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Strictly speaking nuclear energy is the energy that is released by splitting the nucleus
of an atom (nuclear fission) or joining two atom s to become an individual atom (nuclear
fusion). Indeed, nuclear core comes.
When one of these two physical reactions (the nuclear fission or nuclear fusion) atom s
experience a slight loss of mass. This mass is lost becomes a large amount of heat
energy as Albert Einstein discovered his famous equation E = mc 2 .
However, often, when we talk about nuclear energy we are referring to electricity
generation using nuclear reactions.
Keep in mind that although the production of electricity is the most common utility,
nuclear energy can be applied in many other sectors, such as medical, environmental
applications or war. You can see it in more detail in the section on applications of
nuclear energy on this site.
nuclear energy
n.
1. The energy released by a nuclear reaction, especially by fission or fusion.
2. Nuclear energy regarded as a source of power. Also called atomic energy.
Later, in 1803, the British chemist John Dalton said in his book A New System of
Chemical Philosophy that elements are formed from certain combinations of atom s and
allatom s one element are identical. That is, all iron atom s are identical or uranium.
At the same time, the French couple formed by Pierre and Marie Curie in their
research deduced the existence of another element higher activity than uranium, in
honor of his homeland was called polonium. They were also the discoverers of a
second element which they called radio.
These three elements, by their nature, take a great importance in the development of
nuclear energy. Currently, the fuel of almost all nuclear power production use uranium
as fuel.
Subsequently, as a result of investigations by Rutherford and Soddy, would show that
the uranium and other heavy elements emit three types of radiation: alpha, beta and
gamma. The first two were made up of charged particles and found that alpha particles
were helium nuclei of atom s and electron s were beta particles. Furthermore, it was
found that gamma radiation were electromagnetic in nature.
Albert Einstein The fear of nuclear war was a result of his deep knowledge of the
progress of research in this field. He had to emigrate to the United States in 1933 from
Germany, at the beginning of the persecution of the Jews.
From a letter from Albert Einstein:
"Recent work by E. Fermi and L. S. Szilard ... I suggest that the chemical element
uranium ... can become a very important new energy source ... During the last four
months the possibility of carrying out a nuclear chain reaction using a large amount of
uranium has increased, this reaction would lead to large amounts of new elements
energaya similar to the radius ... This new phenomenon would lead tambina building
bombs ...
Given this situation it seems advisable to maintain some contact between the
government and the group of physicists working on chain reactions in America.
A possible way to achieve this might be that you could remove this charge to a trusted
person.
His work in this area could be the following: ... ensure the supply of uranium to the
United States ... accelerate the experimental ... raise funds ... "
Roosevelt hosted the Einstein letter without much enthusiasm, but created a
commission to take charge of the issues mentioned by the scientist in the same.
Between 1940 and 1941 began to be measured in uranium-graphite systems, Glen
Seaborg discovered in late 1940, an artificial element, plutonium-239, which could be
used to manufacture the bomb tied back mica.
Making the bomb was entrusted to the army, in a war project would cost around 2,500
million. The program included two alternatives: the separation of uranium-235 from
uranium-238, and plutonium-239 production in graphite reactors.
On December 2, 1942, a group of European nuclear physicists, who emigrated to the
United States and led by the Italian physicist Enrico Fermi, put up the first nuclear
chain reaction caused by man with the intention of applying for the first time nuclear
energy. The employee nuclear reactor , known as Chicago Pile (CP-1) was a simple
structure, and settled under the grandstand football stadium at the University of
Chicago. Uranium fuel was used, such as that used in his experiments Fermi in Rome,
and graphite moderator.
Preparations for this experiment were carried out with great secrecy. The research
objective was to obtain a chain reaction-controlled in principle to allow the study of
their properties in view to the development of an atom ic bomb.
Once extracted carefully control rods , began the chain reaction, thereby entering into
the first reactor operation worldwide.
In 1943 were lifted three cities full of research facilities: Oak Ridge (Tennessee) to
separate uranium-235 from uranium-238, Hanford for the establishment of nuclear
reactor s, and Los Alamos to build atom ic bomb. Robert Oppenheimer was named
director of the Los Alamos laboratory, getting together about a thousand scientists who
remain there until six months after the end of the race.
In the early morning of July 16, 1945, was conducted the first test of the plutonium
bomb in the desert of Alamogordo (New Mexico), and proved to be a success.
The pump of uranium and plutonium were ready simultaneously. The first, called Little
Boy, consisted of two masses of uranium-235 that were cast upon each other with
conventional explosives.
The second, Fat Man, was a hollow sphere of plutonium collapsing around its center
by the action of conventional explosives
On August 6, 1945, Little Boy was dropped on Hiroshima from the Enola Gay, and on
August 9, Fat Man was dropped on Nagasaki.
The Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki thus became the first and so far the
only targets of an atom ic bomb attack.
The conditions for the construction of an atom ic bomb, which worked unsuccessfully
during WWII some Soviet physicists, as Igor Vasilievich Kurchatov, were more
stringent what is required to achieve successful operation of a nuclear reactor .
The energy released by detonation of this kind is split approximately 35% of thermal
radiation, 50% of 15% presiny nuclear radiation.
This process where temperatures of up to 14 million degrees Celsius. The Hiroshima
bomb released 23.2 million KWh.
In 1946, appeared at the United Nations on U.S. plan, which consisted of a gradual
release of secrets, factories and nuclear bombs, giving it all to the body in return for
control and international inspection.
This control was not well received by the former Soviet Union, whose representative,
Andrei Gromyko, presented a counterproposal on banning the construction of atom ic
weapons and requiring the phaseout , n of existing short term. After several years of
negotiations, the first nuclear nonproliferation plan was a failure.
In June 1947, the Marshall Plan was born as an initiative of financial support within the
U.S. policy of containment of Soviet control, which came under the Central European
and Eastern behind what was called the "Iron Curtain". This plan was the trigger
historic Cold War which followed a series of clashes between the two superpowers.
These events emphasized the tense situation caused by the explosion of the Soviet Hbomb. The idea for this pump was making a big cylindrical container with the atom ic
bomb at one end and the hydrogen fuel in the other. The explosion of the atom ic bomb
radiation provide an amount sufficient pressure to compress and ignite hydrogen.
After preliminary schemes 1951, the pump was ready in early 1952, so that in
November this year, was tested by spraying the Elugelab Island in the Pacific Ocean.
Proved potency 700 times that of the Hiroshima atom ic bomb.
On December 8, 1953, the United States went to the United Nations to denounce the
balance of terror in the world's population lived, warning that if America was attacked
with nuclear weapons, the answer Seri to destroy the aggressor immediately.
In order to ease this situation, we organized a series of international technical on the
peaceful uses of nuclear energy. This time, the talks between developed with
significant atom ic potential were a complete success.
Taking advantage of the new situation, U.S. President Eisenhower then exposed in the
UN international cooperation program "Atom s for Peace". From this program, were
released a series of scientific and technological knowledge that would allow the
subsequent commercial exploitation of nuclear energy.
The speech, which in December 2003 turned 50, and was delivered at a time of cold
war, proposing an agreement between the great powers to halt and reverse the
manufacture of nuclear weapons and make known to all mankind the knowledge and
material resources, especially the nuclear fuel for peaceful purposes.
Also, favored the creation of international organizations such as
the International Atom ic Energy Agency (IAEA) in 1957, based in Vienna, and the
Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) integrated in the Organization for Cooperaciny
Development (OECD) based in Paris.
However, countries like the UK and the former Soviet Union, had already begun their
investigations to commercial deployment of nuclear power.
In 1963, General Electric was the company in charge of constructing a boiling water
strictly commercial (Oyster Creek I), marking the beginning of the flood of applications
to build nuclear power plants, factories fuel elements and researching small storage
methods and reprocessing plants.
In 1967, the IAEA organized a group analysis of all technical issues that could contain
a Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, which would take effect in 1972.
The signatories agreed not to transfer nuclear weapons or assist in its manufacture,
and pledged to establish the necessary safeguards for compliance.
Safeguards systems, worldwide, were as follows:
Nuclear fission
Nuclear fission is one of two possible reactions that occur when working with nuclear
energy.
In nuclear energy called nuclear fission dividing the nucleus of an atom . The core
becomes different fragments with a mass equal to almost half the original mass plus
two or three neutron s.
The sum of the masses of the fragments is smaller than the original mass. This
'missing' mass (about 0.1 percent of the original mass) has been converted into energy
according to Einstein's equation (E = mc 2 ). In this equation E is the energy obtained,
ma the mass of which we speak and c is a constant, the speed of light: 299,792,458
m / s 2 . With this value of the constant c and you can see that by little we draw unit
mass in a nuclear fission obtain large amounts of energy (see the definition of energy ).
Nuclear fission can occur when a nucleus of a heavy atom captures a neutron , or can
occur spontaneously.
If each fission caused by a neutron plus two neutron s are released, then the number of
fissions doubles in each generation. In this case, there are 1,024 10 generations
fissions and 80 generations in approximately 6 x 10 2 3 fissions.
Critical Mass
Although nuclear fission occurring every two or three neutron s, neutron s are not all
available for continuing the fission reaction. If conditions are such that the neutron s
are lost at a rate faster than they are formed by the fission occurring in the chain
reaction will not be self-sufficient.
Critical mass is the point where the chain reaction can become self-sustaining.
In an atom ic bomb, for example, the mass of fissile material is greater than the critical
mass.
The amount of critical mass of fissile material depends on several factors, the shape of
the material, its density composiciny, and the level of purity.
A sphere has the smallest possible surface area for a given mass, and therefore
minimizes the leakage of neutron s. Bordering the fissile material with a
suitable neutron "reflector", the loss ofneutron s can be reduced and the critical mass
can be reduced.
To keep track of sustained nuclear reaction, for every 2 or 3 neutron s released, only
one should be allowed to give another uranium nucleus. If this ratio is less than one
then the reaction is going to die, and if it is larger it will grow without control
(an atom ic explosion). To control the amount of free neutron s in the reaction space
must be present a neutron absorbing element. Most reactors are controlled by control
rods made of neutron absorbing material strong, like boron or cadmium.
In addition to the need to capture neutron s, neutron often have much kinetic (moving
at high speed). These fast neutron s are reduced through the use of a moderator, such
as heavy water and tap water. Some reactors use graphite as moderator, but this
design has several problems. Once fast neutron s have slowed, are more likely to
produce more nuclear fissions or absorbed by the control bar.
Why use uranium and plutonium?
The scientists knew that the most common isotope , uranium 238. There is a fairly high
probability that an incident neutron is captured to form uranium 239 instead of causing
a fission. However, the uranium 235 has a higher probability of fission.
From natural uranium is only 0.7% uranium-235. This means it takes a lot of uranium
to obtain the necessary amount of uranium 235. Moreover, uranium 235 can not be
separated chemically from uranium 238, since the isotope s are chemically similar.
Alternative methods had to be developed to separate the isotope s.
Plutonium 239 has a high probability of fission. However, plutonium-239 is not a
natural element and should be.
These are the materials used in nuclear power plants.
The rate of spontaneous nuclear fission is the probability per second that a
given atom will spontaneously fisione - ie without any external intervention. Plutonium
239 has a very high rate of spontaneous fission compared to the spontaneous fission
rate of uranium-235.
Operation of a nuclear
The basic principle of operation of a nuclear power plant is based on obtaining heat
energy through nuclear fission core comustible atom s. With this heat energy , which
have a vapor of water, will convert into mechanical energy in a turbine, and finally
convert mechanical energy into electrical energy by a generator.
The nuclear reactor is responsible for rising and handling this atom ic fission generates
a lot of heat. With this heat to water is heated into steam at high temperature
pressure.
The transformed into water vapor exits the containment building due to high pressing
is subjected to reach the turbine and rotate. At this moment part of the heat energy of
the steam is transformed into kinetic energy. This turbine is connected to an electric
generator whereby the kinetic energy is transformed into electric energy.
On the other hand, the water steam that went out of the turbine, though it has lost
calorific energy, continues being in gas state and very warmly. to re-use water
contained in the mentioned water steam, it is necessary to refrigerate it before
returning to introduce the water in the circuit. For it, once gone out the turbine, the
Nuclear reactor
A nuclear reactor is an installation capable of initiating, controlling and maintaining
nuclear reactions (fission usually) chain occurring in the core of the facility.
The composition of the nuclear reactor is formed by the fuel, coolant, control elements,
structural materials and, in the event that it is a thermal nuclear reactor, the
moderator.
Nuclear reactors can be classified as rapid thermal reactors and reactors.
Thermal reactors are those which function by delaying (moderating) the
faster neutron s or increasing the proportion of fissile atom s. To slow the neutron s,
called slow neutron s, a moderator is required which can be light water, heavy water or
graphite.
Fast reactors are not required to moderate the speed of electron s and using
fast neutron s.
To build a nuclear reactor is necessary to have enough fuel, we call critical mass.
Having enough critical mass means having enough fissile material in good condition to
maintain a chain reaction.
The provision of neutron absorbers and control rods to control the chain reaction and
stopping and starting of the nuclear reactor.
In the reactor core occurs and manteiene the nuclear chain reaction in order to heat
the water to be used for driving the turbine of the plant.
Nuclear Fuel
Control rods
The control rods beams provide a rapid means for controlling the nuclear reaction.
Allow rapid changes reactor power and eventually stop in case of emergency. They are
made of neutron absorbing material (boron carbide or alloys of silver, indium and
cadmium, etc.) and typically have the same dimensions as the fuel elements. The
reactivity of the core increases or decreases by raising or lowering control rod, that is,
modifying the presence of neutron absorbing material contained in them in the
nucleus.
For a reactor operated for a period of time must have an excess of reactivity which is
maximal with fresh fuel and decreases over the life of the same until it is canceled,
when the refill is made of fuel.
In normal operation, a nuclear reactor is the control rods fully or partially extracted
from the nucleus, but the nuclear plant design is such that any fault in a security
system or reactor control, always acts in the sense of security of introducing reactor
completely all the control rods in the reactor core and carrying a safe stop in a few
seconds.
Moderator
The resulting neutron fission reaction have high kinetic energy (high speed gain). The
higher your speed is less likely to fisionen other atom s so that this speed should be
reduced to encourage new chain reactions. This is achieved by elastic collisions of
the neutron s with nuclei makes moderator element.
Among the most commonly used moderators are light water, heavy water and graphite.
Coolant
In order to use the heat energy given off by nuclear fission reactions using a
refrigerant. The function of this heat refrigerant and transport aboserver. Coolant must
be corrosion, with a large heat capacity and should not absorb neutron s.
The most common refrigerants are gases, such as carbon dioxide and helium, and
liquid as the light water and heavy water. There are even some liquid organic
compounds and metals such as sodium, also using for this function.
Reflector
In a nuclear chain reaction, a certain number of neutron tends to escape from the
region in which it occurs. This neutron leakage can be minimized with the existence of
a reflecting means to redirect them into the reaction region. In this manner serves to
increase the efficiency of the reactor. The medium reflector surrounding the core must
have a low capture cross section for not reducing the number of neutron s and to reflect
as many of them.
The choice of material depends on the type of reactor. If we have a thermal reactor,
the reflector can be the moderator, but if we have a fast reactor reflector material must
have a large atom ic mass to reflect neutron s in the nucleus with its original speed
(inelastic scattering).
Shield
When the reactor is in operation, it generates large amounts of radiation. Protection is
needed to isolate the installation workers caused by radiation from fission products.
Therefore, biological shielding is placed around the reactor to intercept these
emissions.
The materials used to build this shield are concrete, water and lead.
Nuclear reactor
A nuclear reactor is an installation capable of initiating, controlling and maintaining
nuclear reactions (fission usually) chain occurring in the core of the facility.
The composition of the nuclear reactor is formed by the fuel, coolant, control elements,
structural materials and, in the event that it is a thermal nuclear reactor, the
moderator.
Nuclear reactors can be classified as rapid thermal reactors and reactors.
Thermal reactors are those which function by delaying (moderating) the
faster neutron s or increasing the proportion of fissile atom s. To slow the neutron s,
called slow neutron s, a moderator is required which can be light water, heavy water or
graphite.
Fast reactors are not required to moderate the speed of electron s and using
fast neutron s.
To build a nuclear reactor is necessary to have enough fuel, we call critical mass.
Having enough critical mass means having enough fissile material in good condition to
maintain a chain reaction.
The provision of neutron absorbers and control rods to control the chain reaction and
stopping and starting of the nuclear reactor.
In the reactor core occurs and manteiene the nuclear chain reaction in order to heat
the water to be used for driving the turbine of the plant.
Nuclear Fuel
Control rods
The control rods beams provide a rapid means for controlling the nuclear reaction.
Allow rapid changes reactor power and eventually stop in case of emergency. They are
made of neutron absorbing material (boron carbide or alloys of silver, indium and
cadmium, etc.) and typically have the same dimensions as the fuel elements. The
reactivity of the core increases or decreases by raising or lowering control rod, that is,
modifying the presence of neutron absorbing material contained in them in the
nucleus.
For a reactor operated for a period of time must have an excess of reactivity which is
maximal with fresh fuel and decreases over the life of the same until it is canceled,
when the refill is made of fuel.
In normal operation, a nuclear reactor is the control rods fully or partially extracted
from the nucleus, but the nuclear plant design is such that any fault in a security
system or reactor control, always acts in the sense of security of introducing reactor
completely all the control rods in the reactor core and carrying a safe stop in a few
seconds.
Moderator
The resulting neutron fission reaction have high kinetic energy (high speed gain). The
higher your speed is less likely to fisionen other atom s so that this speed should be
reduced to encourage new chain reactions. This is achieved by elastic collisions of
the neutron s with nuclei makes moderator element.
Among the most commonly used moderators are light water, heavy water and graphite.
Coolant
In order to use the heat energy given off by nuclear fission reactions using a
refrigerant. The function of this heat refrigerant and transport aboserver. Coolant must
be corrosion, with a large heat capacity and should not absorb neutron s.
The most common refrigerants are gases, such as carbon dioxide and helium, and
liquid as the light water and heavy water. There are even some liquid organic
compounds and metals such as sodium, also using for this function.
Reflector
In a nuclear chain reaction, a certain number of neutron tends to escape from the
region in which it occurs. This neutron leakage can be minimized with the existence of
a reflecting means to redirect them into the reaction region. In this manner serves to
increase the efficiency of the reactor. The medium reflector surrounding the core must
have a low capture cross section for not reducing the number of neutron s and to reflect
as many of them.
The choice of material depends on the type of reactor. If we have a thermal reactor,
the reflector can be the moderator, but if we have a fast reactor reflector material must
have a large atom ic mass to reflect neutron s in the nucleus with its original speed
(inelastic scattering).
Shield
When the reactor is in operation, it generates large amounts of radiation. Protection is
needed to isolate the installation workers caused by radiation from fission products.
Therefore, biological shielding is placed around the reactor to intercept these
emissions.
The materials used to build this shield are concrete, water and lead.
Nuclear reactor
A nuclear reactor is an installation capable of initiating, controlling and maintaining
nuclear reactions (fission usually) chain occurring in the core of the facility.
The composition of the nuclear reactor is formed by the fuel, coolant, control elements,
structural materials and, in the event that it is a thermal nuclear reactor, the
moderator.
Nuclear reactors can be classified as rapid thermal reactors and reactors.
Thermal reactors are those which function by delaying (moderating) the
faster neutron s or increasing the proportion of fissile atom s. To slow the neutron s,
called slow neutron s, a moderator is required which can be light water, heavy water or
graphite.
Fast reactors are not required to moderate the speed of electron s and using
fast neutron s.
To build a nuclear reactor is necessary to have enough fuel, we call critical mass.
Having enough critical mass means having enough fissile material in good condition to
maintain a chain reaction.
The provision of neutron absorbers and control rods to control the chain reaction and
stopping and starting of the nuclear reactor.
In the reactor core occurs and manteiene the nuclear chain reaction in order to heat
the water to be used for driving the turbine of the plant.
Nuclear Fuel
Control rods
The control rods beams provide a rapid means for controlling the nuclear reaction.
Allow rapid changes reactor power and eventually stop in case of emergency. They are
made of neutron absorbing material (boron carbide or alloys of silver, indium and
cadmium, etc.) and typically have the same dimensions as the fuel elements. The
reactivity of the core increases or decreases by raising or lowering control rod, that is,
modifying the presence of neutron absorbing material contained in them in the
nucleus.
For a reactor operated for a period of time must have an excess of reactivity which is
maximal with fresh fuel and decreases over the life of the same until it is canceled,
when the refill is made of fuel.
In normal operation, a nuclear reactor is the control rods fully or partially extracted
from the nucleus, but the nuclear plant design is such that any fault in a security
system or reactor control, always acts in the sense of security of introducing reactor
completely all the control rods in the reactor core and carrying a safe stop in a few
seconds.
Moderator
The resulting neutron fission reaction have high kinetic energy (high speed gain). The
higher your speed is less likely to fisionen other atom s so that this speed should be
reduced to encourage new chain reactions. This is achieved by elastic collisions of
the neutron s with nuclei makes moderator element.
Among the most commonly used moderators are light water, heavy water and graphite.
Coolant
In order to use the heat energy given off by nuclear fission reactions using a
refrigerant. The function of this heat refrigerant and transport aboserver. Coolant must
be corrosion, with a large heat capacity and should not absorb neutron s.
The most common refrigerants are gases, such as carbon dioxide and helium, and
liquid as the light water and heavy water. There are even some liquid organic
compounds and metals such as sodium, also using for this function.
Reflector
In a nuclear chain reaction, a certain number of neutron tends to escape from the
region in which it occurs. This neutron leakage can be minimized with the existence of
a reflecting means to redirect them into the reaction region. In this manner serves to
increase the efficiency of the reactor. The medium reflector surrounding the core must
have a low capture cross section for not reducing the number of neutron s and to reflect
as many of them.
The choice of material depends on the type of reactor. If we have a thermal reactor,
the reflector can be the moderator, but if we have a fast reactor reflector material must
have a large atom ic mass to reflect neutron s in the nucleus with its original speed
(inelastic scattering).
Shield
When the reactor is in operation, it generates large amounts of radiation. Protection is
needed to isolate the installation workers caused by radiation from fission products.
Therefore, biological shielding is placed around the reactor to intercept these
emissions.
The materials used to build this shield are concrete, water and lead.
Types of reactors
The classification of types of nuclear reactor can be done in different ways depending
on the criterion used. Among the most common criteria are:
According to the fuel used in nuclear reactor s found natural uranium and
enriched uraniumnuclear reactor s. The natural uranium fuel contains the same
proportion of uranium found in nature, while the enriched uranium fuel of this ratio is
increased artificially. Other reactors use mixed oxides of uranium and plutonium.
Depending on the speed of the neutron s produced in the nuclear reaction of
fission reactors differ fast reactors and thermal reactors.
According to the moderator can be used for heavy water reactors, light water or
graphite.
Depending on the material used as refrigerant: common materials are gas
(helium or carbon dioxide) or water (legera or heavy). Sometimes these materials,
while also acting as a moderator. Can also use steam, molten salt, air, or liquid metal
as coolant.
The differences between the different types of operating nuclear power plants are
based on the type of reactor used for producing nuclear energy. The way electricity is
generated from steam generated is similar in all nuclear plants.
Types of nuclear reactor s in operation:
The energy generated by the reactor core is conveyed by the circulating cooling water
at high pressure to a heat exchanger where steam is generated to actuate the
turbines.
Its main feature is the use of heavy water as moderator and coolant.
In the most common design, fuel tubes are fed into a vessel containing the moderator.
The coolant pressure is maintained to maintain its liquid state. Steam is produced in a
heat exchanger through which water circulates light.
As an alternative to fossil fuels as carbon oil, would avoid the problem of so-called
global warming, qual, is believed to have an important influence that change global
climate. Improve the quality of the air we breathe with all that this would imply the
decline of disease and quality of life.
On this last point it should be noted that it really has a major influence on global
warming are emissions from road transport and that generated by power generation
fuels folic , fossils are relatively few. Still, one of the applications of nuclear energy
(but little used) is to convert it into mechanical energy for transport.
Currently electricity generation is by nuclear fission reactions, but if nuclear fusion as
practicable, provide the following advantages:
Moreover, nuclear fusion is unfeasible because of the difficulty of heating the gas to
such high temperatures and to maintain a sufficient number of nuclei for a time
sufficient to obtain a Energi ; to liberated than necessary to retain heat and is highly
expensive gas.
The use of radiation is applied in a wide range of activities, either in quality control of
industrial processes, raw materials (cement, power plants, oil refineries, etc..) Or
quality control of products manufactured in series, as a prerequisite for the full
automation of the production lines at high speed.
Irradiation with intense sources is considered as an operation to improve the quality of
certain products (special plastics, sterilization products "disposable", etc..).
In addition, tracer experiments are performed to obtain an accurate and detailed status
of industrial equipment to qualify for the prolongation of life.
Industrial sources usually produce no radioactive waste in the country that uses them,
because once useless, the country's commercial signature provider to be removed
when the replacement.
Industrial sources usually produce no radioactive waste in the country that uses them,
because once useless, the country's commercial signature provider to be removed
when the replacement.
Nuclear Medicine
In nuclear medicine, a particular radionuclide is administered to the patient, in order to
investigate a specific physiological phenomenon by means of a special detector, a
gamma camera generally located outside the body. The injected radionuclide is
deposited selectively in certain organs (thyroid, kidney, etc.) Can be seen from the
gamma camera the size, shape and function of these organs. Most of these procedures
are diagnostic, although some radionuclides are administered for therapeutic
purposes. Radionuclides useful in nuclear medicine are as follows:
high level of medical technology. Spain has several teams of these features in their
units oncology, neurology cardiologay.
Another important technique is the scan, which detects gamma radiation emitted by the
radiopharmaceutical attached to organ to be studied, on a computer called a gamma
camera, the detector is placed on the body, receiving photons from the
radiopharmaceutical.
These signals are converted into electrical pulses that are amplified and processed by
a computer, enabling the spatial representation on a display or x-ray, on paper or
displaying successive images of the body for further study.
Currently, gamma cameras allow to obtain three-dimensional organ cuts, improving the
quality of the studies and the diagnostic sensitivity.
Thyroid scintigraphy consists in obtaining the image of the thyroid gland, the patient
administering an isotope such as iodine-131 and technetium-99, which is fixed in the
cells of this gland. It is used to diagnose the presence of alterations in shape, volume
or thyroid function, as goiters, hyperthyroidism, thyroid cancers, etc.
Adrenal scintigraphy provides information on the form and function of the adrenal
glands, which can cause malfunctions diseases like Addison's disease, Cushing's
syndrome, etc. .
With different isotope s and administration forms can be studied cardiovascular disease
(angina pectoris and myocardial infarction), digestive (cysts or tumors from digestive
or intestinal absorption) and lung (tumorous involvement of the lungs).
The bone scan to diagnose infections and tumors in bone, by detecting the
accumulation of the radiopharmaceutical injected into the patient in the affected areas.
Studies of the central nervous system (CNS) scans these techniques are useful for
evaluating the various types of dementias, epilepsy and vascular diseases or tumors,
which can not be detected by nuclear magnetic resonance or by Computed tomography
(CT).
Radiology
Diagnostic techniques consist of body imaging using X-ray equipment, which cross the
exploratory field to be studied. At present, there are many developments in this field
emphasizing ultrasound techniques, which use ultrasound or magnetic resonance
imaging uses no ionizing radiation.
Populritat Although nuclear energy is very low there are applications of nuclear energy
for works for the environment.
The contamination of surface water and groundwater problem are also environmentally
important.
The nuclear energy implementation allows isotopic techniques, it is a procedure that
uses the interaction of ionizing radiation with matter useful to an end, which is most
effective than other conventional procedure.
This can be useful purpose:
Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) is the production of large amounts of plantbreeding insects, which are sterilized with gamma radiation from radioactive cobalt
sources 60 and cesium-137, to be released in areas affected by the plague. When
sterile insects mate with wild insects produce no offspring, thus reducing the
population of pest insects. SIT is species specific, so you can not have an adverse
impact on other species of both insects and other animals or plants. This technique is
useful not only to eradicate the pests, but also to control agricultural pest free areas.
Among the applications of SIT are eradicating pests New World screwworm, the
Mediterranean fruit fly, the tsetse fly, transmitter of diseases in man and animals,
especially in Africa and the mosquito that transmits malaria.
Genetic manipulation for the selection of male insects: bugs releasing males
only allows flies eradicate pests TIE reinforcing technique. To genetically manipulate
flies, so that only males are released by ionizing radiation chromosomes are altered.
If there are only male insects, plants will sterile insect rearing increased performance.
inherited sterility: this technique is mainly used to eradicate pests moths. It has
been shown that with low doses irradiating a moth population, their descendants are
sterile, and this may control insect family. For this technique, the sources used are
stations gamma (cobalt-60).
Nuclear Desalination: nuclear techniques are used for desalination of sea water
to produce fresh water without disturbing the environment, as in plants that use steam
and electricity from fuels folic siles, and it also supports the high energy consumption
that these processes entail.
New isotope s useful in hydrology: Boron isotope s are used to treat groundwater
contamination, chloride isotope s to determine the source of salinity, water age and
size of a reservoir, and krypton-85 and helium-3 to improve methods of measurement
of isotope s to help define the age of the water.
Nuclear power
Nuclear plants are facilities where nuclear fission reactions cause to generate electricity.
Here below you can see that there are nuclear power plants in the following countries. You will
find a brief description of each plant and its location.
As you can see, there are still many countries that are not available but this is a section of the
website in development.
The nuclear situation is different in different countries. Energy policy, needs and technical and
financial resources of each country are different.
Spain for example, began its nuclear project but later strongly approved the declaration of the
nuclear moratorium that blocked 5 of the 7 nuclear projects in progress.
In contrast, in Chile is betting on the study and use of nuclear energy as a source of development.
So it pays to do a review of countries
Nuclear waste
One of the main problems of the use of nuclear energy is the management of nuclear
waste as they are very dangerous and difficult to remove.
The low level nuclear waste radioactive (clothes, tools, etc.) are crushed and mixed
with concrete to form a solid block. As in the previous case they are also introduced in
steel drums.
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In Spain, the drums are moved to the Storage Center The Cabril (Crdoba), which
manages ENRESA. Besides all nuclear waste deposited all Spanish plants, also
deposited nuclear waste generated by the medicine, research, industry and other fields
that also work with energy nuclear.
All nuclear waste storage, today, are strictly monitored and controlled.
transition nuclear waste: waste, mainly from medical origin, which disintegrate
during the period of temporary storage and can then run as non-radioactive waste,
provided that derating values.
Nuclear waste, low and intermediate level: the radionuclide concentration is
such that thermal power generation during its disposal is sufficiently low. Turn are
classified into short-lived waste containing radionuclides whose half-life is less than
or equal to 30 years, with a limited concentration of long-lived alpha radionuclidesand long-lived waste radionuclide-and long-lived alpha emitters whose concentration
exceeds the limits for short-lived waste.
high-level nuclear waste: waste with a concentration of such radionuclides to be
taken into account thermal generation during its storage and disposal. This type of
waste is mainly the treatment and conditioning of spent fuel.
Transport Management and Storage space
The term waste management as a set of activities that lead to reuse their
disappearance or neutralization and escape to right places, ensuring long-term
security.
Renewable energy
The classification of renewable natural resources depends on taking advantage.
Solar Energy
Aprovechameiento distinguish two forms of solar energy :
Solar Power
Solar Photovoltaic
The use of thermal solar energy is to use the heat energy obtained from the sun's rays
to heat a fluid, depending on its temperature, is used to produce hot water or even
steam.
The use of Photovoltaic Solar Energy is through the direct conversion of solar
energy into electricity through the photovoltaic effect called. This transformation is
accomplished by "solar cells" which are made of semiconductor materials (eg, silicon)
that generate electricity when incident solar radiation over them.
Wind Energy
Wind energy systems use the kinetic energy contained in the wind to produce
electricity using wind turbines called. There are two types of wind turbines:
Energy Minihidraulic
The use of the potential energy of water from a break to produce electricity is what is
known as hydropower. The water turbine which drives a movement of rotation is
transferred via a shaft to a generator. It is considered that this type of renewable
energy when the power is less than 10 MW (small hydro power).
Central flowing water: those that capture a portion of the flow for Rioy lead him
to headquarters to be turbinado and generate electricity. Then this flow is returned to
the river.
walk Central prey: Those downstream of reservoirs for hydroelectric purposes or
other purposes such as water supply or irrigation populations. They have the
advantage of storing energy (water) and its use with the times when it is most needed.
Biomass Energy
Biomass is an energy source based on the use of organic materials of plant or animal
origin, including the products and by-products resulting from the processing. Under the
heading of biomass energy materials are collected in many different classes: forest
residues, agricultural residues and woody crops, various industrial process waste,
energy crops, organic materials contained in municipal solid waste, biogas from
livestock waste or biodegradable waste from industrial plants of urban waste water
treatment or landfill, etc. They can also be included under the heading of biomass,
biofuels, which are mainly used in the transportation.
The biomass applications can be categorized into two groups:
The wave energy is produced by wind and very irregular. This has led to many types of
machines for use.
Finally, ocean thermal energy conversion is a method of converting into useful energy
the temperature difference between the water and the water surface is to 100 m depth.
Is sufficient to use a gap of 20 C. The advantages of this energy source that is
associated with a thermal constant and benign from an environmental perspective.
Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is the manifestation of the thermal energy stored in rocks or water
which is high temperature inside the earth.
For the use in areas with special temperature conditions, for example volcanic areas,
is circulated in a fluid which transports them to the surface in the form of heat
energy accumulated heat in the hot zones.
The energy generated in function of its temperature (high, medium or low) is utilized
either to generate electricity or for water heating and heating.
Geothermal energy has the main advantage that their environmental impact is minimal
and has yields that allow it to compete with oil. But its main disadvantages are that
they require large investments and geothermal fields are relatively scarce and often
are located in unfavorable areas.
Definitions
Atom
Atom is defined as the smallest particle into which an element can be divided
without losing its chemical properties.
Atomic nucleus
The atomic nucleus is the central part of the atom small, positively charged and
which concentrates most of the mass of the atom.
Atomic number
Number of elementary positive charges, or protons, carried by the nuclei of all
the isotopes of a given element.
Control rods
In the nuclear control rods are cylindrical tubes that absorb neutrons is possible
to control the reactor power.
Electric power
Power defined as the form of energy that results from the existence of a
potential difference between two points. When these two points are the contacts
as a conductor obtain an electric current.
Electron
Energy
Energy is the ability of a system to produce physical work. Or what, when an
work, decreases by an amount equal to the work done.
Heat energy
Heat energy is the manifestation of the energy as heat. It can be transmitted by
radiation, conduction and convection.
Isotope
Each of the atoms whose nuclei have the same number of protons but a
different number of neutrons.
Molecule
Defining molecule. A molecule is an aggregate of atoms chemically bonded
together, which is electrically neutral.
Neutron
A neutron is a subatomic particle contained in the atomic nucleus. Has no net
electrical charge, unlike the proton positive electric charge. The number of
neutrons in an atomic nucleus determines the isotope of that element.
Proton
A proton is a positively charged particle is inside the atomic nucleus.
Radioactivity
The definition of radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of particles (alpha,
beta, neutron) or radiation (gamma capture K), or both at once, from the decay
of certain nuclides that are, due to an arrangement their internal structure.
Until the discovery at one of Jamaicas main world class transiting piers last month, vehicle and spare
parts dealers like Guyanese Wilfred Bransford said that while they were aware that hundreds of
vehicles were covered with contaminated water after the Fukushima Nuclear plant broke down in the
aftermath of the disaster, they were unaware that polluted vehicles and parts had reached the region.
Bransford says that he will now insist that certificates of inspection be issued and he insists that the
two dealers with whom he has been associating for more than a decade would not risk their
reputations to send radioactive and contaminated vehicles to him in Guyana.
Still, the Guyanese health ministry surprisingly said that they had only become aware of the Jamaican
interception last weekend and would now move to take action to step up monitoring. Head of Customs
and Revenue Kurshid Sattaur said the matter is not that serious as he accused local media of over
blowing and sensationalizing the issue unnecessarily.
But the region should have been on a higher level of alert for the past two years.
In late 2012, Jamaican authorities also discovered a passenger mini bus for a buyer on the island with
similarly high levels of radioactive material on a city pier and impounded it as well but that very
incident has only now come to light after the transiting Guyana container made news headlines. Both
the container and mini bus are to be sent back to Japan.
Guyana has no Geiger Counter to measure or test imports from Japan or any other affected country
for acceptable radiation levels. In fact, many of those questioned in recent days said they had never
ever heard of such a piece of high tech testing equipment. Health Minister Bheri Ramsarran said only
that we will look into this serious matter, while the head of the revenue and customs authority
accused local media of sensationalizing the issue unnecessarily.
Thousands of cars, SUVs and other vehicles were washed out to sea or covered in radioactive water
after the Fukushima Nuclear Plant was crippled both by the quake and the tsunami. Contaminated
water poured into the Ocean for days, severely polluting the area and reducing it to a virtual ghost
town.
As an indication of how some other countries are region are treating Japanese imports, Russian
authorities recently turned away a shipment of 132 cars from Japan after these had also tested
positive for high levels of radiation.
Jamaican Customs spokeswoman Velma Ricketts said the island, which is a major marine
transshipment port, is lucky that the U.S. Department of Energy regularly monitors its work and that
the country has sophisticated equipment to test for radiation.
Once it is confirmed to be outside the acceptable levels, the shipment will not be released. There are
a lot of things we are doing that people dont know. We are very vigilant, Customs Chief Richard
Reese said.
Thorium, a slightly radioactive metal that occurs in rocks and soils, may hold significant
promise as a replacement for uranium in the nuclear energy sector.
As global energy consumption increases, thorium is being looked into as a possiblealternative to
uranium to provide safe and abundant nuclear power at a reasonable cost. For example, India has
been interested inthorium-based nuclear energy for decades, according to the US Geological
Survey.
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versus pressurized-water reactors in burning thorium, but the reaction described above is the main
appeal of thorium, and its principal promise.
Thorium vs. uranium
Thorium is an appealing alternative to uranium to many countries. It is both more cheap and more
abundant than uranium, whose price is expected to rise yet more as backlash from the Fukushima
disaster dies down, according to Energy and Capital. There are other benefits of thorium as well.
During a thorium-powered nuclear reaction, most of the thorium itself is consumed, which leads to
less waste, most of which is rendered non-hazardous in 30 years. The most dangerous nuclear
waste material currently in use must be stored for 10,000 years, by way of contrast. Furthermore, 1
metric ton of thorium is equal to 250 metric tons in terms of efficiency in a water reactor.
Extraction of thorium would be less expensive per unit of energy than extraction of uranium as well,
because it is present in higher concentrations by weight than the other metal, according to
Dauvergne. The source also mentions another peculiar trait of thorium: it is nearly impossible to
weaponize, as it contains no fissile isotope. This in itself has slowed uranium research, according to
a 1997 international scientific symposium on nuclear fuel cycles.
The dangers of uranium widely publicized in the wake of the Fukushima disaster often lead
analysts and others to consider thorium more seriously. As thorium is not fissile on its own,reactions
could be stopped in case of emergency, according to Forbes. The publication suggests thorium could
allow countries like Iran and North Korea to benefit from nuclear power without causing concern that
they are secretly developing nuclear weapons, as well.
Thorium can also be used together with conventional uranium-based nuclear power generation,
meaning a thriving thorium industry would not necessarily make uranium obsolete.
Where thorium is found
Thorium is present in small quantities in soils and rocks everywhere, and its estimated to be about
four times more plentiful than uranium. Large reserves, rather than the trace amounts of the metal in
the average backyard, exist in China, Australia, the US, Turkey, India and Norway, according to
Reuters.
The US Geological Survey compiled a document listing its domestic thorium resources. The metal is
found in epigenetic vein deposits, low-grade deposits and black sand placer deposits. In its many
locations, thorium can be found in Montana, Idaho, Colorado, the Carolinas, Florida and Georgia.
This is a huge range of locations for possible thorium exploration, development and production.
Of course, the US is not the only country with sizable thorium reserves. The others listed above also
have plenty of options should energy and resource companies decide to develop the thorium
reserves within their borders.