score
satellite,
183
1 1
Index
Telephone
(dial),
97
Teletext,
69
list),
189
satellite,
Television (digital), 41
TRAPATT
diode, 206
Travelling
wave
TRIMOS, 234
Tubes
Television (Nipkow), 93
date
cold cathode, 86
glow discharge, 87
housekeeper
Theory
relativity,
103
list,
seal,
16
microwave-retarded
Thermister, 85
multiplier, 138
Thermoelectricity, 78
pentode, 127
Thermography, 83
plumbicon, 179
Thick film
circuits,
149
stepping, 163
Thyratron, 109
trigger,
'Tinkertoy', 168
tungar
206
Tomography, 223
field,
two
140
106
rectifier,
electrode, 102
UNIX, 217
Transformer (distribution), 94
Ultra-micrometer, 117
Transformer (Faraday), 79
Ultrasonic radar
Transformer (power), 94
Ultrasonics
Transistors
alloyed, 169
date
list,
152
31
Ultra-violet radiation, 75
phase, 190
epitaxy vapour phase, 189
liquid
floating
trainer,
70
diffusion, 176
epitaxy
H2 S
(SONAR),
180
Van de Graaf
Vanguard
accelerator, 129
satellite, 181
Velodyne, 147
Venus-
interdigitated, 175
modelling, 200
VHS
VHS
MOSFET,
129
nitride-over-oxide,
206
200
bit
satellite,
191
recorder,
230
discs,
disc),
225
249
283
284
Index
Wimshurst machine,
WINDOWS,
Wire conductor, 23
VIDICON,
Viking
165
satellite,
Virtual reality,
V-MOS,
1,
93
248
Wireless (Marconi), 96
229
Wire wrapped
205
Word
223
joints, 171
processor, 202
Vocoder, 140
Voltmeter
Vosksod
(digital),
satellite,
Xerography, 140
170
X-rays, 97
199
Watch
(electronic), 194,
Waveguides, 140
Waveguides
Westar
(theory),
satellite,
220
Yagi
97
aerial,
126
227
Wheatstone Bridge, 83
Zinc-mercuric-oxide battery, 93
Wiegand
wire, 203
Siull
>
a remarkably short time, electronics has penetrated almost every aspect of modern
The pace of development of the field shows no sign of slackening.
In
life.
and unique book traces the development of electronics from its earliest beginnings to the
present day. Spanning a period of two and a half centuries, the book represents a mini-encyclopaedia full of
valuable information on practically all inventions in electronics from 1745 to 1996. Published data extracted
This fascinating
from a wide variety of sources have been collected over many years by Geoffrey Dummer and collated to form
an up-to-date systematic review of the major developments in electronics and the pattern of advances in
electronic techniques. It is the only book in the world covering electronic inventions in depth and as such
forms an essential source of reference to practising engineers wishing to broaden their knowledge. Teachers
and students who require a sound background and understanding of electronics in its broadest sense will
find the
an easily understood
in
book
will
be
Dummer was
born
in
in
1909
in
Yorkshire, England
and educated
at
the radio industry, he joined the British Air Ministry Research Establishment
1939 where he worked on the development of radar during the Second World War, becoming head
RadarTrainer Group, making an important contribution to the war
the
MBE
in
1946 and
later
the
USA Medal
in
of the
in 1966 he was
Superintendent of Applied Physics and Technical Services at the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment,
Malvern. He continued to work on radar, concentrating on the reliability of components and systems.
The integrated
revolution
in
and components
circuit or 'chip'
as
it
is
led
of
him
to
until his
later
developed
in
the
retirement
'solid circuit' in
USA and
1952.
electronics.
He retired in 1966 to become a full-time author and consultant. For thirty years he has been associated with
the international journal 'Microelectronics and Reliability' as Editor-in-Chief and now Founding Editor. During
27 years with the Radar Establishment he published over 100 articles on his Division's work, gave over 50
and a further 21 books with co-authors. He now devotes some time to the
history of electronic components and electronic inventions and writes widely on electronics.
his
ISBN 0-7503-0376-X
and PhilaHnlnhia
780750"ZQ3767 >
l