MCTIGUE, D. F., LIPKIN, J. & BENNETT, R. H. (1986).

GOorechnique 36, No. 1. 1-9

Consolidation under an isotropic total stress

increase : part I, analysis for compressible
constituents
D. F. McTIGUE,*

J. LIPKINi

The response of a fluid-saturated

porous body to a
rapid change in external pressure is analysed using the
theory of linear poroelasticity,
accounting for compressible constituents.
Because water is more compressible
than most mineral grains, the sample initially undergoes
undrained
deformation
accompanied
by a negative
excess pore pressure (suction). Subsequently,
external
fluid diffuses into the body, the effective compressive
stresses relax, and the soil matrix expands. The initial
excess pressure, undrained displacement,
relaxation rate
and asymptotic
drained displacement
are direct indicators of a pore pressure coefficient, the undrained bulk

modulus, the consolidation coefficient and the solid

constituent bulk modulus. Thus, measurements of the
surface displacement and the pore pressure at one internal point determine four of the eight material properties
needed
body.

to characterize

fully a linearly

elastic

porous

Larticle analyse la rbponse dun corps poreux saturt de

fluide B un changement
rapide de la pression externe B
Iaide de la thborie de la porotlasticitC
linkaire, prenant
en considtration
les constituants
compressible%
Parce
que Ieau est plus compressible
que la plupart des grains
minkraux, au commencement
I&hantillon subit une d&
formation
non-drain&e, accompagnte
dune surpression
interstitielle
nkgative (suction).
Par la suite le fluide
externe se diffuse dans le corps, les contraintes
de compression effectives se relPchent et la matrice du sol se
dilate. La surpression
initiale, le d&placement
nondraini,
la vitesse de relgchement
et le d&placement
drain& asymptotique
reprt-sentent
des indicateurs
dun
coefficient de pression interstitielle, du module de masse
non-drainie,
du coefficient
de consolidation
et du
module de masse des constituants
solides. Les mesures
du d&placement superficiel et de la pression interstitielle
g un point interne dtterminent
quatre des huit proprik
tts matkrieiles ntcessaires
pour la caractkrisation
complete dun corps poreux 1inCairement tlastique.
KEYWORDS:
clays; compressibility;
elasticity; pore pressures; soil properties.
NOTATION
B pore pressure
c consolidation

consolidation;

coefficient
coefficient

Discussion on this Paper closes 1 July 1986. For further

details see inside back cover.
* Sandia National Laboratories,
Albuquerque.
t Sandia National Laboratories,
Livermore.
$ Naval Ocean Research and Development
Activity.

and R. H. BENNETTS
G
k

elastic shear modulus

permeability
drained bulk modulus
K
Kf fluid bulk modulus
KS first solid bulk modulus
K, second solid bulk modulus
Ku undrained bulk modulus
m fluid mass content per unit volume
m. reference fluid mass content
P fluid pressure
of external pressure change
PO magnitude
fluid mass flux
4i
duration of linear external pressure increase
unit tensor
matrix strain tensor
&ij
P fluid viscosity
drained Poissons ratio
V
undrained Poissons ratio
V
reference fluid density
PO
total stress tensor
Oij
porosity
reference porosity

INTRODUCTION
For most applications
of consolidation
theory in
geotechnical
engineering,
it is a reasonable
assumption
that both the soil particles and the
pore fluid are incompressible.
Under these conditions, all volumetric
deformation
of the soil is
associated with pore volume changes that can be
accommodated
only by fluid drainage. However,
situations do arise in which the compressibility
of
the constituents
in a saturated soil plays a crucial
role in observed phenomena.
Indeed, in a companion paper (Lipkin, Bennett & McTigue, 1986)
an experiment is described in which the measured
excess pore pressures and deformation
are due
exclusively to compressibility
effects. Motivated
in part by the need to interpret results from that
experiment,
in this Paper a detailed analysis of
the response of a porous body to hydrostatic
pressure changes in the fluid surrounding
the
body is presented. The analysis not only provides
an understanding
of observations
in a particular
experiment,
but also suggests a general method
by which certain fundamental soil properties may

McTIGUE, LIPKIN AND BENNETT

be determined.
These properties
include permeability, drained bulk modulus and bulk moduli
for the soil particles, the last of which are often
difficult to determine by direct measurements.
Biot (1941) generalized
Terzaghis
consolidation theory (e.g. Terzaghi, 1943) to a full threedimensional
form
that
includes
constituent
compressibility.
More recently, Rice & Cleary
(1976) have recast Biots work in terms of
material properties with a more straightforward
physical interpretation.
Their notation is adopted
here. The boundary
value problem
addressed
with this theory
is for the time-dependent
response of a right circular cylinder of saturated
porous material, subjected to a change in fluid
pressure at its boundaries.
The more familiar
theory for incompressible
fluid and solid constituents predicts,
in this configuration,
an equal
change in the magnitude of the isotropic normal
components
of the total stress and in the pore
pressure. Thus, the effective stress would be zero,
and there would be no deformation
and no transient consolidation.
In contrast,
the analysis
shown here predicts that an increase in the external pressure induces undrained deformation
and
a small negative excess pore pressure (suction),
followed by diffusion of fluid into the soil and
volumetric expansion. This is precisely the behaviour observed in the experiment described in part
II (Lipkin et al., 1986).
In the following, the appropriate
governing
equations are first summarized and the idealized
boundary
value problem
described
above is
solved. The solution is then refined to account for
certain
practical
constraints.
First, the timedependent
boundary
pressure changes that are
more easily implemented
in the laboratory
are
allowed for. Second, early time asymptotic solutions are developed,
which are necessary for a
numerical evaluation
of the results. Finally, an
annular sample geometry is considered because of
conditions peculiar to the experiment described in
part II (Lipkin et al., 1986). In the concluding
remarks, ways in which an experiment
such as
that described here might be used to determine
certain material properties are discussed.

LINEAR POROELASTICITY
FOR
COMPRESSIBLE
CONSTITUENTS

Rice & Cleary (1976) have presented the complete governing equations
for quasistatic
deformation
of a fluid-saturated
porous
elastic
material, accounting
for the compressibility
of
both the fluid and the solid phases. The theory is
briefly outlined here, with emphasis on features
germane to the analysis to follow.
The matrix strain .sij is related to the total stress

uij and the fluid pore pressure p by

1
&ii = G

Qij + pa, - &

fbkk+ 3P)6ij
-T&

P6ij (l)

where G is the shear modulus, v is the drained

Poissons ratio and K, is a bulk modulus for the
solid comprising the matrix. The usual engineering sign convention
is adopted, writing normal
stresses and strains as negative in compression
and positive in extension. The interpretation
of
K, is quite clear if a body immersed in fluid at
pressure p. is envisioned. The total stress acting
on the body is then cij = -p,,6,, and, when the
pore pressure is equilibrated, p = p,, . Under these
conditions,
the classical effective stress uij + pbij
strain eij =
is zero, and only an isotropic
-(p,/3K,)6ij
remains, owing to compression
of
the solid.
In the theory for compressible constituents,
an
additional
equation
is needed to describe the
change in fluid mass content per unit volume,
m - m,
3P,(V, - v)
m - m = 2GB(l + v)(l + vu)

t2)

where m, is the reference fluid mass content and

p. is the reference fluid density. The pore pressure
coefficient B (Skempton, 1954) is given by
1
-=1+&J
B

K( 1 - KJK,)
K,U - K/K,)

(3)

where
4.
is the reference
porosity,
K =
2G(1 + v)/3(1 - 2v) is the drained bulk modulus,
K, is the fluid bulk modulus and K, is a second
solid bulk modulus.
The parameter
v, is the
undrained Poissons ratio and is given by
3v + B(l - 2v)(l - K/K,)
vu = 3 - B( 1 - 2~x1 - K/K,)

(4)

It should be noted that a distinction

has been
made here between two solid moduli, K, and K,.
The physical significance of the second modulus
is made clear by the relationship for the change in
porosity implied by equations (1) and (2)
$

40

Idealized models of linearly elastic porous media

yield the term in equation (5) that is proportional

CONSOLIDATION

UNDER

to ulrt + 3p (Robin, 1973; Cornet & Fairhurst,

1974). When K, differs from K,, equation (5)
allows for an additional contribution
to the porosity change due to local compression of the solid.
This effect is usually ascribed to the presence of
unconnected
porosity
in the medium (Biot &
Willis, 1957; Cornet & Fairhurst,
1974; Rice &
Cleary, 1976). The two moduli K, and K, are
often taken to be equivalent, but the distinction is
retained here for generality.
Compatibility
is given by

V2a,, +

qv,-

B(1 - $1 + V)

v2p = 0

(6)

The fluid mass balance can be written in terms of

the mass content
m and the mass flux qi =
po&,(ui - vi), where ui is the fluid velocity and ui
is the solid velocity, as

and the fluid momentum

be given by Darcys law
qi=

balance

is assumed

-po-- k aP
p axi

to

(8)

where k is the intrinsic permeability

(dimensions
of length2) and p is the fluid viscosity. Equation
(8) neglects the gravitational
body force, so that p
is to be interpreted
as the excess pressure above
hydrostatic.
Combining equations (2) (6), (7) and
(8) results in a diffusion equation for cklr + 3p/B
cv(ri,,+~P)=~(I*+~P)
where

P(1
-24

geff(j.
,J!
- U
1 + v kk

Comparing
equations
equations (3) and (4)

is obtained. It should be noted that, using equations (3) and (4), the coefficient of p in equation
(12) can be written as 1 - K/K,, retrieving a
widely used definition of the effective stress (e.g.
Nur & Byerlee, 1971).
Solving boundary
value problems for oij, Q,
and p using equations (lH12) can, in general, be
quite involved because of their strong coupling.
However, the problem considered
here is tractable because the deformation is isotropic.
RESPONSE OF CYLINDRICAL
TO SUDDEN
INCREASE
FLUID PRESSURE

(1) and

(11) and

3(v, - v)
CT;?= Dij +
P6ij
B(l - 2v)(l + v,)

(11)

SAMPLE

IN EXTERNAL

A test is now examined in which a saturated

soil sample is immersed in water in a pressure
vessel such that changes in the external fluid
pressure are communicated
instantaneously
to all
boundaries
of the sample. In the experiment
described in part II (Lipkin et al., 1986) this configuration
was achieved by reconsolidating
the
soil in a rigid container with an open top, lined
with highly permeable drainage fabric. It is the
measurable response of such a sample to changes
in the external
fluid pressure,
i.e. when the
changes in total stress and boundary pore pressure are identical, that is of concern here.
Consider a cylinder of length 2L and radius R
(Fig. 1). It is necessary to solve equation
(9)
subject to the sudden application of a total stress
o,(R, L, t) = -p. hij and a boundary pore pressure p(R, L, t) = p. for time t > 0, where p,, is the
magnitude of the external change (Fig. 2). Thus
3
ckk + B P =

1(10)

It should be noted that for incompressible

constituents, v, = l/2, B = 1 and the term in square
brackets in equation (10) is unity. The parameter
c is then recognized as the consolidation
coefhcient commonly used in soil mechanics for onedimensional deformation.
The effective stress is defined in the context of
this theory as that which is related to the deformation through Hookes law

INCREASE

(9)

k 2G(l - v) B2(1 - 2~x1 + vJ2

c=------9(v, - v)(l - V)

2&..

STRESS

(134

3P0

m
t*

2L

IN----4
y_-------___j

using
EXTERNAL

(14

FLUID

p.

Fig. 1. Definition sketch for a saturated porous elastic

cylinder subjected to a change in external fluid pressure

McTIGUE. LIPKIN AND BENNETT

a constant boundary temperature. The solution

well known (e.g. Carslaw & Jaeger, 1959)

m(-

Jdh 4
A,RJ,(A,R)

1) cos (A,z)
i,L

is

1
11

exp (-cAn2r)
exp (- d,*t)

oE___

(14)

where A, R is defined by J&i, R) = 0 and A,,,L =

(2m f l)n/2.
Noting that eLL = -3p,,
equation (14) can be
rearranged to give
P = p.
[

1 - 4(1 - B) f
f _L,(r, z)
n=l m=O
x exp (-u,,t)

j_J_A__---_----

-----------

TIME
Schematic representation of excess pore pressure and surface displacement in response to a step change
in external pressure

3
ok/(+-p

-(
ar

>

=o

(1W

(15)

where f,,(r, z) corresponds

to the summed functions of r and z in equation
(14) and t(,, =
c(A,* + jl,*). It should be noted that for incompressible constituents
B = 1, and there are no
transient effects; the pore pressure is instantaneously equal to the external pressure everywhere.
Thus, all the effects of interest are due to the
compressibilities
of the fluid and the solid, in contrast with most classical consolidation
problems.
Substituting
from equation (15) into equation
(12), the effective stress is given by
e;Y=

at z = &-I+ r = R. By symmetry

-poE[l

+4(5-l)

X f
f h,,,(r, Z) exP (-c&r)
n=l m=O

1
Sij

(16)

where
K, = 2G(l + v,)/3(1 - 2v,) is the undrained bulk modulus. It follows from equation
(11) that the matrix strain is

at r = 0, and
(134

at z = 0. Finally, the initial condition is obtained

from equation (2) by noting that, at t = 0, before
the fluid has had time to flow in or out of the
sample, the change in fluid mass content must be
zero.
3
crkk+ s p = 0

(17)
Finally, equation
(17) is easily integrated
obtain the vertical displacements
w

to

(134

at t = 0 and all I, z.
It is apparent that the problem given by equation (9) along with equations (13aH13d) is completely analogous to that for conductive heating
of a cylinder at zero initial temperature, subject to

(18)

CONSOLIDATION

UNDER

STRESS

INCREASE

Table 1. Limiting values of pore pressure, effective stress, strain and

displacement for a cylinder*

t=O
Centre
P

PO

K
- PO F

sij

$- s,j

6,

Centre

Top

POB

cff
gi,

tG+cc

-PO ff_

Top

PO

PO

-po5Sij -po53,j

stj

KS

KS

- f$ s,,

KS

2 sij

- f-J&sij

PO
*

Values

PO

_-

3Ku

3K,

given are for the centre (r = z = 0) and top (r = 0, z = L).

Each of equations (15H18) has a straightforward physical interpretation

(Fig. 2). All show an
instantaneous
undrained
response, with effective
elastic moduli 11,and K,. At this time (t = 0), the
pore pressure is everywhere equal to Bp, (B < l),
with the departure of B from unity being due to

the relative compressibilities

of the fluid and solid
phases (equation (3)). The difference between the
external and internal pressure is then (1 - B)p,.
That pressure
difference drives fluid into the
sample until the pressures are equal (equation
(15)) and only the hydrostatic effects remain. The
effective stress (equation
(16)) is initially at a
maximum and relaxes with a characteristic
time
L/c (assuming that L and R are of the same
order). In response
to this, the surface, for
example, is initially displaced (equation (18)) by
~(0, L, 0) = -p. L/3K, and rebounds
with the
same characteristic
time to the asymptotic value
lim,, I, ~(0, L, t) = -p. L/3&. Limiting values
of the pore pressure, effective stress, strain and
displacements
are summarized in Table 1.
RESPONSE
PRESSURE

TO TIME
CHANGE

VARYING

EXTERNAL

The step change in external pressure described

in the foregoing is particularly
amenable to a
straightforward
physical interpretation.
In addition, it captures the essence of a simple test configuration
in which the boundary
pressure
is
increased rapidly relative to the relaxation time
L/c. However, as a practical matter, the boundary pressure in the laboratory
will be changed
over finite time. The exact solution for a change
in the form of a linear ramp over the time interval
t, (Fig. 3) is developed here.
In this case, the boundary
condition (13a) is
replaced by
3
Okk

1-B
P

3h

to

TIME

Fig. 3. Schematic representation of excess pore pressore and surface displacement in response to a ramped
change in external pressure

H(t)

>
-

where H(t) is the Heaviside

problem for a time-dependent

H(t

to)

(19)

step function. The

boundary
condi-

McTIGUE,

tion is easily solved by application

superposition
integral, leading to

of Duhamels

x 4 2
2 f.Ar,
n=l Ill=0

ts
S[to

where the time dependence

sdt) = Qm

H(S)

LIPKIN

%Ar)

(20)

is given by

m-

x exp [-a,,,&

to)

- s)] ds

= &

In0

(Cexp (-a,,r)

+ a,, r -

is of primary interest. Thus, it is necessary to

develop asymptotic solutions for early time to
avoid convergence problems in the calculations
for that and other cases of practical interest. The
procedure employed is to obtain the solution to
the step pressure increase problem in the taplace
transform domain, to expand for large values of
the transform variable and to invert term by
term.
The problem given by equations (9) and (13a)(13d) is first recast in terms of a function Il =
p - p. and the Laplace transform is applied

(21)

The integral in equation (21) is found by application of inversion theorems for Laplace transforms
sdt)

AND BENNETT

v2ii -

with the boundary

atr=R,z=L

aii

at r = 0 and
aii

at z = 0. Overbars

indicate

the Laplace transform

dt

s0
The problem thus appears in the form of a steady
state heat conduction
problem
with a temperature-dependent
source
and homogeneous
boundary conditions. The solution is
_

1
JRDJ(;;&)
-2:I& ;.n
1II

rf = _ (1 - @PO
1 _ fo(fi
s
I[
AA,&

(25)

r)

R)

cash [(In2 + s/c)~z]

nm 0
The pore pressure, effective stress, strain and
displacement
responses to the ramped boundary
pressure (Fig. 3) are obtained
from equations
(15HlS)
with exp (-r,,
t) replaced
by g,,(t)
(equation (22)).

(27~)

m exp (-st)f(t)

f(s) =

(24)

where it is assumed that L and R are of the same

order.
The initial rise (0 d t < to) is given, for small t,
by

cash [(A, + s/c)"~L]

where Jo(i.. R) = 0.
Equation (28) is now expanded
ofs

(28)

for large values

- B)p,f

li = -(l
TIME

z=

(23)
Thus, as tO+ 0, equation (14) is recovered. Equation (23) also implies that, for t > to, the effect of
the ramped pressure increase is negligible if the
time of the ramp is small compared
with the
relaxation time

EARLY

(27a)

ar

g,,(t) = 1 - exp (-anm t)(l + fa,, to + . . .)

[l + O(r,,t)]

(26)

-._=l-J

for small an,,,to gives

g,,(t) = g

co

li=o

11fW)

+ a,& - to)- 1IWt - hJ) (22)

to + tR - L2/c

conditions

- {exp C-h& - toI1

For t > to, expanding

+sfj

(1 - B)PO

APPROXIMATION

The series solutions given by equations (1st

(18) along with equation
(22) converge
very
slowly for small dimensionless
time t/t, (cf. equation (24)). In the experiment described in part II
(Lipkin et al., 1986) the characteristic
length scale
is 0.5 m and the consolidation
coefficient is about
2.6 x lo- m2/s; the relaxation
time is about
9.7 x 10 s. The time for each pressure increase,
t,, is typically about I.8 x lo3 s, so that t/tR B 1

[
-

112

L-&W
0
{expC-&V- l-

+ exp C-&7&

exp

41

.41

+ 411
(29)

CONSOLIDATION UNDER STRESS INCREASE

Inverting equation (29) term by term

R

P
-=1-(1-B)

PO

l-

l/2

erfc tj

- erfc 5 - erfc [

(30)

obtained
where
t=(R-r
2&,
r=
: - 2)/2J- ct and c = (L + z)/2 J ct. Equation
(30) then represents the asymptotic expansion of
equation (15) for early time. It should be recalled
that it is the response to a sudden step increase in
external pressure to p. .
To extend this analysis to the problem for
ramped external pressure, the Duhamel
superposition integral is again used as in equations
(19H22). This procedure leads, after considerable
manipulation,
to

Fig. 4.

Definition sketch for a hollow cylinder

and
z
h(r, z, t) = L

+ i2 erfc 5 + i2 erfc [

II

II

(31)

L-z
2Ja=2

and i erfc are repeated integrals of the complementary error function. Finally, equation (31) can
be integrated to obtain the vertical displacements
U

--;1;[;-4(21)h(r,z,
s

------=
. s1-7

PO L/ J.1

erfc 5 + i3 erfc [)

(31) and (32) are very accurate

(18) and (22) converge

culty.

H(t - to)

2&=G
5 =

&ho - to) (t3

for
(15),
and pose no diffi-

t/t, < 0.02, after which the series solutions

R-r

i2 erfc I

The solutions

where

H(t)

+i2 erfc 5 + i2 erfc <

R
;

rapidly

RESPONSE OF HOLLOW CYLINDRICAL

SAMPLE
For reasons to be discussed in part II (Lipkin
et al., 1986) the foregoing analysis has been
extended
to the case of an annular
body of
porous material (Fig. 4), again subjected
to a
sudden step increase in external fluid pressure.
The results are of a form that is identical with
that of equations (15H18), in which the function
exp ( - cAn2t)
2.$A n~Yg)R)

(33)

is simply replaced

by

t)]H(i)

in which U,(a, r) is the cylinder function

uO(% r) = J&
where
h(r, z, f=L

(32)
z

Ii2

(35)
The c(, are the roots of U,(cc, R,) = 0, and R, and
R, are the inner and outer radii respectively.

iz erfc q

-L(2+

r)Yo(% R2) - J,(a, R2)Y,(m, r)

i3 erfc 5 + i3 erfc [)

The response to a pressure increase that is

ramped over finite time to is again obtained by
replacing the function exp [-c(r,
+ &)t]
by

McTIGUE,

LIPKIN AND BENNETT

g,,(t) as given by equation (22). The asymptotic

approximation
for early time may be constructed
in a fashion that is identical with that shown in
equations (26H32), although this has not been
done here.
SUMMARIZING

REMARKS

The problem addressed in this Paper exhibits

certain features, such as stress relaxation due to
pore fluid diffusion, that are encountered
routinely in geotechnical
engineering.
However,
the
problem falls beyond the scope of conventional
applications
of consolidation
theory
to, for
example, foundation settlement or the oedometer
test. In these more familiar applications, the compressibility of the porewater and soil particles can
usually be neglected. Here, a situation has been
examined in which there would be no response at
all if the constituents were incompressible.
The analysis shows that, when the pore fluid is
more compressible
than the solid (K, < K,,
equation (3)), a change in the boundary pressure
induces a small negative excess pore pressure
(suction). External fluid diffuses into the porous
body, and the soil expands to recover some of the
undrained
deformation.
What remains
is the
volumetric strain due to the compressibility
of the
solid constituent
alone at the fully equilibrated
hydrostatic
pressure. This process would also
prevail if the solid were incompressible
(K,+ co),
in which case the rebound would recover all the
undrained
deformation
(equations (16)--(18)). If
the constituent
compressibilities
are identical,
there is still undrained
deformation
(equations
(17) and (18)), but there is no pressure difference
(equation (15)) to drive fluid flow and the transient stress relaxation.
These results suggest what is, at least in principle, a simple test by which certain fundamental
material properties can be determined. The linear
poroelasticity
theory requires eight constants to
characterize the system fully, e.g. the initial porosity &,, the drained bulk modulus K, the shear
modulus G, the solid bulk moduli K, and K,,
the fluid bulk modulus K,, the fluid viscosity p
and the permeability
k. Time-resolved
measurements of the displacement
of one surface point in
the test described here would yield three parameters. The initial displacement
is characterized
by
the undrained
bulk modulus K,, the transient
relaxation rate by the consolidation
coefficient c
and the final displacement
by the solid modulus
K, (equation (18)). An additional
direct measurement of the initial excess pore pressure would
determine the parameter B (equation (15)). Thus,
this test -provides measurements
of four properties, and independent
knowledge of four others
completes the description of the system.

In part II of this Paper, an experiment

is
described in which an attempt is made to carry
out a similar procedure. However, it is assumed
here that a direct pore pressure measurement
at
an interior point cannot be obtained in a small
laboratory
sample, while surface displacements
can be resolved. In this case, independent
knowledge of five material properties is required and
three can be determined. As an example, it is supposed that &,, G and k are known from conventional
direct
and
water
content,
shear
permeability tests respectively, and that K, and p
for water are available in standard tables. Then,
fitting equation (18) to data for the surface displacement will yield, after minor manipulation,
values for K, K, and K,. It is noted in particular
that there are few values reported in the literature
for the last two of these parameters, and they are
difficult to measure directly.
The procedure described here can be difficult to
implement if the parameter B is very near unity.
In this case, the pore pressure difference (1 - B)p,
that drives all the effects described can be very
small, and the transient in the surface displacement would be difficult to resolve. Indeed, in the
experiment detailed in part II, the quantity 1 - B
proved to be of the order of 5 x 10m4. Meaningful information
could be extracted only because
the sample was so large that small strains resulted
in displacements
that were measurable
without
undue difficulty. In addition, the sample size was
such that pore pressure probes could be inserted
to obtain additional data constraining the parameters.
Although
B near unity characterizes
typical
clay-rich soils, rocks often exhibit values of B as
low as 0.5, so that the compressibility
effects discussed in the foregoing can be quite significant in
some geological materials.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Authors would like to thank D. E. Amos,

S. K. Grifhths and M. J. Martinez for extensive
discussions
of the analysis, and an anonymous
reviewer for incisive comments and corrections.
This work was performed
at Sandia National
Laboratories,
supported
by the US Department
of Energy under contract DE-AC04-76DP00789.
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