Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
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1.1
INTRODUCTION/LITERATURE REVIEW
humans, animals, and birds have been known to suffer from mercury
poisoning, lead poisoning, and other neurological diseases from eating fish
and shellfish that are contaminated with high levels accumulated
toxicants.
In addition to toxic pollutants, increased nutrients, especially nitrogen and
phosphorus, from city sewage and fertilizers from agricultural areas (e.g.
animal feed lots) have also proven to be very damaging to aquatic
ecosystems. Certain levels of these nutrients are known to cause harmful
algal blooms in both freshwater and marine habitats. In turn, algal blooms
impact aquatic biodiversity by affecting water clarity, depleting oxygen
levels, and crowding out organisms within an ecosystem. In some
instances algal blooms have produced neuro-toxins that have led to
species die-offs and illnesses such as Paralytic shellfish poisoning. Other
pollutants affecting biodiversity in aquatic ecosystems are solid pollutants
like plastic bags, plastic rings, abandoned fishing gear, and other manmade materials that result from garbage dumped from shore and ships.
Trash and debris of this nature floating in aquatic environments, have
been known to entangle and even kill marine mammals and birds. Animals
such as sea turtles have often died through ingesting bits of plastic and
other discarded materials. In addition, abandoned fishing gear such as
lobster pots and nets are self-baiting and will continue to catch and kill
fish and other organisms for years after the gear has been discarded or
lost (USEPA, 2007).
1.2
INLAND WATER
Inland water systems can be fresh or saline within continental and island
boundaries. They include lakes, rivers, ponds, streams, groundwater,
springs, cave waters, floodplains, as well as bogs, marshes and swamps,
which are traditionally grouped as inland wetlands. The biodiversity of
inland waters is an important source of food, income and livelihood,
particularly in rural areas in developing countries. Other values of these
ecosystems include: water supply, energy production, transport,
recreation and tourism, maintenance of the hydrological balance,
retention of sediments and nutrients, and provision of habitats for various
fauna and flora. But since all terrestrial animals and plants depend on
fresh water, the boundaries between aquatic and terrestrial are blurred. At
the species level, inland water biodiversity generally includes all life forms
that depend upon inland water habitat for things other than simply
drinking (or transpiration in plants). Besides the obvious life living within
water itself (e.g., fish), this also includes many terrestrial species of
animals (e.g., water birds), semi-aquatic animals (e.g., hippopotamus,
crocodiles, and beaver) and plants (e.g., flooded forest, mangroves,
vegetation associated with the margins of water bodies). The majority of
amphibians, for example, breed in fresh water. As for all biodiversity, for
inland waters the concept includes diversity at the species, genetic and
ecosystem level. Species which are restricted to inland waters (e.g.,
freshwater fish) cannot move easily between different areas. Inland
waters are therefore characterized by high endemicity of freshwater
species for example between different lakes or the upper reaches of subcatchments of rivers, often even where located physically close to each
3
1.3
LAGOON POLLUTION
Lagoons have a less well defined drainage network and larger open areas
and are usually shallowoften less than 2 m (6.5 ft) deep. A raised ridge,
or sand barrier, is characteristic of lagoons. This feature was formed
during the interglacial stage of the Pleistocene Epoch, some 80,000 years
ago, when sea shorelines were about 6 m (20 ft) above present average
levels. During the last ice age, fluvial and atmospheric processes eroded
the earlier coast. When sea levels rose anew, the areas behind the barrier
were once again flooded. Lagoons are present on all continents (Encarta
2008). Water pollution may come from point sources or nonpoint sources.
Point sources discharge pollutants from specific locations, such as
factories, sewage treatment plants, and oil tankers. The technology exists
to monitor and regulate point sources of pollution, although in some
areas this occurs only sporadically. Pollution from nonpoint sources occurs
when rainfall or snowmelt moves over and through the ground (USEPA).
1.2.1 POINT SOURCE POLLUTION
Point source pollution refers to contaminants that enter the lagoon
through a discrete conveyance, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of
sources in this category include discharges from a sewage treatment
plant, a factory, or a city storm drain. The U.S. Clean Water Act (CWA)
defines point source for regulatory enforcement purposes
1.2.2 NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION
Non-point source (NPS) pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does
not originate from a single discrete source. NPS pollution is often a
cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large
area. Nutrient runoff in stormwater from sheet flow over an agricultural
field or a forest is sometimes cited as examples of NPS pollution.
Contaminated stormwater washed off of parking lots, roads and highways,
called urban runoff, is sometimes included under the category of NPS
pollution. However, this runoff is typically channeled into storm drain
systems and discharged through pipes to local surface waters, and is a
point source. The CWA definition of point source was amended in 1987 to
include municipal storm sewer systems, as well as industrial stormwater,
such as from construction sites.
FIGURE 1.1
Source of pollution
Availability of appropriate instrument and reagent.
This project would focus on the conventional and nutrient parameters.
1.4 CONVENTIONAL/PHYSICAL PARAMETERS
pH
Temperature
TDS
Turbidity
Conductivity
Salinity
Where I0 and I are the intensity (or power) of the incident light and that
after the material, respectively
The transmission (or transmissivity) is expressed in terms of an
absorbance which for liquids is defined as
This implies that the absorbance becomes linear with the concentration
(or number density of absorbers) according to
And
Thus, if the path length and the molar absorptivity (or the absorption
cross section) is known and the absorbance is measured, the
concentration of the substance (or the number density of absorbers) can
be deduced.
Although several of the expressions above often are used as Beer
Lambert law, the name should strictly speaking only be associated with
the latter two. The reason is that historically, the Lambert law states that
absorption is proportional to the light path length, whereas the Beer law
states that absorption is proportional to the concentration of absorbing
species in the material.
If the concentration is expressed as a mole fraction i.e. a dimensionless
fraction, the molar absorptivity () takes the same dimension as the
absorption coefficient, i.e. reciprocal length (e.g. cm1). However, if the
concentration is expressed in moles per unit volume, the molar
absorptivity () is used in Lmol1cm1, or sometimes in converted units of
mol1 cm2.
The absorption coefficient ' is one of many ways to describe the
absorption of electromagnetic waves. For the others, and their
interrelationships, see the article: Mathematical descriptions of opacity.
For example, ' can be expressed in terms of the imaginary part of the
refractive index, , and the wavelength of the light (in free space), 0,
according to
10
11
Figure 1.2
Diagram of BeerLambert
absorption of a beam of light as
it travels through a cuvette of
width .
13
TURBIDITY
14
and taste, which is not characteristic of quality water. It may also cause
irritation of the throat.
1.6.5
CONDUCTIVITY
Concentration
Mobility of ions
Oxidation state
Temperature of water
High levels of dissolved solids can cause mineral tastes in drinking water.
Also, water high in dissolved solids corrodes metal surfaces.
1.7 NUTRIENT PARAMETERS
1.7.1 NITRATES
Nitrates impart a bitter taste to water at levels of 20 to 50ppm. Nitrate
levels of about 25ppm often indicate contamination of lagoons from
15
Fertilizers
Sewage
Detergents
And rain water
Phosphates are not toxic people or animals unless they are present in very
high levels.
1.7.3 SULPHATES
Sulphates can be naturally occurring as a result of municipal or industrial
discharges. They occur naturally as a result of breakdown of leaves that
fall into a stream of water passing through rock soil containing Gypsum
16
1.7.4 SALINITY
This refers to salts dissolved in the water. The anions commonly present
include CO, HCO, SO, NO, Cl , PO and F. The cations include;
Ca, Mg, Na and K. It may be measured as TDS and is expressed in
ppm units. It may also be measured by electrical conductivity and is
expressed as reciprocal micro ohms per cm (omhs/cm). Salinity says
nothing about which elements are present but this may be of critical
importance. So when the salinity is elevated, the water should be
analyzed for the specific anions and cations.
An abrupt change of water of high salinity to one of low salinity may cause
animals harm while a gradual change would not. Animals can consume
water of high salinity for a few days without harm, if they are then given
water of salinity. The cations may have toxic effects because of their
solubility effect or interference with other elements. High salinity levels
may also be treated to physiological effects upon animals and plants
exposed to the water, corrosion and encrustation of equipment and
detrimental effects on soil structure and chemical fertility.
1.8 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
17
Fosu Lagoon has suffered from large volumes of waste, both liquid and
solid, from the final disposal site at Nkanfoah in Cape Coast. Waste Oil,
metals and other forms from garages at siwdu, as well as the waste
product from palm kernel extraction around Adisadel Village and freerange defecation in the lagoon catchment area, had added to its current
highly contaminated state. Various individuals have conducted research
to ascertain the extent of pollution of the lagoon. The problem which
keeps on lingering on the minds of people is how to remedy the rate at
which pollution is helping to degrade this natural habitat of some fishes
and organisms.
1.9 OBJECTIVES
1.To identify specific existing or emerging water quality problems as a
result of the presence of different potential pollution sources and their
particular waste-water management along the banks of Fosu Lagoon
2. To gather information to design specific pollution prevention or
remediation programs
3 To determine the water quality of the Fosu Lagoon through physical,
chemical and biochemical analysis
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CHAPTER TWO
METHODOLOGY
2.1 STUDY AREA
The Fosu lagoon is one of the most important closed lagoons in the central
region of Ghana. It is termed closed because it is separated from the sea
by a sand bar. This sand bar is formed by the influence of the coastal wind
19
regimes and long shore drifts. The Fosu lagoon lies (5 07N, 1 16W) and
covers an estimated area of 61ha. It has an average water depth of 16cm
and hence considered shallow (Blay and Asabre-Ameyaw, 1993)
The geology of the lagoons is a mud soil its salinity is relatively low (about
25%).
A glance at the mangrove community indicates that it has been
extensively degraded due to changes in the sedimentary environments,
expect for a strand of Avicennia Africana and Paspalum vaginatum near
the Fosu shrine. The degradation of the mangrove community has also
resulted in the loss of roosting sites of some migratory birds. Also, large
portions of the lagoon had dried up and were over grown with weeds
which had also made it possible for people to walk on it to dump garbage.
Sediments are washed into the lagoon during heavy rains owning to the
fact that the vegetation that stabilizes the banks from erosion has been
removed (CCMA, 2007).
The lagoon is heavily polluted due to the inflow of effluents from
surrounding settlement (Washing bays and households).
It was observed that waste oil, metal scarps and other wastes from
garbage and waste generated from palm kernel extraction in siwdu have
contributed to the contamination of the lagoon among other negative
human practices like defecating at the banks of the lagoon.
Most of the indigenes of this community are either involved in fishing or
fish processing activities such as smoking, salting and fermenting of fish.
20
The fishermen practice artisanal fishery by use of cast nets and hook and
also practice hand fishing. The main fish species found in the Lagoon is
Sarotherodon melanotheron. Sarotherodon melanotheron is relatively
eurythermal species and its temperature range in its natural habitat is
about 18-33C (Philipart and Ruwet, 1982). No breeding occurs below 2030C (Trewavas, 1983). It constitutes about 90% by weight of the total
catch and annual yield of 452-664 kg/ha is higher than those reported for
other tropical lagoons (Blay and Asabre-Ameyaw, 1993). It is gradually
becoming the only fish species in the lagoon. This is because it is a hardy
fish species and it has prolific breeding habits.
2.2
SAMPLE COLLECTION
The samples were collected along the banks and middle of the lagoon.
The samples were collected during a period of prolonged dryness and
continued into the rainy season. The duration of this exercise was eight
weeks. The sample containers were washed in the laboratory and rinsed
with the sample water at the point of collection.
Containers were labeled with
2.3.
Site
Time
Temperature
Date
SAMPLE TREATMENT/STORAGE
21
The samples were stored in a cool dry place till the analysis was
completed. The samples were collected with a plastic bucket from the
lagoon and transferred into the labeled bottles.
2.4 INSTRUMENTS/APPARATUS
2.6
The study methods used to collect data for this project included Personal
Observations and Surveys, Water Sampling and Analyses, Desk Study and
Interviews. Water quality parameters measured included pH, Temperature,
Conductivity, Total Dissolve Solids, Nitrates, turbidity, salinity, phosphate
and sulphate. Institutions involved in the interviews were Environmental
Protection Agency, Institute of Renewable Natural Resources, Waste and
Sewerage Department, Ghana Water Company Limited and Ghana
Statistical Service all based in the Cape Coast Metropolis.
22
2.7
Conductivity Meter.
The conductivity meter was first calibrated using the calibration constant
solution. The probes from the various conductivity meters were dipped
into the calibration solution. The units were calibrated by adjusting the
value on the meter to read the value of the constant (0.1413 milli-siemens
(mS). This was done by using either increase/decrease buttons on the
meter or using a small tool supplied with the meters to adjust a small
potentiometer.
23
pH.
This was determined by first of all standardizing the pH meter with buffer
solutions of pH 7.0 and pH 4.0. The electrode was rinsed with distilled
water. The sample was put into a 25ml beaker. The electrode was then put
into the beaker. Then the meter switched on and pH selected. The meter
blinks until stable, and then the readings were taken.
2.8.3 TURBIDITY
This was determined by the turbid meter. The cell of the instrument was
rinsed with distilled water and filled to the given mark on the cell (5ml).
This was then placed in the cavity and the light shield closed. The
instrument displays the reading after been switch on.
2.8.4 NITRATE
24
A pillow of nitrate reagent was added to 25ml of the sample in the cell.
This was then swirled to mix and then the concentration determined using
the spectrophotometer.
2.8.5 TEMPERATURE
The temperature was determined with a temperature at the point of
collection.
2.8.6 SULPHATE
This was determined using the spectrophotometer. Sulfaver 4 sulphate
reagent was added to the sample and swirled gently to mix and its
concentration determined on the spectrophotometer.
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CHAPTER 3
TABLE OF RESULTS AND GRAPHS
3.0 RESULTS
TABLE OF RESULTS 3.1
The results obtained from the analysis of samples are presented in the table below
PARAMETER
S
JANUAR
Y
9.03
Februa
ry
8.70
March
April
Mean
W.H.O
9.19
8.87
8.95
6.5-8.5
TEMPERATURE/
C
30.30
31.33
30.67
31.33
30.90
VARIES
TURBIDTY/NTU
33.67
34.33
34.67
24.73
31.85
TDS/ppm
2.09
2.21
1.85
2.02
2.04
1000
SALINITY/
2.40
1.33
1.67
0.14
1.385
0.1
CONDUCTIVITY/
ppm
455.0
433.0
446.0
447.0
445.3
1000
PHOSPHATE/mg/
l
2.90
1.30
2.61
1.40
2.05
0-0.4
pH
26
SULPHATE/ mg/l
127.9
139.8
157.4
124.5
137.4
250
NITRATE/ mg/l
2.50
7.25
3.50
4.30
4.39
0.1-0.5
27
pH against month
9.3
9.2
9.1
9
8.9
8.8
8.7
8.6
8.5
8.4
January
February
28
March
April
Figure 3.2
31.6
31.4
31.2
31
30.8
30.6
30.4
30.2
30
29.8
29.6
January
February
29
March
April
Figure 3.3
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
January
February
March
30
April
Figure 3.4
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
December
January
February
31
March
April
Figure 3.5
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
January
February
March
32
April
Figure 3.6
4.6
4.55
4.5
4.45
4.4
4.35
4.3
4.25
4.2
January
February
March
33
April
Figure 3.7
0
January
February
March
34
April
Figure 3.8
February
35
March
April
CHAPTER 4
Discussion
4.1
pH
The acceptable limit for pH is 6.5-8.5. The pH for Fosu lagoon was found to
be slightly alkaline and therefore could not support life of fishes in the
lagoon. This was because; they were above the acceptable limit. (I.e.
8.70-9.19). This could be attributed to the presence of hydroxyl ions in the
water.
4.2 TEMPERATURE
The temperature for Fosu lagoon was within the range of (30.30-31.33).
The water body is said to be warm. This could be attributed to the direct
heating from the sun and also due to the landscape. There could also be a
lot of dissolved substances in the lagoon. Temperatures such as that of
Fosu Lagoon supports more plant life and fishes like bass, bluegill, carp,
catfish, leeches, caddis fly.
4.3
TURBIDITY
36
The turbidity for Fosu Lagoon was below the acceptable limit of (500mg/l1000mg/l). The range fell within (24.73mg/l-34.67mg/l). Turbidity
measures the cloudiness of a body of water. This could be attributed to
the presence of suspended materials such as sand, clay, silt etc. This
covers sunlight from reaching the bottom of the lagoon. Oil spillage from
the Siwdu and some effluent from the Palm kernel plant at Adisadel could
be a contributing factor to the high rate of turbidity in the lagoon.
4.4
Although Fosu Lagoon is not a drinking water, TDS is used to estimate the
quality of drinking water, because it represents the amount of ions in the
water. Water with high TDS often has a bad taste and/or high water
hardness, and could result in a laxative effect.
2+
and Mg
2+
help keep
fish from absorbing metals such as lead, arsenic, and cadmium into their
bloodstream through their gills. The greater the hardness, the harder it is
for toxic metals to be absorbed through the gills.
Because hardness varies greatly due to differences in geology, there are
no general standards for hardness. The hardness of water can naturally
range from zero to hundreds of milligrams per liter (or parts per million).
Water hardness has a connection with the conductivity of the water.
Conductivity determines the amount of charged particles in a water
sample, therefore, the harder the water sample the higher its conductivity.
37
The TDS as well as the conductivity of the Fosu Lagoon were high and
thus likely to pose some danger to the aquatic life. The filthiness of it is
because of the high suspended solids caused by dumping of refuse from
domestic homes. It renders the Lagoon unworthy for any recreational
purposes. Dirty oils from the fitting shops around the Lagoon poisons the
fishes in it, this affects the human health, because the fishes caught in the
Fosu Lagoon are mainly for human consumption.
4.5
PHOSPHATE
The acceptable limit is 0.3 mg/l. The phosphate levels for Fosu lagoon
were above the acceptable limit. (I.e. 1.30-2.61). This explains why weeds
and aquatic plants are found on the Fosu lagoon.
4.7
SULPHATE
The acceptable limit is 400mg/l. The level of Sulphate in Fosu Lagoon was
within the range of 124.5-157.4. Sulphates at a concentration of about
250ppm can have a laxative effect on people. High levels of sulphates
form slimes, encrustations and odorous water.
4.8
NITRATE
The acceptable limit for nitrate in drinking water is 10mg/l. The range of
nitrate in Fosu Lagoon was 2.50-7.25. Nitrates impart a bitter taste to the
38
CHAPTER 5
5.1
CONCLUSION
From the Analysis, it can be deduced that, most of the pollutants in the
Fosu Lagoon are as a result of;
Wrong sitting of facilities such as building the district hospital close
5.2
RECOMMENDATION
39
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1. A.S Mather and K. Chapman Environmental Resources Longman
Scientific and Technical UK pp 183
2. http//www.troz.uni-hohenheim.de/research/Thesis/MScEE
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution
4. The Royal Society The nitrogen Cycle of UK Report of the Royal
Society study group. Royal society London.
5. World Health Organization Sodium Chlorides and conductivity in
drinking water Report on AWHO working group. Euro reports and
studies 2, Regional office for Europe Copenhagen (1979).
6. D.C Whitehead Grassland Nitrogen Biddles Ltd, Guild ford UK pp
(11)
7. Evelyn Hutchison A treatise on limnology. Vol. 1 Geography, Physics
and chemistry pp 738-744
8. Smith Enger Environmental Science WCB. McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1998
2nd edition Chapter 7
9. G.N Somero, C.B Osmond C.L Bolis (Eds), Water and life.
10.
Vogels Textbook of quantitative chemical analysis, 5th Edition
Pg 519-521.
11.
Raymond J.et al Water resources instrumentation
International Water resources Ass.
12.
http://epa.gov/bioiweb1/aquatic/pollution.htm
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13.
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