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The Need
Rising electricity demand
Rapidly depleting fossil fuel reserves
Global Warming
a)
b)
c)
d)
: 3.94 x 1026 W
: 6.960 x 108 m
: 149.6 x 106 Km
: 6.378 x 106 m
: 1353 Wm-2
Solar energy is produced at the core of the
sun by nuclear fusion
The Earth's surface moves at the equator at a speed of about 467 m per second
The Earths rotational axis is tilted 23.5 from the red line drawn perpendicular to the
ecliptic plane. This tilt remains the same anywhere along the Earths orbit around the
Sun. Seasons are appropriate only for the Northern Hemisphere.
Earth's axis at 0
Earths Rotational Axis Around the Sun Over the Year Contd
During the June solstice the Earth's North Pole is tilted 23.5 degrees towards the Sun relative
to the circle of illumination. This phenomenon keeps all places above a latitude of 66.5
degrees N in 24 hours of sunlight, while locations below a latitude of 66.5 degrees S are in
darkness. The North Pole is tilted 23.5 degrees away from the Sun relative to the circle of
illumination during the December solstice. On this date, all places above a latitude of 66.5
degrees N are now in darkness, while locations below a latitude of 66.5 degrees S receive 24
hours of daylight.
Earths Rotational Axis Around the Sun Over the Year Contd
During the equinoxes, the axis of the Earth is not tilted toward or away from the Sun and
the circle of illumination cuts through the poles. This situation does not suggest that the
23.5 degree tilt of the Earth no longer exists.
360 N
I o I sc 1 0.034cos
365.25
Concept of Extraterrestrial
Horizontal Irradiance
Beam Radiation
Beam radiation is the solar radiation propagating along the line joining the
receiving surface and the sun
Diffuse Radiation
It is the solar radiation scattered by aerosols, dust and air molecules. It does
not have unique direction
The solar radiation received from the sun after under going scattering by the
atmosphere is known as diffuse radiation
Global Radiation
It is the sum of beam and diffuse radiation
Radiation Terminology
Irradiance
The rate at which radiant energy is incident on a surface per unit area of the surface
Irradiation
The incident energy per unit area on a surface found by integration of irradiance over a
specified time, usually an hour or a day
Radiosity
The rate at which radiant energy leaves a surface per unit area, by combined emission,
reflection and transmission
Emissive Power
The rate at which radiant energy leaves a surface per unit area, by emission only
Earth Albedo
The earth reflects about 30% of all incoming solar radiation back to extraterrestrial region
through atmosphere
Radiation Measurements
Parameter
Instruments used
Pyrheliometers
Pyranometer
Pyranometer with shading ring
Sunshine recorder
1. Thermopile sensor
5. Signal cable
8. Printed circuit board
2, 3. Glass domes
6. Gland
9. Desiccant
4. Radiation screen
7. Leveling feet
10, 11. Level
Sunshine Recorder
Invented by John Francis Campbell in 1853 and later modified in 1879 by George
Gabriel Stokes
location to the centre of the earth, with its projection on the equatorial plane.
Declination ( )
The declination is the between the earths axis of rotation and the surface of a cylinder
through the earths orbit
23.45sin 360
284 n
365
= Declination
n = day number (number of
days since 1st January)
Zenith
s
s
S
Solar attitude angle (as): the angle between the horizontal and the line to the sun
Solar azimuth angle (s ) :the angle of the projection of beam radiation on the horizontal plane (with
zero due south, east negative and west positive)
Zenith
s
s
S
=
=
=
=
=
Zenith Angle
Latitude
Declination
Hour angle
Solar azimuth
angle
= Solar attitude
angle
w
s
Note:
& w should be the same sign
Zenith
2
Day length cos1 tan tan
15
ws
= Sunset angle
= Declination
= Latitude
Note:
Day length is in hours
Slope: The angle between the plane of the collector and the horizontal
Surface azimuth angle: The deviation of the projection on a horizontal plane of the normal to the
collector from the local meridian (with zero due south, east negative and west positive)
Angle of incidence : The angle between the beam radiation on the collector and the normal
Incident angles
= Angle of incidence
= Surface azimuth
angle
= Collector slope
= Declination
= Latitude
= Hour angle
Zenith
z
W
N
s
s
South
S
Hg
a b
Hc
S
max
Hg
Monthly average of the daily global radiation on a horizontal surface at a location (kJ/m2-day)
Hc
S
Monthly average of the daily global radiation on a horizontal surface at the same location on a clear day (kJ/m2-day)
Monthly average of sunshine hours per day at the location (h)
S max Monthly average of the maximum possible sunshine hours per day at the location (h)
a, b Constants obtained by fitting data
S
Hg
a b
Hc
S max
In above equation Hc is replaced by Ho
360 N
I o I sc 1 0.034cos
365.25
I g Io
a b cos w
Hg H0
a
b
Ig
Io
0.409+0.5016 sin(ws-60o)
0.6609 0.4767 sin(ws-60o)
IB
R
I
IB Radiation at tilted surface
I radiation at horizontal surface
1 cos
I B I b .Rb I d
2
1 cos
b
d
g
where
I dB
Rd
Id
Rb
I bB
Ib
Zenith
z
W
Thermal Energy
Storage system
Solar thermal
collector/
concentrator and
receiver
Hot
working
fluid
Heating/cooling
application
Power
generation
Circulation of condensed working
fluid (Closed loop)
Fluid let off
(Open Cycle)
Steam
Turbine
Steam
To Grid
Electric
Generator
Steam
Steam
Dryer
Cooling
Water
Hotwell
High Pressure
Pump
Condenser
Cooling Tower
Water
Central Receiver
Hot fluid
Hot salt
Cold salt
Cold fluid
Heliostat
Conventional EPGS
Heliostat
Heliostat composed:
Reflecting surface or mirror
Mirror support structure
Pedestal
Foundation
Control and drive mechanism
Heliostat Field
Types of field
Surrounded field
North field
Energy losses
Shadowing
Blocking
Reflective loss
Attenuation
Cosine loss
Area of the solar flux intercepted by the heliostat is less than by cosine of the angle
between the surface and the perpendicular to the beam
Sun rays
Sun rays
Receiver
Surface normal
z
B
South field
Heliostat B
A
North field
Heliostat A
Heliostat Field
Receiver
Losses
Spillage
Reflection
Convection
Radiation
Conduction
under development.
Technical Challenges
Advantages
Demonstrated highest solar-to-electric conversion efficiency
Modular - may be deployed individually for remote applications or grouped together
Solar dish-engine systems are being developed for use in emerging global markets for distributed
generation, green power, remote power, and grid-connected applications.
Individual units, ranging in size from 9 to 25 kilowatts, can operate independent of power grids in
remote sunny locations to pump water or to provide electricity for people living in remote areas.
Largely because of their high efficiency and conventional construction, the cost of dish-engine
systems is expected to compete in distributed markets.
Parabolic trough collector has a linear parabolic-shaped reflector that focuses the suns direct
beam radiation on a linear receiver located at the focus of the parabola.
The collectors track the sun from east to west during the day
Heat transfer fluid is circulated through the receiver and returns to a series of heat exchangers
in the power block where the fluid is used to generate high-pressure superheated steam.
The superheated steam is then fed to a conventional reheat steam turbine/generator to produce
electricity.
reflector area)
Power Cycle
The Rankine cycle system uses a liquid that evaporates when heated and expands to
produce work, such as turning a turbine, which when connected to a generator, produces
electricity.
The working fluid most commonly used as water, though other liquids can also be used
Number of Rankine power cycles can be used for parabolic trough power plants and
there are a number of options for how to integrate solar energy into the power cycle.
Steam Rankine cycle
Organic Rankine cycle
Combined cycle
The 80-MWe SEGS plants use a regenerative reheat steam turbine cycle that has a gross
steam cycle efficiency approaching 38% with high-pressure steam conditions of 100bar,
and 370C.
The power cycle uses a solar steam generator in place of the conventional boiler
The power cycle also consists of
- A surface condenser
- Feed water heaters
- Deaerator
- Cooling towers
Solar energy is used to generate the high-pressure steam and also to reheat the steam
The solar field supplies the hot heat transfer fluid (HTF) to the power plant
The heat transfer fluid passes through a series of shell-in-tube heat exchangers
to generate the high-pressure steam that runs the Rankine steam turbine.
The cold heat transfer fluid is then returned to the solar field.
Recirculation concept
Injection concept
Prototype array
Solar pond
92
as nm
Operating difficulties
Effect of the diffusion on concentration profile
Surface layer flow and lower layer flow
Wind induced wave
Biological growth
Fouling due dirt and leaves
Solar Chimney
Collector Efficiency
Heat Output
Collector Area
Solar Radiation
The temperature
differences between the
collector and out flow
Mass flow
150m high
10m diameter
The sheets were abuted vertically at
intervals of 8.6m and shiftened every
4m by exterior trussrirelers