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CHAPTER ONE

1.1

INTRODUCTION/LITERATURE REVIEW

All cells, at least those that are metabolically active, contain


approximately 85.95% water, it is therefore a truism to state that any
environmental factor that affects, the activity, structure or physical state
of water poses a threat to life in ones health. Oceans have historically
been the dumping grounds for the wastes from society. Fortunately, this
view has changed and regulations have become much more stringent, but
the effects of the past still lingers. Pollution has been very damaging to
aquatic ecosystems, and may consist of agricultural, urban, and industrial
wastes containing contaminants such as sewage, fertilizer, and heavy
metals that have proven to be very damaging to aquatic habitats and
species. Many of the pollutants entering aquatic ecosystems (e.g.,
mercury, lead, pesticides, and herbicides) are very toxic to living
organisms (USEPA, 2007). They can lower reproductive success, prevent
proper growth and development, and even cause death. The organisms
that are most directly and adversely affected by toxic pollutants consist of
larvae, eggs, and other organisms that live at the surface or near the
bottom of aquatic habitats where pollutants tend to settle. Filter feeders
(e.g., clams, and mussels) and other organisms higher up in the food
chain (e.g., swordfish, tuna) are also affected by the presence of toxicants.
Filter feeders and predatory fin-fish are not directly affected by the
presence of toxic chemicals in the water column or sediments, instead
they bioconcentrate and bioaccumulate the toxicants. For example,
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humans, animals, and birds have been known to suffer from mercury
poisoning, lead poisoning, and other neurological diseases from eating fish
and shellfish that are contaminated with high levels accumulated
toxicants.
In addition to toxic pollutants, increased nutrients, especially nitrogen and
phosphorus, from city sewage and fertilizers from agricultural areas (e.g.
animal feed lots) have also proven to be very damaging to aquatic
ecosystems. Certain levels of these nutrients are known to cause harmful
algal blooms in both freshwater and marine habitats. In turn, algal blooms
impact aquatic biodiversity by affecting water clarity, depleting oxygen
levels, and crowding out organisms within an ecosystem. In some
instances algal blooms have produced neuro-toxins that have led to
species die-offs and illnesses such as Paralytic shellfish poisoning. Other
pollutants affecting biodiversity in aquatic ecosystems are solid pollutants
like plastic bags, plastic rings, abandoned fishing gear, and other manmade materials that result from garbage dumped from shore and ships.
Trash and debris of this nature floating in aquatic environments, have
been known to entangle and even kill marine mammals and birds. Animals
such as sea turtles have often died through ingesting bits of plastic and
other discarded materials. In addition, abandoned fishing gear such as
lobster pots and nets are self-baiting and will continue to catch and kill
fish and other organisms for years after the gear has been discarded or
lost (USEPA, 2007).
1.2

INLAND WATER

Inland water systems can be fresh or saline within continental and island
boundaries. They include lakes, rivers, ponds, streams, groundwater,
springs, cave waters, floodplains, as well as bogs, marshes and swamps,
which are traditionally grouped as inland wetlands. The biodiversity of
inland waters is an important source of food, income and livelihood,
particularly in rural areas in developing countries. Other values of these
ecosystems include: water supply, energy production, transport,
recreation and tourism, maintenance of the hydrological balance,
retention of sediments and nutrients, and provision of habitats for various
fauna and flora. But since all terrestrial animals and plants depend on
fresh water, the boundaries between aquatic and terrestrial are blurred. At
the species level, inland water biodiversity generally includes all life forms
that depend upon inland water habitat for things other than simply
drinking (or transpiration in plants). Besides the obvious life living within
water itself (e.g., fish), this also includes many terrestrial species of
animals (e.g., water birds), semi-aquatic animals (e.g., hippopotamus,
crocodiles, and beaver) and plants (e.g., flooded forest, mangroves,
vegetation associated with the margins of water bodies). The majority of
amphibians, for example, breed in fresh water. As for all biodiversity, for
inland waters the concept includes diversity at the species, genetic and
ecosystem level. Species which are restricted to inland waters (e.g.,
freshwater fish) cannot move easily between different areas. Inland
waters are therefore characterized by high endemicity of freshwater
species for example between different lakes or the upper reaches of subcatchments of rivers, often even where located physically close to each
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other. This is also reflected in high levels of genetic diversity. Most


importantly, ecosystem diversity (including hydrological and physical
diversity within the landscape) is an extremely important aspect of the
biodiversity of inland waters. This ecosystem diversity is very complex
and includes both aquatic and terrestrial (landscape) influences;
maintaining it is critical to maintaining ecosystem services. Also, human
interventions in the ecosystem tend to deliberately reduce this diversity
(e.g., by modifying the form, and therefore function, of river channels
and/or hydrology).

1.3

LAGOON POLLUTION
Lagoons have a less well defined drainage network and larger open areas
and are usually shallowoften less than 2 m (6.5 ft) deep. A raised ridge,
or sand barrier, is characteristic of lagoons. This feature was formed
during the interglacial stage of the Pleistocene Epoch, some 80,000 years
ago, when sea shorelines were about 6 m (20 ft) above present average
levels. During the last ice age, fluvial and atmospheric processes eroded
the earlier coast. When sea levels rose anew, the areas behind the barrier
were once again flooded. Lagoons are present on all continents (Encarta
2008). Water pollution may come from point sources or nonpoint sources.
Point sources discharge pollutants from specific locations, such as

factories, sewage treatment plants, and oil tankers. The technology exists
to monitor and regulate point sources of pollution, although in some
areas this occurs only sporadically. Pollution from nonpoint sources occurs
when rainfall or snowmelt moves over and through the ground (USEPA).
1.2.1 POINT SOURCE POLLUTION
Point source pollution refers to contaminants that enter the lagoon
through a discrete conveyance, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of
sources in this category include discharges from a sewage treatment
plant, a factory, or a city storm drain. The U.S. Clean Water Act (CWA)
defines point source for regulatory enforcement purposes
1.2.2 NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION
Non-point source (NPS) pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does
not originate from a single discrete source. NPS pollution is often a
cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large
area. Nutrient runoff in stormwater from sheet flow over an agricultural
field or a forest is sometimes cited as examples of NPS pollution.
Contaminated stormwater washed off of parking lots, roads and highways,
called urban runoff, is sometimes included under the category of NPS
pollution. However, this runoff is typically channeled into storm drain
systems and discharged through pipes to local surface waters, and is a
point source. The CWA definition of point source was amended in 1987 to
include municipal storm sewer systems, as well as industrial stormwater,
such as from construction sites.

FIGURE 1.1

1.3 PARAMETERS OF INTEREST


The parameters considered in determining the quality of water are many
and varied. The choice of parameters therefore rests on the researchers
interest and objectives.
Possible choice of parameters may be centered on the following:
Geographical location
Economic activities
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Source of pollution
Availability of appropriate instrument and reagent.
This project would focus on the conventional and nutrient parameters.
1.4 CONVENTIONAL/PHYSICAL PARAMETERS

pH
Temperature
TDS
Turbidity
Conductivity
Salinity

1.4.1 NUTRIENT PARAMETERS


These parameters are the result of life activities in the lagoon. They
provide the nutrient requirement of organisms and such explain why life
may exist in water. They include:
Nitrate
Phosphate
Sulphate
1.5 SPECTROPHOTOMETRY
In spectrophotometer analysis, a source of radiation is used that extends
into the ultraviolet region of the spectrum. The instrument employ is the
spectrophotometer. It consists of two components;
An optical spectrometer- it is an instrument possessing an optical
system which can produce dispersion of incident electromagnetic
radiation, and with which measurements can be made of the
quantity of transmitted radiation at selected wavelengths of the
spectral range.
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A photometer is a device for measuring the intensity of transmitted


radiation or a function of this quantity.
The variation of the colour of a system with change in concentration of
some components forms the basis of calorimetric analysis. The colour is
usually due to the formation of a coloured compound by the addition of an
appropriate reagent.
Colorimetry is concerned with the determination of the concentration of a
substance by measurement of the relative absorption of light with respect
to a known concentration of the substance.
1.5.1 BEER-LAMBERTS LAW
The law states that there is a logarithmic dependence between the
transmission (or transmissivity), T, of light through a substance and the
product of the absorption coefficient of the substance, , and the distance
the light travels through the material (i.e. the path length), . The
absorption coefficient can, in turn, be written as a product of either a
molar absorptivity of the absorber, , and the concentration c of absorbing
species in the material, or an absorption cross section, , and the
(number) density N of absorbers.
For liquids, these relations are usually written as

Whereas for gases, and in particular among physicists and for


spectroscopy and spectrophotometry, they are normally written

Where I0 and I are the intensity (or power) of the incident light and that
after the material, respectively
The transmission (or transmissivity) is expressed in terms of an
absorbance which for liquids is defined as

Whereas for gases, it is usually defined as

This implies that the absorbance becomes linear with the concentration
(or number density of absorbers) according to

And

For the two cases, respectively

Thus, if the path length and the molar absorptivity (or the absorption
cross section) is known and the absorbance is measured, the
concentration of the substance (or the number density of absorbers) can
be deduced.
Although several of the expressions above often are used as Beer
Lambert law, the name should strictly speaking only be associated with
the latter two. The reason is that historically, the Lambert law states that
absorption is proportional to the light path length, whereas the Beer law
states that absorption is proportional to the concentration of absorbing
species in the material.
If the concentration is expressed as a mole fraction i.e. a dimensionless
fraction, the molar absorptivity () takes the same dimension as the
absorption coefficient, i.e. reciprocal length (e.g. cm1). However, if the
concentration is expressed in moles per unit volume, the molar
absorptivity () is used in Lmol1cm1, or sometimes in converted units of
mol1 cm2.
The absorption coefficient ' is one of many ways to describe the
absorption of electromagnetic waves. For the others, and their
interrelationships, see the article: Mathematical descriptions of opacity.
For example, ' can be expressed in terms of the imaginary part of the
refractive index, , and the wavelength of the light (in free space), 0,
according to

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In molecular absorption spectrometry, the absorption cross section is


expressed in terms of line strength, S, and an (area-normalized) line shape
function, . The frequency scale in molecular spectroscopy is often in
cm1, wherefore the line shape function is expressed in units of 1/cm1,
which can look funny but is strictly correct. Since N is given as a number
density in units of 1/cm3, the line strength is often given in units of
cm2cm1/molecule. A typical line strength in one of the vibrational
overtone bands of smaller molecules, e.g. around 1.5 m in CO or CO2, is
around 1023 cm2cm1, although it can be larger for species with strong
transitions, e.g. C2H2. The line strengths of various transitions can be
found in large databases, e.g. HITRAN. The line shape function often takes
a value around a few 1/cm, up to around 10/cm1 under low pressure
conditions, when the transition is Doppler broadened, and below this
under atmospheric pressure conditions, when the transition is collision
broadened. It has also become commonplace to express the linestrength
in units of cm2/atm since then the concentration is given in terms of a
pressure in units of atm. A typical linestrength is then often in the order of
103 cm2/atm. Under these conditions, the detectability of a given
technique is often quoted in terms of ppmm.
The fact that there are two commensurate definitions of absorbance (in
base 10 or e) implies that the absorbance and the absorption coefficient
for the cases with gases, A' and ', are ln 10 (approximately 2.3) times as

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large as the corresponding values for liquids, i.e. A and , respectively.


Therefore, care must be taken when interpreting data that the correct
form of the law is used.
The law tends to break down at very high concentrations, especially if the
material is highly scattering. If the light is especially intense, nonlinear
optical processes can also cause variances.

Figure 1.2
Diagram of BeerLambert
absorption of a beam of light as
it travels through a cuvette of
width .

1.5.2 CALIBRATION OF THE SPECTROPHOTOMETER


The spectrophotometer is operated by first of all standardizing the
instrument with the respective chemical. A given number was entered on
the instrument. After which it displayed a wavelength with respect to the
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parameter of interest. The instrument was then turned to the wavelength


and the necessary parameter concentrations were then read after treating
the samples with the appropriate reagent.

1.6 CONVENTIONAL PARAMETERS


1.6.1 pH
pH is probably the most commonly measured quantity on environmental
research and water quality control. This expresses the acidity or basicity
of a solution. The concentration of hydrogen in solution determines the
pH. Its expressed mathematically as:
An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ion in an aqueous solution.
A base is a hydroxyl ion in an aqueous solution. In acidic water, more acid
materials are present. Alkalinity is the condition in which more alkaline or
basic materials are present. Acidic water has to be less than 7.0, with
neutral at a pH of 7.0. Alkaline water has pH greater than 7.0. Acidity and
alkaline are determined with various colorimetric papers, pH meters or
titration devices.
1.6.2 TEMPERATURE
Temperature affects the density and stratification of the water. It affects
density and viscosity of sediment transportation, vapour pressure on
evaporation rates, and partial pressures of gases on gas solubility,
particularly oxygen and its impact on aeration. Temperature affects many
physical properties of water, the solubility of dissolved gases and the
toxicity of many other parameters. The rate of evaporation increases as
the temperature rises and water vapour pressure increases. It is important

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that an adequate oxygen supply is present in the water because most


living organisms depend on oxygen in one way or the other.
1.6.3 TDS (Total Dissolved Solids)
It is a measure of the total dissolved solids in a water sample. The
dissolved solids are most readily changed by biological, chemical or
physical processes. The concentration of dissolved solids is directly related
to the conductivity.
The quantity of TDS in a body of water depends on several factors
including:
Precipitation contributing to the body of water
The type of soil and rock the water passes over and human
activities.
The major dissolved substances found in water that can cause the above
problems are positively charged ions of Na, Ca, Mg, K, and Fe, and anions
such as CI, HCO, CO and SO. High levels of TDS may cause
objectionable taste and laxative effect on animals. An excessive level of
TDS in water also leaves the water unsuitable for irrigation purposes. It
also causes foaming and may corrode some metals.
1.6.4

TURBIDITY

It is a measure of the clarity of water. Turbidity is the presence of


suspended materials such as clay, silts, finely divided organic materials,
plankton and other inorganic material. Turbidity although not a hazard
itself, may be an indication that pollution has been introduced into the
water. High levels of turbidity decrease the amount of oxygen coloration

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and taste, which is not characteristic of quality water. It may also cause
irritation of the throat.

1.6.5

CONDUCTIVITY

The electrical conductivity measurement of a solution determines the


ability of the solution to conduct an electrical current. The electrical
conductivity of water is directly related to the concentration of dissolved
salts and anions. The dissolved ions increase the ability of water and
aqueous solution to transfer electrons and as a result conduct electricity.
Accordingly, conductivity meters are used to measure the electrical
conductivity of water. A factor that determines the degree to which water
will carry an electrical current includes;

Concentration
Mobility of ions
Oxidation state
Temperature of water

High levels of dissolved solids can cause mineral tastes in drinking water.
Also, water high in dissolved solids corrodes metal surfaces.
1.7 NUTRIENT PARAMETERS
1.7.1 NITRATES
Nitrates impart a bitter taste to water at levels of 20 to 50ppm. Nitrate
levels of about 25ppm often indicate contamination of lagoons from

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human sources such as animal waste, inorganic compounds and chemical


fertilizers.
Nitrates are converted within the body to nitrates by bacterial action. The
nitrates react with haemoglobin to cause a condition known as
methemoglobinemia, in which haemoglobin loses the ability to carry
oxygen. This is particularly better growth conditions for the bacteria.
1.7.2 PHOSPHATES
Phosphorous is closely associated with water because of its use in the
production of algae blooms. Phosphorous exists commonly in the oxidized
state. Most waters generally contain low levels of phosphorous
(approximately 0.01-0.5mg/l). The primary source of phosphorous in water
is of geologic origin.
The main sources of phosphate in lagoons include;

Fertilizers
Sewage
Detergents
And rain water

Phosphates are not toxic people or animals unless they are present in very
high levels.
1.7.3 SULPHATES
Sulphates can be naturally occurring as a result of municipal or industrial
discharges. They occur naturally as a result of breakdown of leaves that
fall into a stream of water passing through rock soil containing Gypsum

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and other common minerals of atmospheric decomposition. Sulphur is an


essential plant nutrient and reduced concentration has a detrimental
effect on algae growth. The commonest form of sulphur in welloxygenated water is sulphate.

1.7.4 SALINITY
This refers to salts dissolved in the water. The anions commonly present
include CO, HCO, SO, NO, Cl , PO and F. The cations include;
Ca, Mg, Na and K. It may be measured as TDS and is expressed in
ppm units. It may also be measured by electrical conductivity and is
expressed as reciprocal micro ohms per cm (omhs/cm). Salinity says
nothing about which elements are present but this may be of critical
importance. So when the salinity is elevated, the water should be
analyzed for the specific anions and cations.
An abrupt change of water of high salinity to one of low salinity may cause
animals harm while a gradual change would not. Animals can consume
water of high salinity for a few days without harm, if they are then given
water of salinity. The cations may have toxic effects because of their
solubility effect or interference with other elements. High salinity levels
may also be treated to physiological effects upon animals and plants
exposed to the water, corrosion and encrustation of equipment and
detrimental effects on soil structure and chemical fertility.
1.8 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

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Fosu Lagoon has suffered from large volumes of waste, both liquid and
solid, from the final disposal site at Nkanfoah in Cape Coast. Waste Oil,
metals and other forms from garages at siwdu, as well as the waste
product from palm kernel extraction around Adisadel Village and freerange defecation in the lagoon catchment area, had added to its current
highly contaminated state. Various individuals have conducted research
to ascertain the extent of pollution of the lagoon. The problem which
keeps on lingering on the minds of people is how to remedy the rate at
which pollution is helping to degrade this natural habitat of some fishes
and organisms.

1.9 OBJECTIVES
1.To identify specific existing or emerging water quality problems as a
result of the presence of different potential pollution sources and their
particular waste-water management along the banks of Fosu Lagoon
2. To gather information to design specific pollution prevention or
remediation programs
3 To determine the water quality of the Fosu Lagoon through physical,
chemical and biochemical analysis

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CHAPTER TWO
METHODOLOGY
2.1 STUDY AREA

The Fosu lagoon is one of the most important closed lagoons in the central
region of Ghana. It is termed closed because it is separated from the sea
by a sand bar. This sand bar is formed by the influence of the coastal wind
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regimes and long shore drifts. The Fosu lagoon lies (5 07N, 1 16W) and
covers an estimated area of 61ha. It has an average water depth of 16cm
and hence considered shallow (Blay and Asabre-Ameyaw, 1993)
The geology of the lagoons is a mud soil its salinity is relatively low (about
25%).
A glance at the mangrove community indicates that it has been
extensively degraded due to changes in the sedimentary environments,
expect for a strand of Avicennia Africana and Paspalum vaginatum near
the Fosu shrine. The degradation of the mangrove community has also
resulted in the loss of roosting sites of some migratory birds. Also, large
portions of the lagoon had dried up and were over grown with weeds
which had also made it possible for people to walk on it to dump garbage.
Sediments are washed into the lagoon during heavy rains owning to the
fact that the vegetation that stabilizes the banks from erosion has been
removed (CCMA, 2007).
The lagoon is heavily polluted due to the inflow of effluents from
surrounding settlement (Washing bays and households).
It was observed that waste oil, metal scarps and other wastes from
garbage and waste generated from palm kernel extraction in siwdu have
contributed to the contamination of the lagoon among other negative
human practices like defecating at the banks of the lagoon.
Most of the indigenes of this community are either involved in fishing or
fish processing activities such as smoking, salting and fermenting of fish.

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The fishermen practice artisanal fishery by use of cast nets and hook and
also practice hand fishing. The main fish species found in the Lagoon is
Sarotherodon melanotheron. Sarotherodon melanotheron is relatively
eurythermal species and its temperature range in its natural habitat is
about 18-33C (Philipart and Ruwet, 1982). No breeding occurs below 2030C (Trewavas, 1983). It constitutes about 90% by weight of the total
catch and annual yield of 452-664 kg/ha is higher than those reported for
other tropical lagoons (Blay and Asabre-Ameyaw, 1993). It is gradually
becoming the only fish species in the lagoon. This is because it is a hardy
fish species and it has prolific breeding habits.

2.2

SAMPLE COLLECTION

The samples were collected along the banks and middle of the lagoon.
The samples were collected during a period of prolonged dryness and
continued into the rainy season. The duration of this exercise was eight
weeks. The sample containers were washed in the laboratory and rinsed
with the sample water at the point of collection.
Containers were labeled with

2.3.

Site
Time
Temperature
Date
SAMPLE TREATMENT/STORAGE

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The samples were stored in a cool dry place till the analysis was
completed. The samples were collected with a plastic bucket from the
lagoon and transferred into the labeled bottles.
2.4 INSTRUMENTS/APPARATUS

pH meter (mettle Toledo MP 125)


Conductivity meter (Hach co 150)
Turbid meter (Hach CO 150)
Spectrophotometer (HACH DR/2000)

2.5 REAGENTS/CHEMICALS USED

2.6

Standard Buffer for pH (4.0 and 7.0)


Phosver 3 phosphate reagent
Sulfaver 4 sulphate reagent
Distilled water

METHOD AND PRINCIPLE

The study methods used to collect data for this project included Personal
Observations and Surveys, Water Sampling and Analyses, Desk Study and
Interviews. Water quality parameters measured included pH, Temperature,
Conductivity, Total Dissolve Solids, Nitrates, turbidity, salinity, phosphate
and sulphate. Institutions involved in the interviews were Environmental
Protection Agency, Institute of Renewable Natural Resources, Waste and
Sewerage Department, Ghana Water Company Limited and Ghana
Statistical Service all based in the Cape Coast Metropolis.

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2.7

Conductivity Meter.

The conductivity meter was first calibrated using the calibration constant
solution. The probes from the various conductivity meters were dipped
into the calibration solution. The units were calibrated by adjusting the
value on the meter to read the value of the constant (0.1413 milli-siemens
(mS). This was done by using either increase/decrease buttons on the
meter or using a small tool supplied with the meters to adjust a small
potentiometer.

CALIBRATION OF THE METERS WITH pH 7 and Ph 2 buffers


1. Select the pH mode and set the temperature control knob to 25C.
Adjust the cal 2 knob to read 100%
2. Rinse the electrode with deionised water and blot dry using a piece
of tissue (Shurwipes or Kimwipe are available in the lab.)
3. Place the electrode in the solution of pH of 7 buffer, allow the
display to stabilise and, then, set the display to read 7 by adjusting
cal 1. Remove the electrode from the buffer.
4. Rinse the electrode with deionised water and blot dry using a piece
of tissue (Shurwipes or Kmwipes are available in the labs).
5. Place the electrode in the solution of pH 2 buffers, allow the display
to stabilise and, then, set the display to read 2 by adjusting cal 2.
Remove the electrode from the buffer.
6. Rinse the electrode with deionised water and blot dry using a piece
of tissue.

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2.8 ANALYSIS OF PARAMETERS


2.8.1

pH.

This was determined by first of all standardizing the pH meter with buffer
solutions of pH 7.0 and pH 4.0. The electrode was rinsed with distilled
water. The sample was put into a 25ml beaker. The electrode was then put
into the beaker. Then the meter switched on and pH selected. The meter
blinks until stable, and then the readings were taken.

2.8.2 CONDUCTIVITY, TDS and SALINITY


The conductivity meter was used in determining these parameters. It was
standardized by dipping its electrode into de-ionized water to ensure that
it reads zero. The electrode was then dipped into the sample and the
respective parameters were read by switching to the mode of each
parameter.

2.8.3 TURBIDITY
This was determined by the turbid meter. The cell of the instrument was
rinsed with distilled water and filled to the given mark on the cell (5ml).
This was then placed in the cavity and the light shield closed. The
instrument displays the reading after been switch on.
2.8.4 NITRATE

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A pillow of nitrate reagent was added to 25ml of the sample in the cell.
This was then swirled to mix and then the concentration determined using
the spectrophotometer.
2.8.5 TEMPERATURE
The temperature was determined with a temperature at the point of
collection.
2.8.6 SULPHATE
This was determined using the spectrophotometer. Sulfaver 4 sulphate
reagent was added to the sample and swirled gently to mix and its
concentration determined on the spectrophotometer.

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CHAPTER 3
TABLE OF RESULTS AND GRAPHS

3.0 RESULTS
TABLE OF RESULTS 3.1
The results obtained from the analysis of samples are presented in the table below

PARAMETER
S

JANUAR
Y
9.03

Februa
ry
8.70

March

April

Mean

W.H.O

9.19

8.87

8.95

6.5-8.5

TEMPERATURE/
C

30.30

31.33

30.67

31.33

30.90

VARIES

TURBIDTY/NTU

33.67

34.33

34.67

24.73

31.85

TDS/ppm

2.09

2.21

1.85

2.02

2.04

1000

SALINITY/

2.40

1.33

1.67

0.14

1.385

0.1

CONDUCTIVITY/
ppm

455.0

433.0

446.0

447.0

445.3

1000

PHOSPHATE/mg/
l

2.90

1.30

2.61

1.40

2.05

0-0.4

pH

26

SULPHATE/ mg/l

127.9

139.8

157.4

124.5

137.4

250

NITRATE/ mg/l

2.50

7.25

3.50

4.30

4.39

0.1-0.5

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VARIOUS LEVELS OF PARAMETERS STUDIED.


Figure 3.1

pH against month

9.3
9.2
9.1
9
8.9
8.8
8.7
8.6
8.5
8.4
January

February

28

March

April

Figure 3.2

Temperature /C against month

31.6
31.4
31.2
31
30.8
30.6
30.4
30.2
30
29.8
29.6
January

February

29

March

April

Figure 3.3

Turbidity /NTU against Month

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
January

February

March

30

April

Figure 3.4

TDS /ppm against Month

9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
December

January

February

31

March

April

Figure 3.5

salinity/ against month

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
January

February

March

32

April

Figure 3.6

conductivity/ppm against month

4.6

4.55

4.5

4.45

4.4

4.35

4.3

4.25

4.2
January

February

March

33

April

Figure 3.7

NO /mg/l against month

0
January

February

March

34

April

Figure 3.8

Phosphate/mg/l against month


3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
January

February

35

March

April

CHAPTER 4
Discussion
4.1

pH

The acceptable limit for pH is 6.5-8.5. The pH for Fosu lagoon was found to
be slightly alkaline and therefore could not support life of fishes in the
lagoon. This was because; they were above the acceptable limit. (I.e.
8.70-9.19). This could be attributed to the presence of hydroxyl ions in the
water.
4.2 TEMPERATURE
The temperature for Fosu lagoon was within the range of (30.30-31.33).
The water body is said to be warm. This could be attributed to the direct
heating from the sun and also due to the landscape. There could also be a
lot of dissolved substances in the lagoon. Temperatures such as that of
Fosu Lagoon supports more plant life and fishes like bass, bluegill, carp,
catfish, leeches, caddis fly.

4.3

TURBIDITY

36

The turbidity for Fosu Lagoon was below the acceptable limit of (500mg/l1000mg/l). The range fell within (24.73mg/l-34.67mg/l). Turbidity
measures the cloudiness of a body of water. This could be attributed to
the presence of suspended materials such as sand, clay, silt etc. This
covers sunlight from reaching the bottom of the lagoon. Oil spillage from
the Siwdu and some effluent from the Palm kernel plant at Adisadel could
be a contributing factor to the high rate of turbidity in the lagoon.

4.4

TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS and CONDUCTIVITY

Although Fosu Lagoon is not a drinking water, TDS is used to estimate the
quality of drinking water, because it represents the amount of ions in the
water. Water with high TDS often has a bad taste and/or high water
hardness, and could result in a laxative effect.

Hardness mitigates metals toxicity, because Ca

2+

and Mg

2+

help keep

fish from absorbing metals such as lead, arsenic, and cadmium into their
bloodstream through their gills. The greater the hardness, the harder it is
for toxic metals to be absorbed through the gills.
Because hardness varies greatly due to differences in geology, there are
no general standards for hardness. The hardness of water can naturally
range from zero to hundreds of milligrams per liter (or parts per million).
Water hardness has a connection with the conductivity of the water.
Conductivity determines the amount of charged particles in a water
sample, therefore, the harder the water sample the higher its conductivity.
37

The TDS as well as the conductivity of the Fosu Lagoon were high and
thus likely to pose some danger to the aquatic life. The filthiness of it is
because of the high suspended solids caused by dumping of refuse from
domestic homes. It renders the Lagoon unworthy for any recreational
purposes. Dirty oils from the fitting shops around the Lagoon poisons the
fishes in it, this affects the human health, because the fishes caught in the
Fosu Lagoon are mainly for human consumption.

4.5

PHOSPHATE

The acceptable limit is 0.3 mg/l. The phosphate levels for Fosu lagoon
were above the acceptable limit. (I.e. 1.30-2.61). This explains why weeds
and aquatic plants are found on the Fosu lagoon.

4.7

SULPHATE

The acceptable limit is 400mg/l. The level of Sulphate in Fosu Lagoon was
within the range of 124.5-157.4. Sulphates at a concentration of about
250ppm can have a laxative effect on people. High levels of sulphates
form slimes, encrustations and odorous water.

4.8

NITRATE

The acceptable limit for nitrate in drinking water is 10mg/l. The range of
nitrate in Fosu Lagoon was 2.50-7.25. Nitrates impart a bitter taste to the
38

water at levels of 20-50ppm. Nitrate levels of about 25ppm often indicate


contamination of water bodies from human sources such as human waste,
inorganic compounds and chemical fertilizers. Nitrates are converted
within the body to nitrites by bacteria action.
4.9 SALINITY
The recommended W.H.O value for salinity ranged from 0.0 to 0.1% of
NaCl. The salinity for the lagoon ranged 0.14 and 2.14. This means the
lagoon is more salty. It indicates the intrusion of sea water into the lagoon.

CHAPTER 5
5.1

CONCLUSION

From the Analysis, it can be deduced that, most of the pollutants in the
Fosu Lagoon are as a result of;
Wrong sitting of facilities such as building the district hospital close

to the Lagoon and the garages at Siwdu.


lack of demarcated sites for refuse disposal
relatively inaccessible refuse dump sites
lack of awareness of the health implication of insanitary practices
indifference to the presence of waste
lack of the requisite equipment for disposal
poor siting of refuse disposal sites (e.g. along river banks and

marshy areas, near water sources)


lack of the technical know-how to add value to waste (e.g.
composting)

5.2

RECOMMENDATION
39

There is the need for an enforcement of aquatic pollution control in


our nation and in particular Fosu Lagoon to ensure the;
1. Protection of Fishes and other aquatic organisms.
2. Effects on the environment and the human health.
3. Protection of the coastal areas and the use for recreational
purposes

There should be a local legislation on the management of Fosu


Lagoon. Such Pollution Control measure should defined those
technical, administrative and legal steps needed to check, regulate,
reduce, remove or eliminate, within certain limits, the undesirable
effects of the presence of certain substances in waters minimize
those activities that results in the alteration of the physical,
chemical, microbiological or aesthetic properties of the lagoon.
Fishing is a means of survival for the study population contributing
to lower perceived risk. The value of fishermen understands of the
environment and fishing practices may not be enough to help
reduce their exposure to risk of eating polluted fish. Therefore
educational programs based on the importance of tradition,
experience and scientific information may be an appropriate
intervention
A cost-benefit analysis on the fencing of the lagoon should be
carried out to ascertain the importance of fencing the lagoon. One
importance to nature will be to allow the lagoon to get rid of some
pollutants through Biodegradation.
40

The garage at Siwdu should as a matter of urgency be re-settled at


another place and this needs the involvement of city authorities,
traditional authorities and the managers of the garage.
Whilst infrastructural initiatives to deal with bulk pollution will be
required, for example improved sewage treatment systems, actions
at the individual and community levels are also desirable

REFERENCES
1. A.S Mather and K. Chapman Environmental Resources Longman
Scientific and Technical UK pp 183
2. http//www.troz.uni-hohenheim.de/research/Thesis/MScEE
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution
4. The Royal Society The nitrogen Cycle of UK Report of the Royal
Society study group. Royal society London.
5. World Health Organization Sodium Chlorides and conductivity in
drinking water Report on AWHO working group. Euro reports and
studies 2, Regional office for Europe Copenhagen (1979).
6. D.C Whitehead Grassland Nitrogen Biddles Ltd, Guild ford UK pp
(11)
7. Evelyn Hutchison A treatise on limnology. Vol. 1 Geography, Physics
and chemistry pp 738-744
8. Smith Enger Environmental Science WCB. McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1998
2nd edition Chapter 7
9. G.N Somero, C.B Osmond C.L Bolis (Eds), Water and life.
10.
Vogels Textbook of quantitative chemical analysis, 5th Edition
Pg 519-521.
11.
Raymond J.et al Water resources instrumentation
International Water resources Ass.
12.
http://epa.gov/bioiweb1/aquatic/pollution.htm
41

13.

N.J.H Geurink, Matestain, A. Kemp Nitrate poisoning in cattle

prevention Netherlands journal of Agriculture Science pp 30, 105113


14.

Water quality assurance. Monthly Report Ghana water

company, Cape Coast


15.
USEPA; Advance Notice of proposed rule Making, Federal
Regulation (136), pp 2899
16.
P.N.D.C Law 305 cb, Food and drugs Law 1992, Ghana
Publishing Corporation.
17.
Guidelines for drinking water quarterly W.H.O
Recommendation Volume 1, 2, 1984criteria for water, U.S. EPA, July,
1976

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