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I. INTRODUCTION
OLTAGE sags are the most incident disturbances inflicting the power system. Surveys indicated that 92% of
interruptions in industrial facilities may occur due to voltage
sags [1]. The economic impact to the industries and utilities is
severe due to equipment damage and loss of production [2].
To mitigate this problem, the utilities can invest in the power
system design in order to reduce the faults incidence and the
time for their clearance. Also, redundant lines can be installed
to feed critical loads [3]. Unfortunately, these solutions are
complex and costly to implement. This enables local-based
alternatives where some equipment is fixed in the system-load
Manuscript received August 05, 2013; revised January 28, 2014 and March
07, 2014; accepted March 09, 2014. This work was supported by the Brazilian
Research Council (CNPq) through project processes nos. 482736/2011-9,
454638/2012-4, and 420442/2013-8. Paper no. TPWRD-00876-2013.
D. A. Fernandes is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Federal
University of Paraba (UFPB), Joo Pessoa PB, 58.051-900, Brazil (e-mail:
darlan@cear.ufpb.br).
F. F. Costa is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Federal University of Bahia (UFBA), Salvador BA, 40210630, Brazil (e-mail: fabiano.
costa@ufba.br).
M. A. Vitorino is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Center of
Electrical Engineering and Informatics, Federal University of Campina Grande
(UFCG), Campina Grande- PB, 58.429-900, Brazil (e-mail: vitorino@dee.ufcg.
edu.br).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2014.2311577
0885-8977 2014 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
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2
load during a certain period. In [14], the controller uses the magnitude of the positive-sequence component of the line voltages
to identify voltage sags. The flux is estimated by means of the
integral of the voltage and whenever it reaches a given limit, the
voltage is set to zero. The method proposed in [15] also makes
use of the flux estimation in order to limit the compensating voltages. The voltage injection action is divided into three intervals.
Between the sag detection instant and one-sixth of the fundamental period , after the sag detection, the injected compensating voltage is fully applied to compensate the sag. Between
and
, the injected voltage is adjusted to zero. From the
instant
on, after the detection, again the full compensating
voltage is applied. In [16], two methods for flux-linkage control are presented. In the first one, the compensating voltage be
multiplied by half during the first half fundamental cycle after
the sag detection instant and, after this period, the full compensating voltage is used. This ensures that the dc flux is wiped off.
The second method predicts, at the detection instant, whether
the flux will surpass the maximum limit within half a cycle past
the zero cross. If the flux is exceeded, then it is introduced a form
factor to limit the compensating voltage. This method has the
advantage of allowing a level of voltage to be injected through
the transformers during all periods of the sag.
The inrush control systems for all of the aforementioned
works rely on the estimation of the load voltage phasors to
compute the compensating voltages. Some works employ the
standard least-squares error to estimate these phasors [17],
[18], notwithstanding, in general, that the techniques for estimating them are not exploited or discussed by the authors.
This paper expands the ideas developed in [16] by dealing with
the possibility of more restrictive limits for the saturation in
the transformers core. In addition, it proposes the use of an
adaptive RLS-based technique for the estimation of phasors,
suitable to be incorporated to the compensation voltage control
as well as the inrush control. The voltage phasor amplitudes are
employed to verify whether the flux surpasses the transformers
flux limit. The RLS algorithm necessarily includes a transition
time before its estimation achieves a constant level. In the
proposed method, it is assumed that the DVR system should
not operate before it has a stabilized reference for the sag.
Therefore, this paper also proposes a simple procedure to detect
whether the RLS estimation reaches a constant value for the
estimation of phasors.
II. METHOD FOR CONTROLLING SATURATION
This section devises the method of controlling saturation proposed in this paper. The fundamental idea is to constrain the
compensating voltage
by multiplying it by a form factor .
In order to accomplish such a goal, one must predict, at the moment of the sag detection, the value for the form factor to be
applied up to the end of the next half cycle (or the next whole
cycle) of the compensating voltage after the sag detection and
keep the flux at its limit value. In general, can be described as
(2)
Solving (2) and assuming that the transformer is demagnetized,
0 at the
0, the following expression for the flux
that is,
is obtained:
(3)
The first part of (3) represents the ac component of the flux,
while the second one is its dc component. Whenever the injected
voltage started at a zero cross, that is,
, the peak of
the flux reaches its maximum value. For instance, if
,
the expression for the flux is given by
(4)
The technique proposed in this paper is inspired by the one
described in [16]. Consider Fig. 2, where the injected voltage
starts at angle . It is possible to predict the maximum excursion
for the flux linkage through the following integration:
(5)
where is a form factor which is first set to unity. Note that between and
, the injected voltage contributes positively to
the flux. Between
and
, the voltage contributes negatively to the flux. Therefore, in the situation depicted in Fig. 2,
at the angle
, the flux reaches its minimum value. If the
module of the prediction provides a value higher than the allowed limit for the transformer, then the parameter must be
adjusted to a value which restricts the amplitude to be equal to
the lower limit. Thus, if
, make
in (5)
and find as
(6)
Applying the factor , computed through (6), to the compensating voltage during its negative semicycle, ensures that the
flux will not surpass the minimum limit. When the injected
voltage starts within a negative semicycle, at the point
,
is predicted through
(7)
, the injected voltage is required to be scaled by
If
the form factor computed by
(1)
where and are, respectively, the fundamental frequency and
the initial phase of the compensating voltage. By Faradays law,
(8)
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FERNANDES et al.: METHOD FOR AVERTING SATURATION FROM SERIES TRANSFORMERS
A. RLS Estimator
To model voltages acquired from power systems, it is usual
to describe them as a sum of sinusoids, with one being the
fundamental, and the others being harmonics. If the voltage is
corrupted by harmonics, this representation ensures that the dynamics of the harmonics do not contaminate the parameters estimation related to the fundamental sinusoid. Hence, denoting
the data of voltages by , the model is a sum of sinusoids
provided by
(11)
It must be noted that the procedure described before only
shifts the flux curve so that, up to end of the semicycle, subsequently after the start of the voltage injection, its value is not
higher than the transformers flux limit. It still remains a dc component which can cause the flux value to surpass the allowed
limit within the subsequent opposite semicycle. Therefore, in
the proposed method, the condition
(9)
where
and
are, respectively, the amplitude and the
phase of the sinusoid of
frequency, and is the time index.
The time interval
is the sampling period. Its selection does
not interfere with the RLS performance once the Nyquist criterion is observed [19]. The first of the sinusoids is related to the
fundamental phasor. The model described by (11) is not applicable for the RLS algorithm. The parameters
are not linear
with respect to the model . Thus, the model is rewritten as
must be verified. Note that is the peak value for the compensating voltage. If the condition (9) is not observed, the compensating voltage must be computed as
(10)
where
.
The method implementation is carried out in such a manner
that, whenever the initial phase is detected within the interval
from
up to , it must be subtracted by . This is necessary because the RLS algorithm computes ranging from 0 up
and leaves out the interval
up to 0.
In the proposed method, there is a need to compute the amplitude and phase of the compensating voltage. This task is carried
out by a recursive least squares method [19] which, for each
instant, updates the amplitude and phase estimation. This is discussed in the next section. Furthermore, the DVR voltage correction only takes place in the moment where the estimation for
the parameters is stabilized, that is, during the estimation transient when there is no compensating voltage injected into the
grid. The proposed method is applied for each one of the three
phases, accordingly to the flowchart depicted in Fig. 3.
III. COMPENSATING VOLTAGE CONSTRUCTION
The compensating voltage construction applied in this paper
makes use of an RLS algorithm which computes the amplitude
and the phase for each sample of the grid voltage
. The
RLS algorithm is applied for each one of the three grid phases.
It is worth emphasizing that the DVR is not meant to compensate the voltage while the RLS estimation is in its transient period. Therefore, in this paper, a method is proposed for flagging
whether the RLS estimation is stable. The next subsection is
dedicated to explain the RLS algorithm used in this paper. The
following one outlines the procedure in which the compensating
voltage is only injected when the RLS estimation is constant.
(12)
where
tions
and
(13)
(14)
Equation (12) can compactly be written as
(15)
where
(16)
and
is a vector of parameters to be determined and whose
elements are given by
(17)
It should be noted that the subscript in
refers to the
estimation of the parameters carried out for the instant
.
For instance, the element
is the estimation of
for the
instant
.
The discordance between the data signal and its model
at a given instant is the prediction error
, provided by
(18)
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(19)
where
is a gain given by
(20)
where and are arbitrarily adjusted. This algorithms structure is suitable for the proposed flux control application. The
monitoring of the error
can be used not only to provide
adaptability for the RLS, but also to detect the voltage sag.
The DVR action must be performed only after the transient
of the parameters estimation. Thus, the next subsection outlines
a simple manner of detecting when the transient is finished, that
is, a mean of detecting the constant level for the parameters
estimation.
B. Constant Level Detection
In order to detect a constant level for the parameters estimation, one can average an -length moving window for the estimation of the amplitude
through the equation
(23)
where is the last sample of the amplitude estimation. This
average can be used to compute a sum given by
(24)
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FERNANDES et al.: METHOD FOR AVERTING SATURATION FROM SERIES TRANSFORMERS
(25)
TABLE I
SIMULATED SYSTEM PARAMETERS
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Fig. 5. Simulated results for the DVR system: Case I. (a) Voltage sags on
phases A and B. (b) Amplitude estimation of phase-A. (c) Compensating voltages injected by the DVR. (d) Flux linkages in the transformers. (e) Corrected
voltages applied to the load.
Fig. 6. Simulated results for the DVR system: Case II. (a) Voltage sags on
phases A and B. (b) Amplitude estimation of phase-A. (c) Compensating voltages injected by the DVR. (d) Flux linkages in the transformers. (e) Corrected
voltages applied to the load.
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FERNANDES et al.: METHOD FOR AVERTING SATURATION FROM SERIES TRANSFORMERS
Fig. 8. Experimental dynamic voltage restorer. (a) Power stage. (b) Control
and acquisition system.
Fig. 7. Simulated results for the DVR system: Case III. (a) Voltage sag on
phase-A. (b) Amplitude estimation of phase-A. (c) Compensating voltage injected by the DVR. (d) Flux linkage in the transformer. (e) Corrected voltages
applied to the load.
in toroidal shape. These characteristics minimize the leakage inductance. The transformer is rated 1 kVA and the ratio of turns
of the secondary to the primary circuit is 1:1.
The first result shown in this section is in regards to the determination of the saturation value for the DVRs transformers.
Toward this purpose, it has been set a measurement circuit with
capacitors and resistors. Fig. 9 shows the experimental result
for the hysteresis curve for the transformer. The extreme points
of this curve represent the beginning of saturation. To the right
of this curve, the extreme point is (5.94;37.90) V. The second
coordinate is relative to the maximum value of the flux
,
which is 0.38 Wbturn.
Fig. 10 summarizes three different cases of voltage sags corrected by the DVR system. In the first case, the compensating
voltages constrained (solid) and nonconstrained (dashed) start
at 15 ms as shown in Fig. 10(a). The associated flux curves
are shown in Fig. 10(d). It can be noticed that the dashed flux
curve exceeds the minimum limit. By means of (5), the proposed
method predicts, at 15 ms, whether the flux will exceed the imposed limit. Thus, through (6), a form factor to restrain the
compensating voltage is computed and its related flux linkage
is shown by the solid line.
5 V/div, V.
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Fig. 10. Experimental DVR compensations and their associated flux-linkage curves. (a) (c) Compensating voltages with and without the control of saturation.
(d)(f) Associated flux-linkage curves.
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FERNANDES et al.: METHOD FOR AVERTING SATURATION FROM SERIES TRANSFORMERS