Assignment No.

1
1.Environmental
physical,

science is a multidisciplinary academic field that integrates

biological

and

information

sciences

(including

but

not

limited

to ecology, biology, physics, chemistry, zoology, mineralogy, oceanology, limnology,

soil science,geology, atmospheric science, geography and geodesy) to the study of
the environment, and the solution of environmental problems. Environmental
science emerged from the fields of natural history and medicine during the
Enlightenment.[1] Today

it

provides

an

integrated,

quantitative,

and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems.[2]

Related

areas

of

study

include environmental

studies and environmental

engineering. Environmental studies incorporates more of the social sciences for

understanding

human

relationships,

perceptions

and

policies

towards

the

environment. Environmental engineering focuses on design and technology for

improving environmental quality in every aspect. Environmental scientists work on
subjects like the understanding of earth processes, evaluating alternative energy
systems, pollution control and mitigation, natural resource management, and the
effects of global climate change. Environmental issues almost always include an
interaction of physical, chemical, and biological processes. Environmental scientists
bring a systems approach to the analysis of environmental problems. Key elements
of an effective environmental scientist include the ability to relate space, and time
relationships as well as quantitative analysis.
2.Environmental

engineering is

the

integration

of sciences and engineering principles to improve the natural environment, to

provide healthy water, air, and land for human habitation and for other organisms,
and to clean up pollution sites. [citation

needed]

Environmental engineering can also be

described as a branch of applied science and technology that addresses the issue of
energy preservation, production asset and control of waste from human and animal
activities. Furthermore, it is concerned with finding plausible solutions in the field of
public health, such as waterborne diseases, implementing laws which promote
adequate sanitation in urban, rural and recreational areas. It involves waste water
management and air

pollution control,

recycling, waste

disposal,

radiation

protection, industrial hygiene, environmental sustainability, and public health issues

as well as a knowledge of environmental engineering law. It also includes studies on
the environmental impact of proposed construction projects.

Environmental engineers study the effect of technological advances on the

environment. To do so, they conduct studies on hazardous-waste management to
evaluate the significance of such hazards, advise on treatment and containment,
and develop regulations to prevent mishaps. Environmental engineers also
design municipal water supplyand industrial wastewater treatment systems[1][2] as
well as address local and worldwide environmental issues such as the effects of acid
rain, global

warming, ozone

depletion,

water

pollution

and

air

pollution

from automobile exhausts and industrial sources.

3. Scientists generally deal with establishing and proving scientific theories ,

engineers than work on applying the theories to daily real life problems !
There is not always a direct interaction between scientists and engineers, usually
once a scientist has published his papers on something new he discovered the work
will be picked up by engineers and the scientist will move on to something else.
Scientists work together in a way with engineers by thinking the solution and the
engineers execute it so basically the scientist thinks it the engineer does it.But
some times the ideas of scientists are so weird that they become hard for the
engineers to do.
4.Ala kupong akit sagot keni :D
5. Social science and Natural science are two subjects that differ from each
other in terms of their subject matter. Social science is any study that is centered on
society and its development. In short, it refers to any subject that does not come
under the gamut of natural sciences.Thus, social sciences include a variety of
subjects such as anthropology, education, economics, international relations,
political science, history, geography, psychology, law, criminology, and the like.
Anthropology is a social science that deals with the history of man. Human biology
and humanities get covered too by the term anthropology.Economics is a social
science that studies the various theories and problems relating production of goods,
distribution of goods and of course the consumption of wealth. Physical geography
and human geography are covered by the term geography which is yet another
social science. History is a social science that explores into the past human
events.On the other hand, natural sciences are the branches of science that go into

the details of the natural world by using scientific methods. It is important to know
that natural sciences employ scientific methods to go deep into details regarding
natural behavior and natural condition. This is the main difference between social
science and natural science.Sciences such as logic, mathematics, and statistics are
called as formal sciences and they too are different from natural sciences.
Astronomy, Biology, Earth Science, Physics, Chemistry, Oceanography, Material
Science, Earth Science and Atmospheric Science are some of the well-known natural
sciences.It is interesting to note that subjects such as meteorology, hydrology,
geophysics and geology also fall under natural sciences since they all involve
scientific methods in their approach. These are the differences between the two
important terms, namely, social science and natural science.
6.Biology
This field encompasses a set of disciplines that examines phenomena related to
living organisms. The scale of study can range from sub-component biophysics up
to

complex ecologies.

Biology

is

concerned

characteristics, classification and behaviors of organisms,

how species were

formed

and

their

interactions

with

as
with

well

each

other

the
as
and

the environment.
The biological fields of botany, zoology, and medicine date back to early periods of
civilization, while microbiology was introduced in the 17th century with the
invention of the microscope. However, it was not until the 19th century that biology
became a unified science. Once scientists discovered commonalities between all
living things, it was decided they were best studied as a whole.
Some key developments in biology were the discovery of genetics; Darwin's theory
of evolution through natural
application

of

the

selection;

techniques

the germ

theory

of

of chemistry and physics at

disease and
the

level

the
of

the cell or organic molecule.

Modern biology is divided into subdisciplines by the type of organism and by the
scale being studied. Molecular biology is the study of the fundamental chemistry of
life, while cellular biology is the examination of the cell; the basic building block of

all life. At a higher level,physiology looks at the internal structure of organism,

while ecology looks at how various organisms interrelate.

Chemistry

Constituting the scientific study of matter at the atomic and molecular scale,
chemistry

deals

molecules, crystals,

primarily

with

and metals.

collections
The

of

composition,

atoms,

such

statistical

asgases,
properties,

transformations and reactions of these materials are studied. Chemistry also

involves understanding the properties and interactions of individual atoms and
molecules for use in larger-scale applications.
Most chemical processes can be studied directly in a laboratory, using a series of
(often

well-tested)

techniques

for

manipulating

materials,

as

well

as

an

understanding of the underlying processes. Chemistry is often called "the central

science" because of its role in connecting the other natural sciences.
Early experiments in chemistry had their roots in the system of Alchemy, a set of
beliefs combining mysticism with physical experiments. The science of chemistry
began to develop with the work of Robert Boyle, the discoverer of gas, and Antoine
Lavoisier, who developed the theory of the Conservation of mass.
The discovery of the chemical elements and atomic theory began to systematize
this science, and researchers developed a fundamental understanding of states of
matter, ions, chemical bonds and chemical reactions. The success of this science
led to a complementarychemical industry that now plays a significant role in the
world economy.

Physics

Physics embodies the study of the fundamental constituents of the universe,

the forces and interactions they exert on one another, and the results produced by
these interactions. In general, physics is regarded as the fundamental science,
because all other natural sciences use and obey the principles and laws set down by
the field. Physics relies heavily on mathematics as the logical framework for
formulation and quantification of principles.
The study of the principles of the universe has a long history and largely derives
from direct observation and experimentation. The formulation of theories about the
governing laws of the universe has been central to the study of physics from very
early on, withphilosophy gradually yielding to systematic, quantitative experimental

testing and observation as the source of verification. Key historical developments in

physics

include Isaac

Newton's theory

of

universal

gravitation and classical

mechanics, an understanding of electricityand its relation to magnetism, Einstein's

theories of special and general relativity, the development of thermodynamics, and
the quantum mechanical model of atomic and subatomic physics.
The field of physics is extremely broad, and can include such diverse studies
as quantum mechanics and theoretical physics, applied physics and optics. Modern
physics is becoming increasingly specialized, where researchers tend to focus on a
particular

area

rather

than

being

"universalists"

like Isaac

Newton, Albert

Einstein and Lev Landau, who worked in multiple areas.

Assignment Questions
1. Green engineering is the design, commercialization, and use of processes and
products, which are feasible and economical while minimizing 1) generation of
pollution at the source and 2) risk to human health and the environment. Green
engineering embraces the concept that decisions to protect human health and the
environment can have the greatest impact and cost effectiveness when applied
early to the design and development phase of a process or product.
2. Principles of Green Engineering
1.

Engineer processes and products holistically, use systems analysis, and

integrate environmental impact assessment tools.

2. Conserve and improve natural ecosystems while protecting human health

and well-being.
3. Use life-cycle thinking in all engineering activities.
4. Ensure that all material and energy inputs and outputs are as inherently
safe and benign as possible.
5. Minimize depletion of natural resources.
6. Strive to prevent waste.
7. Develop and apply engineering solutions, while being cognizant of local
geography, aspirations, and cultures.

8. Create engineering solutions beyond current or dominant technologies;

improve, innovate, and invent (technologies) to achieve sustainability.
9. Actively engage communities
engineering solutions.

and

stakeholders

in

development

of

The 12 Principles of Green Engineering

Principle 1: Designers need to strive to ensure that all material and energy inputs
and outputs are as inherently nonhazardous as possible.
Principle 2: It is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after it is
formed.
Principle 3: Separation and purification operations should be designed to minimize
energy consumption and materials use.
Principle 4: Products, processes, and systems should be designed to maximize
mass, energy, space, and time efficiency.
Principle 5: Products, processes, and systems should be output pulled rather than
input pushed through the use of energy and materials.
Principle 6: Embedded entropy and complexity must be viewed as an investment
when making design choices on recycle, reuse, or beneficial disposition.
Principle 7: Targeted durability, not immortality, should be a design goal.
Principle 8: Design for unnecessary capacity or capability (e.g., one size fits all)
solutions should be considered a design flaw.
Principle 9: Material diversity in multicomponent products should be minimized to
promote disassembly and value retention.
Principle 10: Design of products, processes, and systems must include integration
and interconnectivity with available energy and materials flows.
Principle 11: Products, processes, and systems should be designed for performance
in a commercial afterlife.
Principle 12: Material and energy inputs should be renewable rather
3. Sustainable engineering, which is sometimes called green engineering, is the
design and construction of products that conserve natural resources and exert the
smallest possible impact on the environment. Conventional engineering designs
strive to minimize cost and maximize performance. Green engineering often results
in products that are neither the most cost-effective nor the longest lived, but

engineers and consumers across the globe are realizing that sustainability is a
critical feature.
Many governments now offer tax incentives to projects that feature sustainable
design and construction. In the United States, many projects funded with
government monies are now required by law to incorporate sustainability principles
in their design and function. This is an especially important consideration in the
design and construction of large public works such as transportation infrastructure,
water and wastewater treatment facilities, and government office buildings.
Residential home construction is a field where sustainable design principles are
increasingly evident. Home buyers are increasingly aware of their environment and
wish to make socially conscious purchases. They are willing to pay more for designs
that use less energy, that create less pollution, that maximize the use of natural
lighting and shade, and that promote responsible forestry.
In order to tap into this growing residential market, design professionals must be
trained in solar day lighting principles. They must understand passive energy
building techniques, know which lumber yards feature wood products harvested
from managed forests, and be conscious of the differences between materials
sourced from different countries.
The incorporation of solar water heaters, solar-powered appliances, and solar
photovoltaic or wind turbine microgenerators into comfortable living designs is
extremely attractive in the current home market. Many engineering and
architectural schools offer courses that focus on these specific design elements.
Green design is not always easy. Consumers still wish to receive the best possible
products within sustainable design constraints. The incorporation of sustainable
products that still yield acceptable life cycle values requires special training,
knowledge of available materials, and steps to verify that materials are being
sustainably produced.
In addition to buying greener residences, consumers also prefer doing business with
companies exhibiting sustainable practices when given a choice. Companies that
advertise as green companies are likely to attract more business than conventional
manufacturing companies. Training in sustainable practices is a definite plus when
interviewing for a position with these companies.
The constraints under which for-profit businesses operate are obviously different
from the single-purchase considerations of home buyers, but many green design
principles are still applicable. In a manufacturing environment, energy conservation
yields significantly higher returns than the relatively simple utility savings realized
in a residential setting. Manufacturing facilities typically occupy larger structures
and provide more rooftop square footage for solar photovoltaic panel placement.
While it is certainly possible to retrofit residential or commercial structures to be
greener, it is much more efficient to build structures that have these features from
the start. Green building design begins with the location and orientation of the

building. Buildings which are constructed to make use of natural lighting and heat
distribution patterns have a large head start over buildings where these concerns
must be considered after construction. The use of sustainable materials as
insulation, structural support, and wall or flooring materials is also best considered
during the initial design phase. Bamboo flooring, for example, is beautiful, durable,
and sustainable. Replacing oak floorboards with bamboo flooring, however,
achieves nothing. The oak has already been cut and transported. The initial use of
bamboo flooring is a very sustainable and desirable practice. It eliminates the
harvesting and transport of the much slower-growing and less sustainable oak.
These are not considerations that will automatically come to mind. Training in
sustainable practices is valuable for engineering design professionals because it
brings these issues to the forefront of design plans and provides engineers and
architects with facts that can be used to explain why more expensive options can
also be the best options.

4. Pollution is the contamination of air, soil, or water by the discharge of harmful

substances. Pollution prevention is the reduction or elimination of pollution at the
source (source reduction) instead of at the end-of-the-pipe or stack. Pollution
prevention occurs when raw materials, water, energy and other resources are
utilized more efficiently, when less harmful substances are substituted for
hazardous ones, and when toxic substances are eliminated from the production
process. By reducing the use and production of hazardous substances, and by
operating more efficiently we protect human health, strengthen our economic wellbeing, and preserve the environment.
Source reduction allows for the greatest and quickest improvements in
environmental protection by avoiding the generation of waste and harmful
emissions. Source reduction makes the regulatory system more efficient by
reducing the need for end-of-pipe environmental control by government.
NPPR supports multi-media P2 approaches which work to solve environmental
problems holistically and do not only focus on pollution in a single medium (air,
land, or water). Well-intentioned rules, regulations and solutions that are not multimedia sometimes exacerbate existing conditions by creating larger problems to
other media that are not accounted for by a single media-specific solution. Many
times this can result in the transfer of pollution from one medium to another. For
example, in some cases, by requiring hazardous air emission controls for industrial
facilities, other problems might result, such as pollutants being transferred to
underground drinking water through the residual sludge.

Pollution prevention can be accomplished by the following methods:

Design. Make products, buildings, manufacturing systems and services
resource-efficient throughout their life cycle by incorporating environmental
considerations in their design.
Process Changes. Rethink manufacturing and service processes to reduce
production waste, cutting both pollution and costs.
Materials Substitution. Use alternative and less-toxic materials for
cleaning, coating, lubrication and other processes. Achieve equivalent results while

preventing costly hazardous waste generation, air emissions, and worker health
risks.
Materials Reuse. One companys wastes may be another companys raw
materials. Finding markets for them reduces solid waste and virgin resource use,
increases seller income, and provides buyers with an economical resource supply.
Resource Efficiency. Use energy, water and other inputs more efficiently to
keep air and water clean, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, cut operating costs,
and improve productivity.
Improved Work Practices. Rethink day-to-day operations and maintenance
activities to root out wasteful management practices that drive up costs and cause
pollution.

5. Pollution prevention became a national policy with the Pollution Prevention Act of
1990. The Act established the waste management hierarchy:

Source reduction & prevention (high benefit to the environment)

Recycling (medium benefit to the environment)
Treatment (low benefit to the environment)
Disposal (least benefit to the environment)

6. Definition of terms :
A. Biomimicry is an approach to innovation that seeks sustainable
solutions to human challenges by emulating natures time-tested
patterns and strategies.The goal is to create products, processes, and
policiesnew ways of livingthat are well-adapted to life on earth over the
long haul.The core idea is that nature has already solved many of the
problems we are grappling with. Animals, plants, and microbes are the
consummate engineers. After billions of years of research and development,
failures are fossils, and what surrounds us is the secret to survival.
B. A causal loop diagram (CLD) is a causal diagram that aids in visualizing how
different variables in a system are interrelated. The diagram consists of a set
of nodes and edges. Nodes represent the variables and edges are the links
that represent a connection or a relation between the two variables. A link
marked positive indicates a positive relation and a link marked negative
indicates a negative relation. A positive causal link means the two nodes

change in the same direction, i.e. if the node in which the link starts
decreases, the other node also decreases. Similarly, if the node in which the
link starts increases, the other node increases as well. A negative causal link
means the two nodes change in opposite directions, i.e. if the node in which
the link starts increases, the other node decreases and vice versa.
Closed cycles in the diagram are very important features of the CLDs. A closed
cycle is either defined as a reinforcing orbalancing loop. A reinforcing loop
is a cycle in which the effect of a variation in any variable propagates through
the loop and returns to the variable reinforcing the initial deviation i.e. if a
variable increases in a reinforcing loop the effect through the cycle will return
an increase to the same variable and vice versa. A balancing loop is the cycle
in which the effect of a variation in any variable propagates through the loop
and returns to the variable a deviation opposite to the initial one i.e. if a
variable increases in a balancing loop the effect through the cycle will return a
decrease

to

the

same

variable

and

vice

versa.

If a variable varies in a reinforcing loop the effect of the change reinforces the
initial variation. The effect of the variation will then create another reinforcing
effect. Without breaking the loop the system will be caught in a vicious cycles
of circular chain reactions. For this reason, closed loops are critical features in
the CLDs.
C. Ecodesign is an approach to designing product with special consideration for
the environmental impacts of the product during its whole lifecycle. In a life
cycle assessment, the life cycle of a product is usually divided into
procurement,

manufacture,

use,

and

disposal.Ecodesign

is

growing

responsibility and understanding of our ecological footprint on the planet.

Green

awareness,

overpopulation,

industrialization

and

an

increased

environmental population have led to the questioning of consumer values. It is

imperative to search for new building solutions that are environmentally
friendly and lead to a reduction in the consumption of materials and energy.
D. Eco-Efficiency has been proposed as one of the main tools to promote a
transformation

from

unsustainable

development

to

one

of sustainable

development.[2] It is based on the concept of creating more goods and services

while using fewer resources and creating less waste and pollution. It is
measured as the ratio between the (added) value of what has been produced

(e.g. GDP) and the (added) environment impacts of the product or service
(e.g. S02 emissions).

[2]

The term was coined by the World Business Council

for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) in its 1992 publication Changing

Course, and at the 1992 Earth Summit, eco-efficiency was endorsed as a new
business concept and means for companies to implement Agenda 21 in the
private sector.[3] Ergo the term has become synonymous with a management
philosophy geared towards sustainability, combing ecological and economic
efficiency.[3]
E. Green chemistry, also called sustainable chemistry, is a philosophy of
chemical research and engineering that encourages the design of products
and processes that minimize the use and generation of hazardous substances.
[1]

Whereas environmental

chemistry is

the

chemistry

of

the

natural

environment, and of pollutant chemicals in nature, green chemistry seeks to

reduce

the

negative

impact

of

chemistry

on

the

environment

by

preventing pollution at its source and using fewer natural resources.

F. Impact assessments are carried out to assess the consequences of individual
projects -- Environmental Impact Assessment -- or of policies and
programmes --Strategic Environmental Assessment.
Environmental Impact Assessment
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process of evaluating the likely
environmental impacts of a proposed project or development, taking into
account inter-related socio-economic, cultural and human-health impacts,
both beneficial and adverse.
UNEP defines Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) as a tool used to
identify the environmental, social and economic impacts of a project prior to
decision-making. It aims to predict environmental impacts at an early stage in
project planning and design, find ways and means to reduce adverse impacts,
shape projects to suit the local environment and present the predictions and
options to decision-makers. By using EIA both environmental and economic
benefits can be achieved, such as reduced cost and time of project
implementation and design, avoided treatment/clean-up costs and impacts of
laws and regulations.
Although legislation and practice vary around the world, the fundamental
components of an EIA would necessarily involve the following stages:

G.

Screening to determine which projects or developments require a full or

partial impact assessment study;
Scoping to identify which potential impacts are relevant to assess (based on
legislative requirements, international conventions, expert knowledge and
public involvement), to identify alternative solutions that avoid, mitigate or
compensate adverse impacts on biodiversity (including the option of not
proceeding with the development, finding alternative designs or sites which
avoid the impacts, incorporating safeguards in the design of the project, or
providing compensation for adverse impacts), and finally to derive terms of
reference for the impact assessment;
Assessment and evaluation of impacts and development of
alternatives, to predict and identify the likely environmental impacts of a
proposed project or development, including the detailed elaboration of
alternatives;
Reporting the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) or EIA report,
including an environmental management plan (EMP), and a non-technical
summary for the general audience.
Review of the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), based on the
terms of reference (scoping) and public (including authority) participation.
Decision-making on whether to approve the project or not, and under what
conditions; and
Monitoring, compliance, enforcement and environmental auditing.
Monitor whether the predicted impacts and proposed mitigation measures
occur as defined in the EMP. Verify the compliance of proponent with the EMP,
to ensure that unpredicted impacts or failed mitigation measures are
identified and addressed in a timely fashion.
Industrial ecology (IE) is the study of material and energy flows through
industrial systems. The global industrial economy can be modeled as a
network of industrial processes that extract resources from the Earth and
transform those resources into commodities which can be bought and sold to
meet the needs of humanity. Industrial ecology seeks to quantify the material
flows and document the industrial processes that make modern society
function. Industrial ecologists are often concerned with the impacts that
industrial activities have on the environment, with use of the planet's supply
of natural resources, and with problems of waste disposal. Industrial ecology is
a young but growing multidisciplinary field of research which combines
aspects of engineering, economics, sociology, toxicology and the natural
sciences.
Industrial ecology has been defined as a "systems-based, multidisciplinary
discourse that seeks to understand emergent behaviour of complex
integrated

human/natural

systems". [1] The

field

approaches

issues

of sustainability by examining problems from multiple perspectives, usually

involving aspects of sociology, the environment, economyand technology.
The name comes from the idea that the analogy of natural systems should be
used as an aid in understanding how to design sustainable industrial systems.
[2]

Industrial Ecology is the study of industrial systems aimed at identifying

and implementing strategies that reduce their environmental impact.
Industries, such as manufacturing and energy plants, extract raw materials
and natural resources from the earth and transform them into products and
services that meet the demands of the population.
Industrial ecology was developed as a way to better understand the impact
industry has on the environment. Therefore, industrial ecologists, or those
who study industrial ecology, work to understand the industrial systems that
are in place and find ways to use fewer natural resources and find new uses
for waste materials or byproducts.
Industrial ecologists approach problems with the mindset that industrial
systems can become more efficient and sustainable if the problems are
looked at from all directions. Therefore, it is right to think of industrial ecology
as a multidisciplinary field that combines aspects of economics, engineering,
sociology, technology and environmental science.
H. Waste minimization is a process of elimination that involves reducing the
amount of waste produced in society and helps eliminate the generation of
harmful and persistent wastes, supporting the efforts to promote a more
sustainable society.[1]Waste minimisation involves redesigning products and/or
changing societal patterns, concerning consumption and production, of waste
generation, to prevent the creation of waste. [2]The most environmentally
resourceful, economically efficient, and cost effective way to manage waste is
to not have to address the problem in the first place. Waste minimisation
should be seen as a primary focus for most waste managementstrategies.
Proper waste management can require a significant amount of time and
resources; therefore, it is important to understand the benefits of waste
minimisation and how it can be implemented in all sectors of the economy, in
an effective, safe and sustainable manner. [2]The basic concept behind waste
management is the waste hierarchy, where the most effective approaches to
managing waste are at the top. Waste management is in contrast to waste
minimisation. Waste management focuses on processing waste after it is
created, concentrating on re-use,recycling, and waste-to-energy conversion
rather than eliminating the creation of waste in the initial phases of
production.[2] Waste

minimisation

minimizeresource and energy use

involves

during

efforts

manufacture.

For

the

to
same

commercial output, usually the less materials are used, the less waste is
produced. Waste minimisation usually requires knowledge of the production
process, cradle-to-grave

analysis (the

tracking

of

materials

from

their

extraction to their return to earth) and detailed knowledge of the composition

of the waste.The main sources of waste vary from country to country. In

the UK, most waste comes from the construction and demolition of buildings,
followed by mining and quarrying, industry and commerce. [3] Household waste
constitutes a relatively small proportion of all waste. Reasons for the creation
of waste sometimes include requirements in the supply chain. For example, a
company handling a product may insist that it should be packaged using
particular packing because it fits its packaging equipment.
I.

In biology, a life cycle is a series of changes in form that an organism

undergoes, returning to the starting state. "The concept is closely related to
those of the life history, development and ontogeny, but differs from them in
stressing

renewal."[1] Transitions

of

form

may

involve

growth, asexual

reproduction, and/or sexual reproduction.

In some organisms, different "generations" of the species succeed
each other during the life cycle. For plants and many algae, there are two
multicellular stages, and the life cycle is referred to as alternation of
generations. The term life history is often used,[citation needed]particularly for
organisms such as the red algae which have three multicellular stages (or
more), rather than two.[2]