294

Int. J. Environmental Technology and Management, Vol. 14, Nos. 1/2/3/4, 2011

A model for assessment of energy utilisation

within an urban centre
P.A. Jayasinghe, A.K. Mehrotra*
and J.P.A. Hettiaratchi
Centre for Environmental Engineering
Research & Education (CEERE),
Schulich School of Engineering,
University of Calgary,
Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
Email: pjayasin@ucalgary.ca
Email: mehrotra@ucalgary.ca
Email: jhettiar@ucalgary.ca
*Corresponding author
Abstract: This paper presents development of a model for analysis of energy
and exergy utilisation within an urban centre of Calgary, Canada. The analysis
began with the detailed assessment of energy resource utilisation patterns and
energy flows across six different energy consuming sectors, namely energy
generation, residential, commercial, industrial, transportation and agricultural.
For each sector, the energy and exergy efficiencies were determined. Calgarys
overall energy and exergy efficiencies were found to be 40.9% and 15.7%,
respectively. Thereafter, the developed model was used to identify energy and
exergy losses in different sectors and potential areas for improvement. It was
determined that, by switching coal with natural gas by 50%, the CO2 emissions
can be reduced by 24.3%. In addition, as much as 31.5% reduction in emissions
is also possible by reducing the electricity usage up to 50%.
Keywords: energy efficiency; exergy efficiency; energy utilisation; ecological
footprint.
Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Jayasinghe, P.A.,
Mehrotra, A.K. and Hettiaratchi, J.P.A. (2011) A model for assessment of
energy utilisation within an urban centre, Int. J. Environmental Technology
and Management, Vol. 14, Nos. 1/2/3/4, pp.294309.
Biographical notes: P.A. Jayasinghe is a doctoral student in the Department of
Chemical and Petroleum Engineering and the Centre for Environmental
Engineering Research & Education (CEERE), Schulich School of Engineering,
University of Calgary, Canada. She obtained BSc (Hons) and MSc degrees
in Chemical and Process Engineering from the University of Moratuwa,
Sri Lanka, and an MSc with specialisation in Energy & Environment from the
University of Calgary.
A.K. Mehrotra is Professor and Director of the Centre for Environmental
Engineering Research & Education (CEERE) at the University of Calgary.
His research interests include transport and thermophysical properties of
heavy crude oils, wax deposition in pipelines, and energy and environmental
engineering. He is a registered professional engineer, a fellow of CIC, and a
member of CSChE. He received a BE (Hons) in Chemical Engineering from

Copyright 2011 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

A model for assessment of energy utilisation

295

Birla Institute of Technology & Science (BITS, Pilani, India), an MEng

in Environmental Engineering from Asian Institute of Technology (AIT,
Bangkok, Thailand), and a PhD from the University of Calgary.
J.P.A. Hettiaratchi is Professor of Environmental Engineering at the University
of Calgary. He has been active in teaching, research and consulting in the areas
of solid and hazardous waste management, greenhouse gas emission control,
contaminated sites management and landfill technology. He has received
extensive public and industrial funding for research in Biocell technology and
methane emission control. He has authored more than 100 papers in refereed
journals, conference proceedings, and technical reports. His internationalisation
initiatives have led to successful collaborative partnerships in several Asian
and Latin American countries. He has received a number of national and
international awards.

Introduction

The ecological footprint of the city of Calgary has been estimated to be 9.86 hectares per
capita, which is among the highest for Canadian municipalities (Wilson and Anielski,
2005). Calgary, a municipality in the western Canadian province of Alberta, has a population
of over one million people. The net migration to Calgary is positive and this should
continue to be a significant contributor to its population growth. An ever increasing
population base should further increase the energy usage by Calgary.
The major sources of energy in Calgary are fossil fuels, mainly coal, natural gas, and
crude oil. These fossil fuel reserves are finite and non-renewable and the production,
transformation, and consumption of fossil fuels are causing substantial increase in the
atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs). Recent research has shown that
increased emissions of GHG may contribute to warming of the earths surface and
atmosphere (Luiz and Roberto, 2000). Another consideration related to energy use is its
potential impact on an urban centres ecological footprint. Energy usage is one of the
critical contributors to ecological footprint; larger footprints are associated with higher
energy consumption and usage of more carbon-intensive energy sources. Therefore, it
becomes increasingly important to develop a systematic approach for investigating the
current energy resource utilisation patterns and energy efficiencies within an urban
community, which will lead to a reduction in the overall energy cost, GHG emissions and
ecological footprint.
There has been an increasing interest among the research community in recent years
towards developing an improved energy utilisation and efficiency technique. Such research
efforts have resulted in the development and application of energy and exergy modelling
technique for undertaking energy utilisation assessment. The energy and exergy modelling
technique were first introduced by Reistad (1975) with specific applications in the USA.
Since then, others have applied energy and exergy modelling in a number of situations in
other countries. For example, applications have been reported from Nigeria (Badmus and
Osunleke, 2010), Jordan (Al-Ghandoor and Jaber, 2009), Saudi Arabia (Dincer et al.,
2004), UK (Hammond and Stapleton, 2001), Norway (Ertesvag and Mielnic, 2000),
Canada (Rosen, 1992) and Japan (Omar and Gautam, 1991).

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P.A. Jayasinghe, A.K. Mehrotra and J.P.A. Hettiaratchi

Exergy analysis is a modern thermodynamic method which is used as an advanced

and useful tool for evaluation of the engineering process (Utlu and Hepbasli, 2007).
The energy analysis provides the basis for developing an exergy analysis. From the
thermodynamic point of view, exergy is defined as the maximum amount of work which
can be produced by a system as it comes to equilibrium with a reference environment
(Cengel and Boles, 1998). The energy analysis is based on the first law of thermodynamics,
whereas the exergy analysis is based on both the first and the second law of
thermodynamics. Therefore, exergy is the most significant component to distinguish high
and low quality energy sources and its utilisation in various processes. This cannot be
achieved by energy analysis alone since it gives information on the quantity, but not on
the quality of energy. Both analyses also utilise the mass balance for the system (Dincer
et al., 2004).
A detailed study was undertaken to improve the effectiveness of the energy utilisation
and to lower the energy consumption and wastage in an urban centre which are discussed
in this paper. In this analysis, a detailed methodology for evaluating energy and exergy
utilisation pattern for the city of Calgary was developed and applied to (a) determine the
sectoral energy and exergy utilisation efficiencies, and (b) develop and analyse the energy
and exergy flow diagrams to identify the energy and exergy improvement potential.

Theoretical considerations

To undertake the energy and exergy analyses for a given system, basic relationships were
developed.

2.1 Exergy due to heat transfer

The amount of thermal exergy transfer (ExQ) associated with heat transfer (Qr) across a
system boundary at constant temperature Tr is given by (Cengel and Boles, 1998):

ExQ = 1 (To Tr ) Q r

(1)

where ExQ (in J), Qr, Tr and To are exergy due to heat transfer, amount of heat transfer,
process temperature and reference temperature, respectively.

2.2 Exergy transfer by work

The exergy transfer with work such as shaft work and electrical work is equal to the work
itself and the exergy transfer by work can be expressed as (Cengel and Boles, 1998):
ExW = W
W

(2)

where, Ex and W are exergy transfer by work, and work, respectively.

By using these two definitions, the relationships were developed for energy and
exergy efficiencies.

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297

2.3 Heating/cooling process

Heating and cooling processes involve the transfer of heat at a certain rate, Qp, at a
constant temperature, Tp. The energy and exergy efficiencies can be related to (electrical)
heating or cooling as follows.
Energy Efficiency; =

Exergy Efficiency; =

Qp
We
Q
E p To Q p To
= 1
= 1
We
E
Tp We Tp

(3)

(4)

2.4 Work production

The energy and exergy efficiencies for the production of work (from electricity) are:

W
We

(5)

EW W
=
=
EWe We

(6)

where and are the energy and exergy efficiencies, respectively.

Methodology adopted for the study

Calgary is the largest city in the province of Alberta with the geographical size of
722 km2 (Statistics Canada, 2007). Calgarys economy is mainly dominated by the
petroleum industry; however, tourism, agricultural and manufacturing industries also
contribute to the citys economic growth. The hydrocarbons (gasoline, diesel and natural
gas) were the most common form of consumed energy sources in Calgary in year 2005. It
is also clear from available data that the two primary electricity generation sources in
Calgary are coal and natural gas. In addition, a relatively small quantity of electricity
consumed is generated from renewable sources, such as hydropower, wind and solar
(Statistics Canada, 2007).
In this study, a detailed assessment of energy and exergy usage was carried out
through mass, energy and exergy balances for different energy-consuming sectors. The
first step in this analysis was to develop a comprehensive energy flow chart from primary
energy sources to the end use of energy and to identify material, energy and exergy
flows. Then, the sectoral and overall energy efficiency (EE) and exergy efficiency (ExE)
were calculated to identify the energy and exergy losses and energy-saving opportunities.

3.1 Energy flow chart

The comprehensive energy flow chart was developed to identify where and how
processes are using energy which is shown in Figure 1.

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Figure 1

P.A. Jayasinghe, A.K. Mehrotra and J.P.A. Hettiaratchi

Energy flow chart from energy sources to energy utilisation (see online version for colours)

In general, the energy supply chain begins with the primary energy sources, such as coal,
hydropower, etc. The energy transformation systems convert the primary energy sources
into usable forms, such as electricity. The useful forms of energy are consumed by
different energy-consuming sectors in the community which are sub-grouped as residential,
commercial, industrial, transportation and agriculture. Finally, these are further split into
energy utilisation components, such as heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC)
systems, lighting, etc. Energy losses occur throughout the entire system and hence, the
relative losses and energy improvement opportunities could be identified throughout the
energy footprint.
The first part of the energy flow chart, which starts from primary energy sources
and end up with consumable forms, was analysed using a process analysis approach.
This analysis started with the primary energy source exploration stage followed by the
processing steps and power generation. The second part of the energy flow chart starts
with the energy consumers, and was analysed based on the weighted mean efficiency
concept (Dincer et al., 2004).
In order to analyse the energy utilisation within a community, the overall energy
statistics were used. Reliable site-specific data could not be located from either the
electricity supplier or the municipal office of the city of Calgary. The energy consumption

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data for the province of Alberta were taken from Office of Energy Efficiencys National
Energy Use Database (NEUD) for the year 2005 and extrapolated in order to generate
data for Calgary.

Results and discussion

4.1 Modelling of the energy generation sector

4.1.1 Energy from coal
Coal power generation provides about 82% of Calgarys total electricity demand and is
therefore crucial to the citys energy supply (Statistics Canada, 2007). In this analysis,
coal power generation system was sub-divided into three main stages and analysed in
detail with the material balance. Figure 2 presents the developed energy system model
for the coal power generation cycle. It shows that 100 kg of mined coal can generate
258 kWh of electricity. The corresponding emission, waste and losses were also
calculated as 313.2 kg and 12.5 kg, respectively.
Figure 2

Detailed material balance for coal power generation in Alberta

Emissions (kg)

Emissions (kg)

Emissions (kg)

2.1

CO2

5.8

CO2

262.8

CO2

0.1

Other

0.9

Other

31.8

H 2O

9.7

other

Raw coal (kg)

Processed coal (kg)

Coal Mining

Coal Processing
100.0

258.0
Power Plant

88.4
88.4

Losses (kg)
1.0

Fuel (kg) Waste & losses (kg)

3.0

8.0

Electricity (kwhe)

Waste Thermal
Energy (kwht)
548.2

O2 (kg) Ash (kg)

219.5

3.5

Using an approach similar to the one used in coal power generation, material balance
flow sheets were developed for each of the other primary energy sources. The material
balance flow sheets were then used to estimate the emissions, waste and losses and
primary energy source requirement per kWh of electricity generation in Calgary. The
results are summarised in Table 1. Although the nuclear power and biofuel do not play a
role in Calgarys energy sector, these sources of energy might be considered as a future
option. Therefore, the nuclear power and biofuel were also included in this analysis.
Energy generation from biomass combustion is the least efficient but it produces the
highest amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) and waste heat per kWh of electricity. It is also
noted that the coal power plants are the next in terms of the level of CO2 produced
per unit of electricity generated, with more than twice the emissions of natural gas power
plants. The other emissions include methane, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and
water vapour.

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Table 1

P.A. Jayasinghe, A.K. Mehrotra and J.P.A. Hettiaratchi

Material flow per kWh electricity generation using different energy sources
Primary energy
Waste thermal
source
energy
CO2 emissions Other emissions Waste & losses
(kg/kWh)
(kg/kWh)
(kg/kWh)
(kg/kWh)
(kWh/kWh)

Source
Coal

0.38

1.31

0.14

0.03

2.13

Natural gas

0.15

0.40

0.31

0.02

1.05

Nuclear

0.000024

0.004

0.00

0.07

1.99

Biomass

1.65

1.97

0.71

0.59

4.55

Wind, Hydro,
Solar

The material flows were not calculated. The outputs are based on
the contribution of these sources on Calgarys energy demand.

In order to determine the overall EE of Calgarys energy generation sector, the overall
energy input and energy output were calculated. The results are shown in Table 2.
Table 2

Annual energy flow of the Calgarys energy generation sector in 2005

Source

Energy input (PJ)

Energy output (PJ)

Coal

207.11

39.03

Natural gas

256.66

237.04

Nuclear

0.66

0.55

Biomass

0.14

0.28

Wind

2.99

Hydro

5.26

Solar

0.55

Crude oil

282.78

238.60

Firewood

0.13

0.10

747.47

524.20

Total

The overall EE of Calgarys energy generation sector was calculated as 70.13% by

dividing the total energy output with total energy input.
Similarly, by developing an exergy flow scheme for Calgary, the overall ExE of
Calgarys energy sector was calculated as 68.99%, which is coincidently about the same
as the EE. This result indicated that inefficiencies in the energy generation sector are not
caused by mismatch in the input-output quality level but rather by presently available
techniques used for conversion processes.

4.2 Modelling of energy utilisation sector

As shown in Table 3, hydrocarbon fuels, such as gasoline and diesel, were the most
common form of consumed energy sources within the city of Calgary in 2005 and were
used mainly in transportation and industrial sectors. Another important energy source
was natural gas that was consumed by industrial, residential and commercial sectors.

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A model for assessment of energy utilisation

Table 3

Energy use (PJ) in Calgary for 2005 (extrapolated from Alberta energy consumption
data obtained from NEUD)

Energy form/
Energy sector

Thermal
energy

Electricity

Natural gas

Residential

9.2

47.7

0.5

57.4

10.9

Commercial

14.9

29.9

1.7

46.5

8.9

Industrial

48.2

131.0

123.7

3.5

306.4

58.5

0.2

0.0

110.0

110.2

21.0

Transportation
Agricultural

HCs

0.6

0.4

2.9

Total (PJ)

73.1

209.0

238.8

3.5

% of Total

13.9

39.9

45.5

0.7

Total (PJ) % of Total

3.9

0.7

524.4

100.0

4.2.1 Residential sector

The residential sector in Calgary uses energy primarily for HVAC systems, appliances
and lighting. The derived values of the total electricity and fossil fuel consumption in the
residential sector in Calgary for the year 2005 are given in Table 4.
Table 4

The annual energy consumption data for 2005 for the residential sector of Calgary
(extrapolated from Alberta energy consumption data)

Energy form/
End use
Electricity
Natural Gas
Hydrocarbons
Firewood

Energy use (PJ)

% of Total

HVAC

Appliances

Lighting

Total

1.2

5.8

2.1

9.2

16.0

36.5

11.3

0.0

47.7

83.1

0.4

0.03

0.0

0.4

0.7

0.1

0.0

0.0

0.1

Total

38.2

17.1

2.1

57.4

0.2

% of Total

66.5

29.9

3.6

100.0

Each energy end-use process operates within a range of efficiencies, and the efficiency of
these processes is described in terms of energy usage. In this study, the energy
efficiencies for processes were assumed to be the same as those proposed by Dincer et al.
(2004). They are listed in Table 5.
Table 5

Process energy efficiencies for residential sector of Calgary

Energy form/
End use

Energy efficiency (%)

HVAC

Appliances

Lighting

Electricity

90

85

20

Natural gas

80

65

Hydrocarbons

65

60

Firewood

35

Source: Dincer et al. (2004)

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P.A. Jayasinghe, A.K. Mehrotra and J.P.A. Hettiaratchi

To ensure greater precision in data, the weighted mean EE were calculated for each
end-uses of energy. First, the weighted mean EE for each end-use were calculated. The
weighted mean EE for residential HVAC systems, appliances, and lighting were
calculated as 80%, 71.8% and 20%, respectively. Then, the overall weighted mean EE
for the residential sector in Calgary was estimated as 75.3%.
To determine the ExE in residential sector, the relationships presented under the
section theoretical considerations were used. The energy and exergy usages were assumed
to be the same since the quality factor of each energy forms is approximately equal to 1
(Utlu and Hepbasli, 2007). It is also noted that for the electrical and mechanical energy,
the ExE is equal to the EE. The ExE for other processes, such as space heating, cooling,
refrigeration, cooking appliances and water heating were calculated from equation (1).
The process operating data and the reference temperature in the residential sector in
Calgary were assumed to be the same as those proposed by Saidur et al. (2007) and these
values are shown in Table 6.
Table 6

Energy efficiency, product and reference temperature of various processes

End use

Sub-sectors

Exergy use (PJ)

EE (%)

HVAC

Heating

38.2

80.0

298

273

Cooling

0.03

80.0

298

305

Refrigerator

1.7

71.8

265

298

Appliances

Lighting

Product T (K) Reference T (K)

Cooking

1.1

71.8

393

298

Laundry

1.3

71.8

Water heater

11.2

71.8

323

298

Other

1.8

71.8

Bulbs

2.1

20.0

Source: Saidur et al. (2004)

The exergy efficiency of heating was calculated as 6.7%. Similarly, the exergy
efficiencies for other heating and/or cooling processes were calculated using equation (4).
The weighted mean exergy efficiency for residential appliances and lighting were
calculated as 18.7% and 18.5%, respectively. Finally, the overall weighted mean exergy
efficiency for the residential sector in Calgary was estimated as 10.7%. The results of EE
and ExE of each end use in residential sector in Calgary are tabulated in Table 7.
Table 7

Energy and exergy efficiencies of the Calgary residential sector

Process

HVAC

Appliances

Lighting

Overall

EE (%)

80.0

71.8

20.0

75.3

ExE (%)

6.7

18.7

18.5

10.7

4.2.2 Commercial sector

The commercial and institutional sector in Calgary includes activities related to trade,
finance, public administration, education, health, hotels, etc. The EE and ExE for all the
end uses were calculated using the similar approach used in residential sector. The results
are summarised in Table 8.

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Table 8

Energy and exergy efficiencies of the Calgary commercial sector

Process

HVAC

Appliances

Lighting

Overall

EE (%)

79.9

74.7

20.0

67.5

ExE (%)

6.6

4.2

18.5

8.4

4.2.3 Industrial sector

The industrial sector in Alberta comprises many industries, but in this study the four
most significant industries were identified as petroleum, chemical, manufacturing and
construction.
Table 9

Industrial sector energy use in Calgary for year 2005

Energy form/
End use
Construction

Energy use (PJ)

Petroleum

Chemical

Manufacturing

Total energy
(PJ)

% of
Total

Electricity

30.7

7.3

10.2

48.2

15.7

Natural Gas

1.6

83.2

24.4

21.9

131.1

42.8

10.2

88.5

4.7

20.3

123.7

40.4

1.6

1.9

3.5

1.1

11.8

202.4

38.0

54.3

306.5

3.8

66.0

12.4

17.8

100.0

HCs
Thermal
energy
Total
% of Total

Several assumptions and simplifications were made in order to model the industrial
sector. Typically, industrial heating processes were grouped into three categories as
low temperature (<121C), medium temperature (121399C) and high temperature
applications (>399C) (Dincer et al., 2004). However, in this study, an average
temperature for different industries was selected due to non-availability of energy use
data for different temperature ranges. Furthermore, the EE for all the electricity related
activities were assumed as 90%, natural gas devices as 65%, and the hydrocarbon-related
activities as 60%.
The weighted mean EE for the petroleum industry, chemical industry, construction
industry and manufacturing industry were calculated as 66.6%, 69.0%, 60.7% and
67.7%, respectively.
The ExE of the industrial sector was calculated by assuming that the heating
processes account for 80% of the energy consumption in this sector. Due to the complex
structure of this sector and the non-availability of data, the ExE was calculated based
only on heating processes.
Finally, Calgarys overall industrial sector exergy efficiency was calculated as 27.8%,
which is significantly lower than the corresponding energy efficiency of 66.9%, although
the disparity is not as large as in the residential and commercial sectors.

4.2.4 Transportation sector

The transportation sector in Calgary comprises two main transportation modes, viz.
road and air. The impact of the light rail transit system was ignored. The mean energy
efficiencies for each were calculated by multiplying the energy usage with the

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P.A. Jayasinghe, A.K. Mehrotra and J.P.A. Hettiaratchi

corresponding energy efficiency. The overall energy efficiency for the transportation sector
was calculated using the mean efficiencies. The operating energy efficiencies for the
principal energy end uses in this sector were assumed to be same as those proposed by
Dincer et al. (2004).
The overall EE and ExE for the transportation sector were found to be almost the
same, i.e. 22.4% and 21.2%, respectively.

4.2.5 Agricultural sector

The agricultural sector is the lowest consumer of energy in comparison with other
sectors. The mean EE and ExE were calculated by multiplying the energy used in each
end-use sector by the corresponding energy efficiency. Finally, the overall EE and ExE
were calculated as 37.1% and 20%, respectively.

4.3 Energy and exergy efficiencies for different sectors

The EE and ExE for the different energy-consuming sectors were estimated and the
results are shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3

Energy and exergy efficiencies for different energy-consuming sectors

80
70

Efficiency %

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Residential

Commercial

Industrial

Transportation

Agricultural

Energy Consum ing Sector

Energy Efficiency %

Exergy Efficiency %

The transportation sector constituted the biggest energy losses, followed by the agricultural,
industrial, commercial and residential sectors. Among the sub-sectors studied, the industrial
sector showed the highest ExE and the commercial and residential sectors showed
the least.

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A model for assessment of energy utilisation

The low ExE in the residential and commercial sectors is attributable to HVAC
process; mainly the space heating because of its low ExE. This is due to the greater
exergy losses in the residential sector and the fact that high temperature energy sources
are used for relatively low temperature applications.
The higher ExE in the industrial sector is attributable to high temperature heating
processes in industrial applications which utilise a higher work potential of fuels.
The transportation sector has the lowest EE among all the other sectors and the EE
and ExE are almost identical. This result indicated that energy and exergy inefficiencies
in this sector are not caused by mismatch of energy quality level but rather by currently
available techniques used for conversion processes.

4.3.1 Energy and exergy flow diagrams

The overall energy and exergy flow diagrams were developed to illustrate how EE and
ExE vary in each sector. The energy and exergy flow diagrams are shown in Figures 4
and 5, respectively.
Figure 4

Energy flow diagram of Calgary for 2005 (values in PJ/yr)

57.4

46.5
747.5
From
Primary
Energy
Sources

Energy
Generation
Sector

306.4

110.2

3.8

Residential

43.2 C
14.2 L

Commercial

31.4 C
15.1 L

Industrial

205.0 C
101.4 L

Transportation

24.7 C
85.5 L

Agricultural

1.4 C
2.4 L

Total Energy Inputs

747.5

Total Energy Outputs

305.7

Overall Energy Efficiency = 305.7 *100 = 40.9 %

747.5 =

In Figures 4 and 5, C indicates the energy output and L indicates the energy losses.
The overall energy efficiency for Calgary was calculated as 40.9%. The overall exergy
efficiency for Calgary was calculated as 15.7%. The overall ExE for Calgary is less than
its corresponding EE due to large amount of exergy losses occurred in all the sectors.

306
Figure 5

P.A. Jayasinghe, A.K. Mehrotra and J.P.A. Hettiaratchi

Exergy flow diagram of Calgary for 2005 (values in PJ/yr)

57.4

46.5
759.8
Exery
from
Primary
Sources

Energy
Generation
Sector

306.4

110.2

3.8

Residential

6.1 C
51.3 L

Commercial

3.9 C
42.6 L

Industrial

85.2 C
221.2 L

Transportation

23.4 C
86.8 L

Agricultural

0.8 C
3.0 L

Total Exergy Inputs

759.8

Total Exergy Outputs

119.3

Overall Exergy Efficiency = 119.3 *100 = 15.7 %

759.8 =

4.4 Exploring energy improvement opportunities

The energy and exergy inputs and outputs for each sector and sub-sector can be compared
by analysing the developed flow diagrams. Furthermore, energy usage and the areas that
cause energy wastage can be identified. Some of these opportunities are discussed.

4.4.1 Fuel switching

This approach includes switching energy sources from one to another. For example, the
replacement of coal with natural gas in power generation, realises in lower emissions
than coal.
In order to identify the improvement behaviour, the model input variables were
varied and the outputs were recorded. The coal usage in Calgary was reduced by different
percentages and it was replaced by natural gas or renewable energy sources (RES), such
as, wind, hydro or solar. Figure 6 shows the changes in CO2 emissions for replacing coal
with natural gas.
According to Figure 6, when coal is replaced by natural gas by up to 50%, as much as
24.3% reduction in emissions is possible. Similarly, when the coal usage is reduced by
50%, and replaced it with RES, the emissions can be reduced by 36.6%.

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A model for assessment of energy utilisation

Figure 6

The variation of emissions with reducing coal usage

35500

CO2 Emissions (Gg)

33500
31500
29500
27500
25500
23500
21500
19500
17500
15500
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Coal Reduction Percentage (%)

Natural Gas

Renew able Energy

4.4.2 Energy saving, reduce energy usage and improving energy efficiency
Energy saving is the simplest and most cost-effective approach for reducing carbon
emission and increasing EE. This can be done in both the demand and supply side
practices.
Various end-use measures that would result in carbon emission reductions were
identified. It was estimated from Figure 7, that as much as 31.5% reduction in emissions
is possible by reducing the electricity usage in Calgary by up to 50%. Similarly, a 50%
reduction of natural gas usage in Calgary can lead to a reduction in emissions by 18%.
The variation of emissions with reducing energy usage
34000
32000
CO2 Emissions (Gg)

Figure 7

30000
28000
26000
24000
22000
20000
0

10

20

30

40

50

Energy Usage Reduction (%)

Electricity

Natural Gas

60

308

P.A. Jayasinghe, A.K. Mehrotra and J.P.A. Hettiaratchi

Conclusions

The approach followed in the study provides knowledge about how an urban centre may
be modelled in terms of energy and exergy utilisation. The developed model is a useful
tool for identifying energy and exergy losses throughout the system and also to identify
potential areas for its improvement. In order to accurately assess the true efficiency of
energy utilisation, an exergy analysis must be carried out simultaneously with energy
analysis, which will allow optimisation of both the quantity and quality of energy
through an efficient matching of supply and demand.
The results from this study will also be helpful in exploring scenarios for decreasing
the extent of energy usage and the environmental impacts associated with both energy
production and utilisation. Furthermore, it will also assist in evaluating cost-effective
approaches and opportunities that can be incorporated into the energy management plan
and strategies for decreasing the release of GHGs and ecological footprint.
It can be concluded that the major emissions, waste and losses are mainly related to
electricity generation processes. However, the life in an urban industrial society cannot
be imagined without electricity. It can only be strived towards gradually decreasing the
electricity usage, increasing the thermal efficiency of power plants, improving their
emission control technologies, and gradually replacing them with renewable energy
power plants. None of the options may achieve the desired results by itself, but they have
to be taken in combination on an incremental basis, starting with the least expensive one
and progressing to the more expensive one.

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