Go (Game) - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

03/09/2015
Go(game)Wikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Go(game)
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
"Goe"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seeGOE(disambiguation).
Thisarticleisaboutweiqi.Forotherthingsnamed"Go",seeGo(disambiguation).
Go(simplifiedChinese:traditionalChinese:
pinyin:wiq,Japanese:igo,[nb2]literal
meaning:"encirclinggame",Korean:
baduk[nb3])isaboardgameinvolvingtwoplayers,
thatoriginatedinancientChinamorethan2,500
yearsago.Itwasconsideredoneofthefouressential
artsofaculturedChinesescholarinantiquity.The
earliestwrittenreferencetothegameisgenerally
recognizedasthehistoricalannalZuoZhuan[2][3](c.
4thcenturyBC).[4]
Thereissignificantstrategyinvolvedinthegame,
andthenumberofpossiblegamesisvast(10761
compared,forexample,totheestimated10120
possibleinchess),[5]despiteitsrelativelysimple
rules.
Thetwoplayersalternatelyplaceblackandwhite
playingpieces,called"stones",onthevacant
intersections("points")ofaboardwitha19x19grid
oflines.Beginnersoftenplayonsmaller99and
1313boards,[6]andarchaeologicalevidenceshows
thatgamewasplayedinearliercenturiesonaboard
witha1717grid.Bythetimethegamehadspread
toKoreaandJapaninaboutthe5thand7thcenturies
CErespectively,however,boardswitha1919grid
hadbecomestandard.[7]
Theobjectiveofthegameasthetranslationofits
nameimpliesistohavesurroundedalargertotal
areaoftheboardwithone'sstonesthantheopponent
bytheendofthegame,[8]althoughthisresult
typicallyinvolvesmanymoreintricaciesthansimply
usingsurroundingareasdirectly.
Onceplacedontheboard,stonesmaynotbemoved,
butstonesmayberemovedfromtheboardif
capturedthisisdonebysurroundinganopposing
stoneorgroupofstonesbyoccupyingall
orthogonallyadjacentpoints.[9]Thetwoplayers
placestonesalternatelyuntiltheyreachapointat
whichneitherplayerwishestomakeanothermove
thegamehasnosetendingconditionsbeyondthis.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_(game)
Go
Goisplayedonagridofblacklines(usually
1919).Gamepieces,calledstones,areplayedon
thelineintersections.
Yearsactive
ZhouDynasty(1046256BC)to
present
Genre(s)
Boardgame
Abstractstrategygame
Players
Agerange
3+[1][nb1]
Setuptime
Minimal
Playingtime
Casual:2090minutes
Tournament:16hours[a]
Random
chance
None
Skill(s)
required
Strategy,tactics,observation
Synonym(s)
Weiqi("waychee")
Igo/Paduk
Baduk
aSomeprofessionalgamesexceed16hoursandare
playedinsessionsspreadovertwodays.
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Whenagameconcludes,theterritoryiscountedalongwithcapturedstonesandkomi(pointsaddedto
thescoreoftheplayerwiththewhitestonesascompensationforplayingsecond)todeterminethe
winner.[10]Gamesmayalsobewonbyresignation.
Asofmid2008,therewerewellover40millionGoplayersworldwide,theoverwhelmingmajorityof
themlivinginEastAsia.[11]AsofMay2012,theInternationalGoFederationhasatotalof74member
countriesandfourAssociationMemberscoveringmultiplecountries.[12]
Contents
1Overview
1.1Finerpoints
2Gametheory
3Rules
3.1Basicrules
3.2Thekorule
3.3Suicide
3.4Komi
3.5Scoringrules
3.6Lifeanddeath
3.7Seki(mutuallife)
4Tactics
4.1Capturingtactics
4.2Readingahead
4.3Kofighting
5Strategy
5.1Basicconcepts
5.2Openingstrategy
5.3Phasesofthegame
6History
6.1OrigininChina
6.2SpreadtoKoreaandJapan
6.3GointheWest
7Competitiveplay
7.1Ranksandratings
7.2Tournamentandmatchrules
7.3Topplayersandprofessionalgo
8Equipment
8.1Traditionalequipment
8.1.1Boards
8.1.2Stones
8.1.3Bowls
8.2Playingtechniqueandetiquette
8.3Timecontrol
8.4Notationandrecordinggames
9ComputersandGo
9.1Natureofthegame
9.2Softwareplayers
9.3Softwareassistance
10Inpopularcultureandscience
11Psychology
12Comparisons
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12Comparisons
13Seealso
14Notes
15References
15.1Citations
15.2Bibliography
16Furtherreading
17Externallinks
Overview
Goisanadversarialgamewiththeobjectiveofhaving
surroundedalargertotalareaoftheboardwithone'sstonesthan
theopponent.Asthegameprogresses,theplayersplacestones
whichmapoutformationsandpotentialterritories.Areasare
contestedinbattlesbetweenopposingstones,whichareoften
complexandmayresultintheexpansion,reduction,orwholesale
captureandlossofthecontestedarea.
AbasicprincipleofGoisthatstonesmusthaveatleastone
"liberty"(Chinese:)toremainontheboard.A"liberty"isan
open"point"(intersection)nexttoastone.Anenclosedliberty
(orliberties)iscalledan"eye"(),andagroupofstoneswithat
leasttwoseparateeyesissaidtobeunconditionally"alive".[14]
Suchgroupscannotbecaptured,evenifsurrounded.[15]"Dead"
stonesarestonesthataresurroundedandingroupswithpoor
shape(oneornoeyes),andthuscannotresisteventual
capture.[16]
Thefirst60movesofaGogame
animated.Thisparticulargame
quicklydevelopedintoacomplicated
fightinthelowerleftandbottom.
(Clickontheboard,torestartthe
play,inalargerwindow.)
ThegeneralstrategyofGoistoexpandone'sterritorywhere
possible,attacktheopponent'sweakgroups(groupsthatcan
possiblybekilled),andalwaysstaymindfulofthe"lifestatus"ofone'sowngroups.[17][18]Theliberties
ofgroupsarecountable.Situationswheretwoopposinggroupsmustcapturetheothertolivearecalled
capturingraces('semeai'[]inJapanese).[19]Inacapturingrace,thegroupwithmoreliberties
(and/orbetter"shape")willultimatelybeabletocapturetheopponent'sstones.[19][20]Capturingraces
andquestionsoflifeanddeathareexamplesofwhatmakesGochallenging.
Thegameendswhenbothplayerspass,andplayerspasswhentherearenomoreprofitablemovestobe
made.[21]Thegameisthenscored:Theplayerwiththegreaternumberofcontrolled(surrounded)points,
factoringinthenumberofcapturedstonesandkomi,winsthegame.[22]Gamesmayalsobewonby
resignation,forexampleifaplayerhaslostalargegroupofstones.
Finerpoints
Intheopeningstagesofthegame,playerstypicallyestablishpositions(or"bases")inthecornersand
aroundthesidesoftheboard.Thesebaseshelptoquicklydevelopstrongshapeswhichhavemany
optionsforlife(selfviabilityforagroupofstoneswhichpreventscaptureandremovalfromtheboard)
andestablishformationsforpotentialterritory.[23]Playersusuallystartinthecorners,becauseitismore
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efficienttomakelifeandtoestablishterritorywiththeaidoftwo
edgesoftheboard.[24]Establishedcorneropeningsequencesare
called"joseki"(Japanese,)or"jungsuk"(inKorean)andare
oftenstudiedindependently.[25]
""(pronounced[dame],'neutralpoints')arepointsthatliein
betweentheboundarywallsofblackandwhite,andassuchare
consideredtobeofnovaluetoeitherside."Seki"(Chinese:
)aremutuallyalivepairsofwhiteandblackgroupswhere
neitherhastwoeyes.A"ko"(ChineseandJapanese:)isa
repeatedpositionshapethatmaybecontestedbymakingforcing
moveselsewhere.Aftertheforcingmoveisplayed,thekomay
be"takenback"andreturnedtoitsoriginalposition.[26]Some
"kofights"maybeimportantanddecidethelifeofalargegroup,
whileothersmaybeworthjustoneortwopoints.Somekofights
arereferredtoas"picnickos"whenonlyonesidehasalotto
lose.[27]TheJapanesecallitahanami(flowerviewing)ko.[28]
Thefourliberties(adjacentempty
points)ofasingleblackstone(A),as
Whitereducesthoselibertiesbyone
(B,C,andD).WhenBlackhasonly
onelibertyleft(D),thatstoneis"in
atari". [13]Whitemaycapturethat
stone(removefromboard)witha
playonitslastliberty(atD1).
Playingwithothersusuallyrequiresaknowledgeofeachplayer's
strength,asindicatedbytheirrank
(30kyu1kyu|1dan6dan|1danpro9danpro).Handicapscan
begivenifthereisadifferenceinrankBlackisallowedto
placetwoormorestonesontheboardtocompensateforWhite'sgreaterstrength.[29][30]Thereare
differentrulesets(Japanese,Chinese,AGA,etc.),whicharealmostentirelyequivalent,exceptfor
certainspecialcasepositions.
Gametheory
Informalgametheoryterms,Goisanonchance,combinatorialgamewithperfectinformation.
Informallythatmeanstherearenodiceused(anddecisionsormovescreatediscreteoutcomevectors
ratherthanprobabilitydistributions)theunderlyingmathiscombinatorialandallmoves(viasingle
vertexanalysis)arevisibletobothplayers(unlikesomecardgameswheresomeinformationishidden).
Perfectinformationalsoimpliessequenceplayerscantheoreticallyknowaboutallpastmoves.
OthergametheoreticaltaxonomyelementsincludethefactsthatGoisbounded(becauseeverygame
mustendwithavictor(oratie)withinafinitenumberofmoves)thestrategyisassociative(every
strategyisafunctionofboardposition)formatisnoncooperative(notateamsport)positionsare
extensible(canberepresentedbyboardpositiontrees)gameiszerosum(playerchoicesdonotincrease
resourcesavailablecolloquially,rewardsinthegamearefixedandifoneplayerwins,theotherloses)
andtheutilityfunctionisrestricted(inthesenseofwin/losehowever,ratings,monetaryrewards,
nationalandpersonalprideandotherfactorscanextendutilityfunctions,butgenerallynottotheextent
ofremovingthewin/loserestriction).Affinetransformationsarebeyondthescopeofthisarticle,but
theycantheoreticallyaddnonzeroandcomplexutilityaspectseventotwoplayergames(seethe
Maschlerreferenceongo/chessthatfollowshere,p.111).[31]
Rules
Mainarticle:RulesofGo
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Asidefromtheorderofplay(alternatingmoves,Blackmovesfirstortakesahandicap)andscoring
rules,thereareessentiallyonlytworulesinGo:
Rule1(theruleofliberty)statesthateverystoneremainingontheboardmusthaveatleastone
open"point"(anintersection,calleda"liberty")directlynexttoit(up,down,left,orright),or
mustbepartofaconnectedgroupthathasatleastonesuchopenpoint("liberty")nexttoit.
Stonesorgroupsofstoneswhichlosetheirlastlibertyareremovedfromtheboard.
Rule2(the"korule")statesthatthestonesontheboardmustneverrepeatapreviouspositionof
stones.Moveswhichwoulddosoareforbidden,andthusonlymoveselsewhereontheboardare
permittedthatturn.
Almostallotherinformationabouthowthegameisplayedisaheuristic,meaningitislearned
informationabouthowthegameisplayed,ratherthanarule.Otherrulesarespecialized,astheycome
aboutthroughdifferentrulesets,buttheabovetworulescoveralmostallofanyplayedgame.
Althoughtherearesomeminordifferencesbetweenrulesetsusedindifferentcountries,[32]mostnotably
inChineseandJapanesescoringrules,[33]thesedifferencesdonotgreatlyaffectthetacticsandstrategy
ofthegame.
Exceptwherenotedotherwise,thebasicrulespresentedherearevalidindependentofthescoringrules
used.Thescoringrulesareexplainedseparately.GotermsforwhichtherearenoreadyEnglish
equivalentarecommonlycalledbytheirJapanesenames.
Basicrules
Twoplayers,BlackandWhite,taketurnsplacingastone(game
piece)oftheirowncoloronavacantpoint(intersection)ofthe
gridonaGoboard.Blackmovesfirst.Ifthereisalarge
differenceinskillbetweentheplayers,Blackistypicallyallowed
toplacetwoormorestonesontheboardtocompensateforthe
difference(seeGohandicaps).Theofficialgridcomprises1919
lines,thoughtherulescanbeappliedtoanygridsize.1313and
99boardsarepopularchoicestoteachbeginners.[34]Once
placed,astonemaynotbemovedtoadifferentpoint.[35]
Verticallyandhorizontallyadjacentstonesofthesamecolor
formachain(alsocalledastringorgroup)thatcannot
subsequentlybesubdividedand,ineffect,becomesasingle
largerstone.[36]Onlystonesconnectedtooneanotherbythe
linesontheboardcreateachainstonesthatarediagonally
adjacentarenotconnected.Chainsmaybeexpandedbyplacing
additionalstonesonadjacentintersections,andcanbeconnected
togetherbyplacingastoneonanintersectionthatisadjacentto
twoormorechainsofthesamecolor.
Oneblackchainandtwowhite
chains,withtheirlibertiesmarked
withdots.Libertiesaresharedamong
allstonesofachainandcanbe
counted.Heretheblackgrouphas5
liberties,whilethetwowhitechains
have4libertieseach.
Avacantpointadjacenttoastoneiscalledalibertyforthatstone.[37][nb4]Stonesinachainsharetheir
liberties.Achainofstonesmusthaveatleastonelibertytoremainontheboard.Whenachainis
surroundedbyopposingstonessothatithasnoliberties,itiscapturedandremovedfromtheboard.
Thekorule
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Playersarenotallowedtomakeamovethatreturnsthegametothepreviousposition.Thisrule,called
thekorule(Chinese:Japanese:k"eon",Korean:'pae'),preventsunendingrepetition.[38]As
shownintheexamplepicturedtotheright:Blackhasjustplayedthestonemarked1,capturingawhite
stoneattheintersectionmarkedwithacircle.IfWhitewerenowallowedtoplayonthemarked
intersection,thatmovewouldcapturetheblackstonemarked1andrecreatethesituationbeforeBlack
madethemovemarked1.Allowingthiscouldresultinanunendingcycleofcapturesbybothplayers.
ThekorulethereforeprohibitsWhite
fromplayingatthemarked
intersectionimmediately.Instead
Whitemustplayelsewhere,orpass
Blackcanthenendthekobyfillingat
themarkedintersection,creatinga
fivestoneblackchain.IfWhitewants
IfWhiteplaysatA,theblackchain
tocontinuetheko(thatspecific
losesitslastliberty.Itiscapturedand
repeatingposition),Whitetriestofind
Anexampleofa
removedfromtheboard.
aplayelsewhereontheboardthat
situationinwhichthe
BlackmustanswerifBlackanswers,
koruleapplies
thenWhitecanretaketheko.A
repetitionofsuchexchangesiscalledakofight.[39]
Whilethevariousrulesetsagreeonthekoruleprohibitingreturningtheboardtoanimmediately
previousposition,theydealindifferentwayswiththerelativelyuncommonsituationinwhichaplayer
mightrecreateapastpositionthatisfurtherremoved.SeeRulesofGo:Repetitionforfurther
information.
Suicide
Aplayermaynotplaceastonesuchthatitoritsgroup
immediatelyhasnoliberties,unlessdoingsoimmediately
deprivesanenemygroupofitsfinalliberty.Inthelattercase,the
enemygroupiscaptured,leavingthenewstonewithatleastone
liberty.[42]Thisruleisresponsiblefortheallimportant
differencebetweenoneandtwoeyes:ifagroupwithonlyone
eyeisfullysurroundedontheoutside,itcanbekilledwitha
stoneplacedinitssingleeye.
TheIngandNewZealandrulesdonothavethisrule,[43]and
thereaplayermightdestroyoneofitsowngroups"commit
suicide".Thisplaywouldonlybeusefulinalimitedsetof
situationsinvolvingasmallinteriorspace.[44]
Komi
Mainarticle:Komidashi
Undernormalrules,Whitecannot
playatAbecausethatpointhasno
liberties.UndertheIng[40]andNew
Zealandrules, [41]WhitemayplayA
(akothreat),leavinganemptythree
spaceeye.Blacknaturallyanswersby
playingatA,creatingtwoeyes.
BecauseBlackhastheadvantageofplayingthefirstmove,the
ideaofawardingWhitesomecompensationcameintobeingduringthe20thcentury.Thisiscalled
komi,whichgiveswhitea6.5pointscompensationunderJapaneserules(numberofpointsvariesby
ruleset).[45]Ifthereisonestone(rank)differenceinstrengthbetweenplayers,thestrongerplayertakes
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white,andWhitemayreceiveonly0.5pointskomi,tobreakapossibletie("jigo").Inhandicapgames
withtwoormorehandicapstones,Whitemayalsotake0.5pointskomitobreakatiebutitismore
commonthatthereisnokomi.[46]
Scoringrules
Twogeneraltypesofscoringsystemareused,andplayers
determinewhichtousebeforeplay.Bothsystemsalmostalways
givethesameresult.Territoryscoringcountsthenumberof
emptypointsaplayer'sstonessurround,togetherwiththe
numberofstonessheorhecaptured.Areascoringcountsthe
numberofpointsyourstonesoccupyandsurround.Itis
associatedwithcontemporaryChineseplayandwasprobably
establishedthereduringtheMingDynastyinthe15thor16th
century.[47]
Afterbothplayershavepassedconsecutively,thestonesthatare
stillontheboardbutunabletoavoidcapture,calleddeadstones,
areremoved.
Areascoring(includingChinese):Aplayer'sscoreisthe
numberofstonesthattheplayerhasontheboard,plusthe
numberofemptyintersectionssurroundedbythatplayer'sstones.
Territoryscoring(includingJapaneseandKorean):Inthe
courseofthegame,eachplayerretainsthestonestheycapture,
termedprisoners.Anydeadstonesremovedattheendofthe
gamebecomeprisoners.Thescoreisthenumberofemptypoints
enclosedbyaplayer'sstones,plusthenumberofprisoners
capturedbythatplayer.[nb5]
Asimplifiedgameatitsend.Black's
territory(A)iscountedandcompared
toWhite'sterritory(B).Inthis
example,bothBlackandWhite
attemptedtoinvadeandlive(CandD
groups)toreducetheother'stotal
territory.OnlyBlack'sinvading
group(C)wassuccessfulinliving,as
White'sgroup(D)waskilledwitha
blackstoneatE.Thepointsinthe
middle(F)are"dame",meaningthey
belongtoneitherplayer.
Ifthereisdisagreementaboutwhichstonesaredead,thenunder
areascoringrules,theplayerssimplyresumeplaytoresolvethematter.Thescoreiscomputedusingthe
positionafterthenexttimetheplayerspassconsecutively.Underterritoryscoring,therulesare
considerablymorecomplexhowever,inpractice,playersgenerallyplayon,and,oncethestatusofeach
stonehasbeendetermined,returntothepositionatthetimethefirsttwoconsecutivepassesoccurred
andremovethedeadstones.Forfurtherinformation,seeRulesofGo.
Giventhatthenumberofstonesaplayerhasontheboardisdirectlyrelatedtothenumberofprisoners
theiropponenthastaken,theresultingnetscore,thatisthedifferencebetweenBlack'sandWhite's
scores,isidenticalunderbothrulesets(unlesstheplayershavepasseddifferentnumbersoftimesduring
thecourseofthegame).Thus,thenetresultgivenbythetwoscoringsystemsrarelydiffersbymore
thanapoint.[48]
Lifeanddeath
Seealso:Lifeanddeath
WhilenotactuallymentionedintherulesofGo(atleastinsimplerrulesets,suchasthoseofNew
ZealandandtheU.S.),theconceptofalivinggroupofstonesisnecessaryforapracticalunderstanding
ofthegame.[49]
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Whenagroupofstonesismostlysurroundedandhasnooptionsto
connectwithfriendlystoneselsewhere,thestatusofthegroupiseither
alive,deadorunsettled.Agroupofstonesissaidtobealiveifit
cannotbecaptured,eveniftheopponentisallowedtomovefirst.
Conversely,agroupofstonesissaidtobedeadifitcannotavoid
capture,eveniftheownerofthegroupisallowedthefirstmove.
Otherwise,thegroupissaidtobeunsettled:thedefendingplayercan
makeitaliveortheopponentcankillit,dependingonwhogetstoplay
first.[49]
Tobealive,agroupmustbeabletocreateatleasttwo"eyes"if
threatened.Aneyeisanemptypointthatissurroundedbyfriendly
Examplesofeyes(marked).
stones,wheretheopponentcanneverplayduetothesuiciderule.If
Theblackgroupsatthetopof
twosucheyesexist,theopponentcannevercaptureagroupofstones,
theboardarealive,asthey
haveatleasttwoeyes.The
becauseitalwayshasatleasttwoliberties.Oneeyeisnotenoughfor
blackgroupsatthebottomare
life,becauseapointthatwouldnormallybesuicidemaybeplayed
deadastheyonlyhaveone
uponifdoingsofillsthelastlibertyofopposingstones,thereby
eye.Thepointmarkedaisa
capturingthosestones.Inthe"Examplesofeyes"diagram,allthe
falseeye.
circledpointsareeyes.Thetwoblackgroupsintheuppercornersare
alive,asbothhaveatleasttwoeyes.Thegroupsinthelowercorners
aredead,asbothhaveonlyoneeye.Thegroupinthelowerleftmay
seemtohavetwoeyes,butthesurroundedemptypointmarkedaisnotactuallyaneye.Whitecanplay
thereandtakeablackstone.Suchapointisoftencalledafalseeye.[49]
Seki(mutuallife)
Thereisanexceptiontotherequirementthatagroupmusthave
twoeyestobealive,asituationcalledseki(ormutuallife).
Wheredifferentcoloredgroupsareadjacentandshareliberties,
thesituationmayreachapositionwhenneitherplayerwantsto
movefirst,becausedoingsowouldallowtheopponentto
captureinsuchsituationsthereforebothplayer'sstonesremain
ontheboardinmutuallifeor"seki".Neitherplayerreceivesany
pointsforthosegroups,butatleastthosegroupsthemselves
remainliving,asopposedtobeingcaptured.[nb6]
Exampleofseki(mutuallife).
Sekicanoccurinmanyways.Thesimplestare:(1)eachplayer
NeitherBlacknorWhitecanplayon
hasagroupwithouteyesandtheysharetwoliberties,and(2)
themarkedpointswithoutreducing
eachplayerhasagroupwithoneeyeandtheyshareonemore
theirownlibertiesforthosegroupsto
liberty.Inthe"Exampleofseki(mutuallife)"diagram,the
one(selfatari).
circledpointsarelibertiessharedbybothablackandawhite
group.Neitherplayerwantstoplayonacircledpoint,because
doingsowouldallowtheopponenttocapture.Alltheothergroupsinthisexample,bothblackand
white,arealivewithatleasttwoeyes.Sekicanresultfromanattemptbyoneplayertoinvadeandkilla
nearlysettledgroupoftheotherplayer.[49]
Tactics
Mainarticle:Gostrategyandtactics
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InGo,tacticsdealwithimmediatefightingbetweenstones,capturingandsavingstones,life,deathand
otherissueslocalizedtoaspecificpartoftheboard.Largerissues,notlimitedtoonlypartoftheboard,
arereferredtoasstrategy,andarecoveredintheirownsection.
Capturingtactics
Thereareseveraltacticalconstructsaimedatcapturingstones.[50]Theseareamongthefirstthingsa
playerlearnsafterunderstandingtherules.Recognizingthepossibilitythatstonescanbecapturedusing
thesetechniquesisanimportantstepforward.
Themostbasictechniqueistheladder.[51]Tocapturestonesina
ladder,aplayerusesaconstantseriesofcapturethreatscalledatari
toforcetheopponentintoazigzagpatternasshowninthediagram
totheright.Unlessthepatternrunsintofriendlystonesalongtheway,
thestonesintheladdercannotavoidcapture.Experiencedplayers
recognizethefutilityofcontinuingthepatternandplayelsewhere.The
presenceofaladderontheboarddoesgiveaplayertheoptiontoplay
astoneinthepathoftheladder,therebythreateningtorescuetheir
stones,forcingaresponse.Suchamoveiscalledaladderbreakerand
maybeapowerfulstrategicmove.Inthediagram,Blackhastheoption
ofplayingaladderbreaker.
Aladder.Blackcannotescape
unlesstheladderconnectsto
blackstonesfurtherdownthe
boardthatwillinterceptwith
theladder.
Anothertechniquetocapturestones
isthesocallednet,[52]alsoknownby
itsJapanesename,geta.Thisrefersto
amovethatlooselysurroundssome
stones,preventingtheirescapeinall
directions.Anexampleisgiveninthediagramtotheleft.Itis
generallybettertocapturestonesinanetthaninaladder,becausea
netdoesnotdependontheconditionthattherearenoopposingstones
intheway,nordoesitallowtheopponenttoplayastrategicladder
breaker.
Anet.Thechainofthree
markedblackstonescannot
escapeinanydirection.
Athirdtechniquetocapturestonesisthesnapback.[53]Inasnapback,
oneplayerallowsasinglestonetobecaptured,thenimmediatelyplays
onthepointformerlyoccupiedbythatstonebysodoing,theplayer
capturesalargergroupoftheiropponent'sstones,ineffectsnapping
backatthosestones.Anexamplecanbeseenontheright.Aswiththe
ladder,anexperiencedplayerdoesnotplayoutsuchasequence,recognizingthefutilityofcapturing
onlytobecapturedbackimmediately.
Readingahead
Oneofthemostimportantskillsrequiredforstrongtacticalplayistheabilitytoreadahead.[54]Reading
aheadincludesconsideringavailablemovestoplay,thepossibleresponsestoeachmove,andthe
subsequentpossibilitiesaftereachofthoseresponses.Someofthestrongestplayersofthegamecan
readupto40movesaheadevenincomplicatedpositions.[55]
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Asexplainedinthescoringrules,somestoneformationscanneverbe
capturedandaresaidtobealive,whileotherstonesmaybeinthe
positionwheretheycannotavoidbeingcapturedandaresaidtobe
dead.Muchofthepracticematerialavailabletoplayersofthegame
comesintheformoflifeanddeathproblems,alsoknownas
tsumego.[56]Insuchproblems,playersarechallengedtofindthevital
movesequencethatkillsagroupoftheopponentorsavesagroupof
theirown.Tsumegoareconsideredanexcellentwaytotrainaplayer's
abilityatreadingahead,[56]andareavailableforallskilllevels,some
posingachallengeeventotopplayers.
Kofighting
InsituationswhentheKoruleapplies,akofightmayoccur.[39]Ifthe
playerwhoisprohibitedfromcaptureisoftheopinionthatthecapture
isimportant,becauseitpreventsalargegroupofstonesfrombeing
capturedforinstance,theplayermayplayakothreat.[39]Thisisa
moveelsewhereontheboardthatthreatenstomakealargeprofitifthe
opponentdoesnotrespond.Iftheopponentdoesrespondtothe
kothreat,thesituationontheboardhaschanged,andthe
prohibitiononcapturingthekonolongerapplies.Thusthe
playerwhomadethekothreatmaynowrecapturetheko.Their
opponentistheninthesamesituationandcaneitherplayako
threataswell,orconcedethekobysimplyplayingelsewhere.If
aplayerconcedestheko,eitherbecausetheydonotthinkit
importantorbecausetherearenomovesleftthatcouldfunction
asakothreat,theyhavelosttheko,andtheiropponentmay
connecttheko.
Insteadofrespondingtoakothreat,aplayermayalsochooseto
ignorethethreatandconnecttheko.[39]Theytherebywintheko,
butatacost.Thechoiceofwhentorespondtoathreatandwhen
toignoreitisasubtleone,whichrequiresaplayertoconsider
manyfactors,includinghowmuchisgainedbyconnecting,how
muchislostbynotresponding,howmanypossiblekothreats
bothplayershaveremaining,whattheoptimalorderofplaying
themis,andwhatthesizepointslostorgainedofeachofthe
remainingthreatsis.[57]
Frequently,thewinnerofthekofightdoesnotconnectthekobut
insteadcapturesoneofthechainsthatconstitutedtheir
opponent'ssideoftheko.[39]Insomecases,thisleadstoanother
kofightataneighboringlocation.
Asnapback.AlthoughBlack
cancapturethewhitestoneby
playingatthecircledpoint,the
resultingshapeforBlackhas
onlyoneliberty(at1),thus
Whitecanthencapturethe
threeblackstonesbyplayingat
1again(snapback).
Asimplifiedkofightona99board.
Thekoisatthepointmarkedwitha
squareBlackhas"takentheko"
first.Thekofightdeterminesthelife
oftheAandBgroupsonlyone
survivesandtheotheriscaptured.
WhitemayplayCasakothreat,and
BlackproperlyanswersatD.White
canthen"taketheko"byplayingat
thesquaremarkedpoint(capturing
theoneblackstone).Eisapossible
kothreatforBlack.
Strategy
Mainarticle:Gostrategyandtactics
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Strategydealswithglobalinfluence,interactionbetweendistantstones,keepingthewholeboardin
mindduringlocalfights,andotherissuesthatinvolvetheoverallgame.Itisthereforepossibletoallowa
tacticallosswhenitconfersastrategicadvantage.
Novicesoftenstartbyrandomlyplacingstonesontheboard,asifitwereagameofchance.An
understandingofhowstonesconnectforgreaterpowerdevelops,andthenafewbasiccommonopening
sequencesmaybeunderstood.Learningthewaysoflifeanddeathhelpsinafundamentalwayto
developone'sstrategicunderstandingofweakgroups.[nb7]Aplayerwhobothplaysaggressivelyand
canhandleadversityissaidtodisplaykiai,orfightingspirit,inthegame.
Basicconcepts
Mainarticle:Goterms
Basicstrategicaspectsincludethefollowing:
Connection:Keepingone'sownstonesconnectedmeansthatfewergroupsneedtomakeliving
shape,andonehasfewergroupstodefend.
Cut:Keepingopposingstonesdisconnectedmeansthattheopponentneedstodefendandmake
livingshapeformoregroups.
Stayalive:Thesimplestwaytostayaliveistoestablishafootholdinthecorneroralongoneof
thesides.Ataminimum,agroupmusthavetwoeyes(separateopenpoints)tobe"alive".[58]An
opponentcannotfillineithereye,asanysuchmoveissuicidalandprohibitedintherules.
Mutuallife(seki)isbetterthandying:Asituationinwhichneitherplayercanplayonaparticular
pointwithoutthenallowingtheotherplayertoplayatanotherpointtocapture.Themostcommon
exampleisthatofadjacentgroupsthatsharetheirlastfewlibertiesifeitherplayerplaysinthe
sharedliberties,theycanreducetheirowngrouptoasingleliberty(puttingthemselvesinatari),
allowingtheiropponenttocaptureitonthenextmove.
Death:Agroupthatlackslivingshapeiseventuallyremovedfromtheboardascaptured.
Invasion:Setupanewlivinggroupinsideanareawheretheopponenthasgreaterinfluence,
meansonereducestheopponentsscoreinproportiontotheareaoneoccupies.
Reduction:Placingastonefarenoughintotheopponent'sareaofinfluencetoreducetheamount
ofterritorytheyeventuallyget,butnotsofarinthatitcanbecutofffromfriendlystonesoutside.
Sente:Aplaythatforcesone'sopponenttorespond(gote).Aplayerwhocanregularlyplaysente
hastheinitiativeandcancontroltheflowofthegame.
Sacrifice:Allowingagrouptodieinordertocarryoutaplay,orplan,inamoreimportantarea.
Thestrategyinvolvedcanbecomeveryabstractandcomplex.Highlevelplayersspendyearsimproving
theirunderstandingofstrategy,andanovicemayplaymanyhundredsofgamesagainstopponents
beforebeingabletowinregularly.
Openingstrategy
Intheopeningofthegame,playersusuallyplayinthecornersoftheboardfirst,asthepresenceoftwo
edgesmakesiteasierforthemtosurroundterritoryandestablishtheirstones.[59]Afterthecorners,focus
movestothesides,wherethereisstilloneedgetosupportaplayer'sstones.Openingmovesare
generallyonthethirdandfourthlinefromtheedge,withoccasionalmovesonthesecondandfifthlines.
Ingeneral,stonesonthethirdlineofferstabilityandaregooddefensivemoves,whereasstonesonthe
fourthlineinfluencemoreoftheboardandaregoodattackingmoves.Theopeningisthemostdifficult
partofthegameforprofessionalplayersandtakesadisproportionateamountoftheplayingtime.[60]
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Intheopening,playersoftenplayestablishedsequencescalledjoseki,whicharelocallybalanced
exchanges[61]however,thejosekichosenshouldalsoproduceasatisfactoryresultonaglobalscale.Itis
generallyadvisabletokeepabalancebetweenterritoryandinfluence.Whichofthesegetsprecedenceis
oftenamatterofindividualtaste.
Phasesofthegame
Intheopeningofthegame,playersusuallyplayandgainterritoryinthecornersoftheboardfirst,asthe
presenceoftwoedgesmakeiteasierforthemtosurroundterritoryandestablishtheirstones.[62]Froma
securepositioninacorner,itispossibletolayclaimtomoreterritorybyextendingalongthesideofthe
board.[63]Theopeningisthemosttheoreticallydifficultpartofthegame,andtakesalargeproportionof
professionalplayers'thinkingtime.[62]
Themiddlephaseofthegameisthemostcombative,andusuallylastsformorethan100moves.During
themiddlegame,theplayersinvadeeachother'sterritories,andattackformationsthatlackthenecessary
twoeyesforviability.Suchgroupsmaybesavedorsacrificedforsomethingmoresignificantonthe
board.[64]Itispossiblethatoneplayermaysucceedincapturingalargeweakgroupoftheopponent's,
whichoftenprovesdecisiveandendsthegamebyaresignation.However,mattersmaybemore
complexyet,withmajortradeoffs,apparentlydeadgroupsreviving,andskillfulplaytoattackinsucha
wayastoconstructterritoriesratherthankill.[65]
Theendofthemiddlegameandtransitiontotheendgameismarkedbyafewfeatures.Thegamebreaks
upintoareasthatdonotaffecteachother(withacaveataboutkofights),wherebeforethecentralarea
oftheboardrelatedtoallpartsofit.Nolargeweakgroupsarestillinseriousdanger.Movescan
reasonablybeattributedsomedefinitevalue,suchas20pointsorfewer,ratherthansimplybeing
necessarytocompete.Bothplayerssetlimitedobjectivesintheirplans,inmakingordestroying
territory,capturingorsavingstones.Thesechangingaspectsofthegameusuallyoccuratmuchthesame
time,forstrongplayers.Inbrief,themiddlegameswitchesintotheendgamewhentheconceptsof
strategyandinfluenceneedreassessmentintermsofconcretefinalresultsontheboard.
History
Mainarticle:HistoryofGo
Go
OrigininChina
Theearliestwrittenreferencetothegameisgenerally
recognizedasthehistoricalannalZuoZhuan[2][3](c.
4thcenturyBC),[4]referringtoahistoricaleventof
548BC.ItisalsomentionedinBookXVIIofthe
AnalectsofConfucius[4]andintwobookswrittenby
Mencius[3][66](c.3rdcenturyBC).[4]Inallofthese
works,thegameisreferredtoasy().Today,in
China,itisknownasweiqi(simplifiedChinese:
traditionalChinese:pinyin:wiqWadeGiles:
weich'i),literallythe"encirclementboardgame".
Chinesename
TraditionalChinese
SimplifiedChinese
Literalmeaning
Transcriptions
StandardMandarin
HanyuPinyin
Wiq
WadeGiles
Weich'i
Xiao'erjing
Tibetanname
Tibetan
surroundgame
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Gowasoriginally
playedona1717line
grid,buta1919grid
becamestandardby
thetimeoftheTang
Dynasty(618907).[3]
Legendstracethe
originofthegameto
themythicalChinese
emperorYao(2337
2258BC),whowas
saidtohavehadhis
counselorShundesign
WomanPlayingGo(Tang
itforhisunrulyson,
Dynastyc.744),discovered
Danzhu,tofavorably
attheAstanaGraves
influencehim.[67]
Othertheoriessuggest
thatthegamewasderivedfromChinesetribal
warlordsandgenerals,whousedpiecesofstoneto
mapoutattackingpositions.[68][69]
Transcriptions
Wylie
migmangs
Koreanname
Hangul
Transcriptions
RevisedRomanization
Baduk
McCuneReischauer
Paduk
Japanesename
Kanji
,("surround
game")
Transcriptions
Romanization
Go,Igo
InChina,GowasconsideredoneofthefourcultivatedartsoftheChinesescholargentleman,alongwith
calligraphy,paintingandplayingthemusicalinstrumentguqin.[70]
SpreadtoKoreaandJapan
WeiqiwasintroducedtoKoreasometimebetweenthe5thand7thcenturiesCE,andwaspopularamong
thehigherclasses.InKorea,thegameiscalledbaduk(hangul:),andavariantofthegamecalled
Sunjangbadukwasdevelopedbythe16thcentury.Sunjangbadukbecamethemainvariantplayedin
Koreauntiltheendofthe19thcentury.[71][72]
ThegamereachedJapaninthe7th
centuryCEwhereitiscalledgo()
origo()thegamebecame
popularattheJapaneseimperialcourt
inthe8thcentury,[73]andamongthe
generalpublicbythe13thcentury.[74]
In1603,TokugawaIeyasure
establishedJapan'sunifiednational
government.Inthesameyear,he
Koreancouple,intraditionaldress,
assignedthethenbestplayerinJapan,
playinaphotographdatedbetween
aBuddhistmonknamedNikkai(n
1910and1920.
KanYosaburo,1559),tothepostof
Illustratedhandscroll
[75]
ofTheTaleofGenji
Godokoro(MinisterofGo). Nikkai
(12thcentury).
tookthenameHoninboSansaandfoundedtheHoninboGoschool.[75]Several
competingschoolswerefoundedsoonafter.[75]Theseofficiallyrecognized
andsubsidizedGoschoolsgreatlydevelopedthelevelofplayandintroducedthedan/kyustylesystem
ofrankingplayers.[76]Playersfromthefourschools(Honinbo,Yasui,InoueandHayashi)competedin
theannualcastlegames,playedinthepresenceoftheshogun.[77]
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GointheWest
DespiteitswidespreadpopularityinEastAsia,Gohasbeenslowtospreadtotherestoftheworld.
Althoughtherearesomementionsofthegameinwesternliteraturefromthe16thcenturyforward,Go
didnotstarttobecomepopularintheWestuntiltheendofthe19thcentury,whenGermanscientist
OskarKorscheltwroteatreatiseonthegame.[78]Bytheearly20thcentury,Gohadspreadthroughout
theGermanandAustroHungarianempires.In1905,EdwardLaskerlearnedthegamewhileinBerlin.
WhenhemovedtoNewYork,LaskerfoundedtheNewYorkGoClubtogetherwith(amongstothers)
ArthurSmith,whohadlearnedofthegamewhiletouringtheEastandhadpublishedthebookThe
GameofGoin1908.[79]Lasker'sbookGoandGomoku(1934)helpedspreadthegamethroughoutthe
U.S.,[79]andin1935,theAmericanGoAssociationwasformed.Twoyearslater,in1937,theGerman
GoAssociationwasfounded.
WorldWarIIputastoptomostGoactivity,butafterthewar,Gocontinuedtospread.[80]Formostof
the20thcentury,theJapanGoAssociation(NihonKiin)playedaleadingroleinspreadingGooutside
EastAsiabypublishingtheEnglishlanguagemagazineGoReviewinthe1960sestablishingGocenters
intheU.S.,EuropeandSouthAmericaandoftensendingprofessionalteachersontourtoWestern
nations.[81]Internationally,thegameisnowcommonlyknownbyitsshortenedJapanesename,and
termsforcommonGoconceptsarederivedfromtheirJapanesepronunciation.
In1996,NASAastronautDanielBarryandJapaneseastronautKoichiWakatabecamethefirstpeopleto
playGoinspace.TheyusedaspecialGoset,whichwasnamedGoSpace,designedbyWaiCheung
WillsonChow.[82]BothastronautswereawardedhonorarydanranksbytheNihonKiin.[82]
AsofMay2012,theInternationalGoFederationhas57membercountriesoutsideAsia.[12]
Competitiveplay
Ranksandratings
Mainarticle:Goranksandratings
InGo,rankindicatesaplayer'sskillinthegame.Traditionally,ranksaremeasuredusingkyuanddan
grades,[83]asystemalsoadoptedbymanymartialarts.Morerecently,mathematicalratingsystems
similartotheEloratingsystemhavebeenintroduced.[84]Suchratingsystemsoftenprovidea
mechanismforconvertingaratingtoakyuordangrade.[84]Kyugrades(abbreviatedk)areconsidered
studentgradesanddecreaseasplayinglevelincreases,meaning1stkyuisthestrongestavailablekyu
grade.Dangrades(abbreviatedd)areconsideredmastergrades,andincreasefrom1stdanto7thdan.
Firstdanequalsablackbeltineasternmartialartsusingthissystem.Thedifferenceamongeach
amateurrankisonehandicapstone.Forexample,ifa5kplaysagamewitha1k,the5kwouldneeda
handicapoffourstonestoeventheodds.Toplevelamateurplayerssometimesdefeatprofessionalsin
tournamentplay.[85]Professionalplayershaveprofessionaldanranks(abbreviatedp).Theseranksare
separatefromamateurranks.
Theranksystemcomprises,fromthelowesttohighestranks:
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ThreeJapaneseprofessionalGo
playersobservesomeyounger
amateursastheydissectalifeand
deathprobleminthecornerofthe
board,attheUSGoCongressin
Houston,Texas,2003.
RankType
Range
Stage
Doubledigitkyu 3021k
Beginner
Doubledigitkyu 2010k
Casualplayer
Singledigitkyu 91k
Intermediate/clubplayer
Amateurdan
17d(where8disaspecialtitle) Advancedplayer
Professionaldan 19p(where10pisaspecialtitle) Professionals
Tournamentandmatchrules
Seealso:Gocompetitions
Tournamentandmatchrulesdealwithfactorsthatmayinfluencethegamebutarenotpartoftheactual
rulesofplay.Suchrulesmaydifferbetweenevents.Rulesthatinfluencethegameinclude:thesettingof
compensationpoints(komi),handicap,andtimecontrolparameters.Rulesthatdonotgenerally
influencethegameare:thetournamentsystem,pairingstrategies,andplacementcriteria.
CommontournamentsystemsusedinGoincludetheMcMahonsystem,[86]Swisssystem,league
systemsandtheknockoutsystem.TournamentsmaycombinemultiplesystemsmanyprofessionalGo
tournamentsuseacombinationoftheleagueandknockoutsystems.[87]
Tournamentrulesmayalsosetthefollowing:
compensationpoints,calledkomi,whichcompensatethesecondplayerforthefirstmove
advantageofhisopponenttournamentscommonlyuseacompensationintherangeof58
points,[88]generallyincludingahalfpointtopreventdraws
handicapstonesplacedontheboardbeforealternateplay,allowingplayersofdifferentstrengths
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toplaycompetitively(seeGohandicapformoreinformation)and
superko:Althoughthebasickoruledescribedabovecoversmorethan95%ofallcyclesoccurring
ingames,[89]therearesomecomplexsituationstripleko,eternallife,[nb8]etc.thatarenot
coveredbyitbutwouldallowthegametocycleindefinitely.Topreventthis,thekoruleis
sometimesextendedtodisallowtherepetitionofanypreviousposition.Thisextensioniscalled
superko.[89]
Topplayersandprofessionalgo
Seealso:Goplayers,GoprofessionalandListofprofessionalGotournaments
AGoprofessionalisaprofessionalplayerofthegameofGo.Therearesixareaswithprofessionalgo
associations,theseare:China(ChinaQiyuan),Japan(NihonKiin,KansaiKiin),Korea(KoreaBaduk
Association),Taiwan(TaiwanChiYuanCultureFoundation),theUnitedStates(AGAProfessional
System)andEurope(EuropeanProfessionalSystem).
AlthoughthegamewasdevelopedinChina,theestablishmentoftheFourGohousesbyTokugawa
Ieyasuatthestartofthe17thcenturyshiftedthefocusoftheGoworldtoJapan.Statesponsorship,
allowingplayerstodedicatethemselvesfulltimetostudyofthegame,andfiercecompetitionbetween
individualhousesresultedinasignificantincreaseinthelevelofplay.Duringthisperiod,thebest
playerofhisgenerationwasgiventheprestigioustitleMeijin(master)andthepostofGodokoro
(ministerofGo).OfspecialnotearetheplayerswhoweredubbedKisei(GoSage).Theonlythree
playerstoreceivethishonorwereDosaku,JowaandShusaku,allofthehouseHoninbo.[90]
HoninboShusai(left),lastheadof
houseHoninbo,playsagainstthen
upandcomingGoSeigeninthe
gameofthecentury.
AftertheendoftheTokugawashogunateandtheMeiji
Restorationperiod,theGohousesslowlydisappeared,andin
1924,theNihonKiin(JapaneseGoAssociation)wasformed.
Topplayersfromthisperiodoftenplayednewspapersponsored
matchesof210games.[91]Ofspecialnotearethe(Chinese
born)playerGoSeigen(Chinese:WuQingyuan),whoscored
80%inthesematches,[92]andMinoruKitani,whodominated
matchesintheearly1930s.[93]Thesetwoplayersarealso
recognizedfortheirgroundbreakingworkonnewopeningtheory
(Shinfuseki).[94]
Formuchofthe20thcentury,Gocontinuedtobedominatedby
playerstrainedinJapan.NotablenamesincludedEioSakata,Rin
Kaiho(borninChina),MasaoKato,KoichiKobayashiandChoChikun(bornChoCh'ihun,South
Korea).[95]TopChineseandKoreantalentsoftenmovedtoJapan,becausethelevelofplaytherewas
highandfundingwasmorelavish.OneofthefirstKoreanplayerstodosowasChoNamchul,who
studiedintheKitaniDojo19371944.AfterhisreturntoKorea,theHangukKiwon(KoreaBaduk
Association)wasformedandcausedthelevelofplayinSouthKoreatorisesignificantlyinthesecond
halfofthe20thcentury.[96]InChina,thegamedeclinedduringtheCulturalRevolution(19661976)but
quicklyrecoveredinthelastquarterofthe20thcentury,bringingChineseplayers,suchasNieWeiping
andMaXiaochun,onparwiththeirJapaneseandKoreancounterparts.[97]TheChineseWeiqi
Association(todaypartoftheChinaQiyuan)wasestablishedin1962,professionaldangradesstarted
beingissuedin1982.[98]Westernprofessionalgobeganin2012withtheAmericanGoAssociation's
ProfessionalSystem.[99]In2014,theEuropeanGoFederationfollowedsuitandstartedtheir
professionalsystem.[100]
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Withtheadventofmajorinternationaltitlesfrom1989onward,
itbecamepossibletocomparethelevelofplayersfromdifferent
countriesmoreaccurately.KoreanplayerssuchasLeeChangho,
ChoHunhyun,LeeSedolandYooChanghyukdominated
internationalGoandwonmanytitles.[101]SeveralChinese
playersalsorosetothetopininternationalGo,mostnotablyMa
Xiaochun,ChangHaoandGuLi.Asof2013,Japanlagsbehind
intheinternationalGoscene.
Historically,aswithmostsportsandgames,morementhan
womenhaveplayedGo.Specialtournamentsforwomenexist,
butuntilrecently,menandwomendidnotcompetetogetherat
thehighestlevelshowever,thecreationofnew,open
tournamentsandtheriseofstrongfemaleplayers,mostnotably
RuiNaiwei,haveinrecentyearshighlightedthestrengthand
competitivenessofemergingfemaleplayers.[102]
KoreanplayerLeeChangho,
regardedbymanyasoneofthebest
modernGoplayers,playsagainst
RussianplayerAlexandre
Dinerchtein,seventimeEuropean
Championandoneofthefew
Westernplayerstoreachprofessional
status.
Thelevelinothercountrieshastraditionallybeenmuchlower,
exceptforsomeplayerswhohadpreparatoryprofessional
traininginAsia.[nb9]Knowledgeofthegamehasbeenscantelsewhereupuntilthe20thcentury.A
famousplayerofthe1920swasEdwardLasker.[nb10]Itwasnotuntilthe1950sthatmorethanafew
Westernplayerstookupthegameasotherthanapassinginterest.In1978,ManfredWimmerbecame
thefirstWesternertoreceiveaprofessionalplayer'scertificatefromanAsianprofessionalGo
association.[103]In2000,aWesterner,MichaelRedmond,finallyachievedthetoprankawardedbyan
AsianGoassociation,9dan.Intotal,asof2008,onlyninenonAsianGoplayershaveeverachieved
professionalstatusinAsianassociations.
Equipment
Mainarticle:Goequipment
ItispossibletoplayGowithasimplepaperboardandcoinsorplastictokensforthestones.More
popularmidrangeequipmentincludescardstock,alaminatedparticleboard,orwoodboardswithstones
ofplasticorglass.Moreexpensivetraditionalmaterialsarestillusedbymanyplayers.Themost
expensiveGosetshaveblackstonescarvedfromslateandwhitestonescarvedfromtranslucentwhite
shells,playedonboardscarvedinasinglepiecefromthetrunkofatree.
Traditionalequipment
Boards
TheGoboard(generallyreferredtobyitsJapanesenamegoban())typicallymeasuresbetween45
and48cm(18and19in)inlength(fromoneplayer'ssidetotheother)and42to44cm(17to17in)in
width.Chineseboardsareslightlylarger,asatraditionalChineseGostoneisslightlylargertomatch.
Theboardisnotsquarethereisa15:14ratioinlengthtowidth,becausewithaperfectlysquareboard,
fromtheplayer'sviewingangletheperspectivecreatesaforeshorteningoftheboard.Theaddedlength
compensatesforthis.[104]Therearetwomaintypesofboards:atableboardsimilarinmostrespectsto
othergameboardslikethatusedforchess,andafloorboard,whichisitsownfreestandingtableandat
whichtheplayerssit.
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ThetraditionalJapanesegobanisbetween10and18cm(3.9and
7.1in)thickandhaslegsitsitsonthefloor(seepicture).[104]It
ispreferablymadefromtheraregoldentingedKayatree
(Torreyanucifera),withtheverybestmadefromKayatreesup
to700yearsold.Morerecently,therelatedCaliforniaTorreya
(Torreyacalifornica)hasbeenprizedforitslightcolorandpale
ringsaswellasitsreducedexpenseandmorereadilyavailable
stock.ThenaturalresourcesofJapanhavebeenunabletokeep
upwiththeenormousdemandfortheslowgrowingKayatrees
bothT.nuciferaandT.californicatakemanyhundredsofyears
togrowtothenecessarysize,andtheyarenowextremelyrare,
raisingthepriceofsuchequipmenttremendously.[105]AsKaya
treesareaprotectedspeciesinJapan,theycannotbeharvested
untiltheyhavedied.Thus,anoldgrowth,floorstandingKaya
gobancaneasilycostinexcessof$10,000withthehighest
qualityexamplescostingmorethan$60,000.[106]
Other,lessexpensivewoodsoftenusedtomakequalitytable
AtraditionalJapaneseset,witha
boardsinbothChineseandJapanesedimensionsincludeHiba
solidwoodenfloorboard(
(Thujopsisdolabrata),Katsura(Cercidiphyllumjaponicum),
goban),2bowls(goke)and361
Kauri(Agathis),andShinKaya(variousvarietiesofspruce,
stones(goishi)
commonlyfromAlaska,SiberiaandChina'sYunnan
Province).[105]SocalledShinKayaisapotentiallyconfusing
merchant'sterm:shinmeans"new",andthusshinkayaisbesttranslated"fauxkaya",becausethewoods
sodescribedarebiologicallyunrelatedtoKaya.[105]
Stones
AfullsetofGostones(goishi)usuallycontains181blackstonesand180whiteonesa1919gridhas
361points,sothereareenoughstonestocovertheboard,andBlackgetstheextraoddstonebecause
thatplayergoesfirst.
TraditionalJapanesestonesaredoubleconvex,andmadeofclamshell(white)andslate(black).[107]The
classicslateisnachigurostoneminedinWakayamaPrefectureandtheclamshellfromtheHamaguri
clamhowever,duetoascarcityintheJapanesesupplyofthisclam,thestonesaremostoftenmadeof
shellsharvestedfromMexico.[107]Historically,themostprizedstonesweremadeofjade,oftengivento
thereigningemperorasagift.[107]
InChina,thegameistraditionallyplayedwithsingleconvexstones[107]madeofacompositecalled
Yunzi.ThematerialcomesfromYunnanProvinceandismadebysinteringaproprietaryandtrade
secretmixtureofmineralcompoundsderivedfromthelocalstone.ThisprocessdatestotheTang
Dynastyand,aftertheknowledgewaslostinthe1920sduringtheChineseCivilWar,wasrediscovered
inthe1960sbythenowstaterunYunzicompany.Thematerialispraisedforitscolors,itspleasing
soundascomparedtoglassortosyntheticssuchasmelamine,anditslowercostasopposedtoother
materialssuchasslate/shell.Theterm"yunzi"canalsorefertoasingleconvexstonemadeofany
materialhowever,mostEnglishlanguageGosuppliersspecifyYunziasamaterialandsingleconvexas
ashapetoavoidconfusion,asstonesmadeofYunziarealsoavailableindoubleconvexwhilesynthetic
stonescanbeeithershape.
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Traditionalstonesaremadesothatblackstonesareslightlylargerindiameterthanwhitethisisto
compensatefortheopticalillusioncreatedbycontrastingcolorsthatwouldmakeequalsizedwhite
stonesappearlargerontheboardthanblackstones.[107][nb11]
Bowls
Thebowlsforthestonesareshapedlikeaflattenedspherewitha
levelunderside.[108]Thelidisloosefittingandupturnedbefore
playtoreceivestonescapturedduringthegame.Chinesebowls
areslightlylarger,andalittlemorerounded,astyleknown
generallyasGoSeigenJapaneseKitanibowlstendtohavea
shapeclosertothatofthebowlofasnifterglass,suchasfor
Anexampleofsingleconvexstones
brandy.Thebowlsareusuallymadeofturnedwood.Mulberryis
andGoSeigenbowls.These
thetraditionalmaterialforJapanesebowls,butisveryexpensive
particularstonesaremadeofYunzi
woodfromtheChinesejujubedatetree,whichhasalightercolor
material,andthebowlsofjujube
(itisoftenstained)andslightlymorevisiblegrainpattern,isa
wood.
commonsubstituteforrosewood,andtraditionalforGoSeigen
stylebowls.OthertraditionalmaterialsusedformakingChinese
bowlsincludelacqueredwood,ceramics,stoneandwovenstraw
orrattan.Thenamesofthebowlshapes,"GoSeigen"and"Kitani",wereintroducedinthelastquarterof
the20thcenturybytheprofessionalplayerJaniceKimashomagetotwo20thcenturyprofessionalGo
playersbythesamenames,ofChineseandJapanesenationality,respectively,whoarereferredtoasthe
"FathersofmodernGo".[90]
Playingtechniqueandetiquette
ThetraditionalwaytoplaceaGostoneistofirsttakeonefrom
thebowl,grippingitbetweentheindexandmiddlefingers,with
themiddlefingerontop,andthenplacingitdirectlyonthe
desiredintersection.[109]Onecanalsoplaceastoneontheboard
andthenslideitintopositionunderappropriatecircumstances
(whereitdoesnotmoveanyotherstones).Itisconsidered
respectfultowardsWhiteforBlacktoplacethefirststoneofthe
gameintheupperrighthandcorner.[110](Becauseofsymmetry,
thishasnoeffectonthegame'soutcome.)
GoplayersinShanghaidemonstrate
thetraditionaltechniqueofholdinga
stone.
Itisconsideredpoormannerstorunone'sfingersthroughone's
bowlofunplayedstones,asthesound,howeversoothingtothe
playerdoingthis,canbedisturbingtoone'sopponent.Similarly,
"clacking"astoneagainstanotherstone,theboard,orthetableorfloorisalsodiscouraged.However,it
ispermissibletoemphasizeselectmovesbystrikingtheboardmorefirmlythannormal,thusproducing
asharpclack.
Timecontrol
Seealso:TimecontrolandByoyomi
AgameofGomaybetimedusingagameclock.Formaltimecontrolswereintroducedintothe
professionalgameduringthe1920sandwerecontroversial.[111]Adjournmentsandsealedmovesbegan
toberegulatedinthe1930s.Gotournamentsuseanumberofdifferenttimecontrolsystems.All
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commonsystemsenvisageasinglemainperiodoftimeforeachplayerforthegame,buttheyvaryon
theprotocolsforcontinuation(inovertime)afteraplayerhasfinishedthattimeallowance.[nb12]The
mostwidelyusedtimecontrolsystemisthesocalledbyoyomi[nb13]system.ThetopprofessionalGo
matcheshavetimekeeperssothattheplayersdonothavetopresstheirownclocks.
Twowidelyusedvariantsofthebyoyomisystemare:[112]
Standardbyoyomi:Afterthemaintimeisdepleted,aplayerhasacertainnumberoftimeperiods
(typicallyaroundthirtyseconds).Aftereachmove,thenumberoffulltimeperiodsthattheplayer
took(oftenzero)issubtracted.Forexample,ifaplayerhasthreethirtysecondtimeperiodsand
takesthirtyormore(butlessthansixty)secondstomakeamove,theyloseonetimeperiod.With
6089seconds,theylosetwotimeperiods,andsoon.If,however,theytakelessthanthirty
seconds,thetimersimplyresetswithoutsubtractinganyperiods.Usingupthelastperiodmeans
thattheplayerhaslostontime.
Canadianbyoyomi:Afterusingalloftheirmaintime,aplayermustmakeacertainnumberof
moveswithinacertainperiodoftime,suchastwentymoveswithinfiveminutes.[112][nb14]Ifthe
timeperiodexpireswithouttherequirednumberofstoneshavingbeenplayed,thentheplayerhas
lostontime.[nb15]
Notationandrecordinggames
Seealso:Kifu
Gogamesarerecordedwithasimplecoordinatesystem.Thisiscomparabletoalgebraicchessnotation,
exceptthatGostonesdonotmoveandthusrequireonlyonecoordinateperturn.Coordinatesystems
includepurelynumerical(44point),hybrid(K3),andpurelyalphabetical.[113]TheSmartGameFormat
usesalphabeticalcoordinatesinternally,butmosteditorsrepresenttheboardwithhybridcoordinatesas
thisreducesconfusion.TheJapanesewordkifuissometimesusedtorefertoagamerecord.
InUnicode,GostonesareencodedintheblockMiscellaneousSymbols:
U+2686WHITECIRCLEWITHDOTRIGHT(HTML⚆)[114]
U+2687WHITECIRCLEWITHTWODOTS(HTML⚇)
U+2688BLACKCIRCLEWITHDOTRIGHT(HTML⚈)
U+2689BLACKCIRCLEWITHTWODOTS(HTML⚉)
ComputersandGo
Natureofthegame
Seealso:Goandmathematics
Incombinatorialgametheoryterms,Goisazerosum,perfectinformation,partisan,deterministic
strategygame,puttingitinthesameclassaschess,checkers(draughts)andReversi(Othello)however
itdiffersfromtheseinitsgameplay.Althoughtherulesaresimple,thepracticalstrategyisextremely
complex.
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Thegameemphasizestheimportanceofbalanceonmultiplelevelsandhasinternaltensions.Tosecure
anareaoftheboard,itisgoodtoplaymovesclosetogetherhowever,tocoverthelargestarea,one
needstospreadout,perhapsleavingweaknessesthatcanbeexploited.Playingtoolow(closetothe
edge)securesinsufficientterritoryandinfluence,yetplayingtoohigh(farfromtheedge)allowsthe
opponenttoinvade.
IthasbeenclaimedthatGoisthemostcomplexgameintheworldduetoitsvastnumberofvariations
inindividualgames.[115]Itslargeboardandlackofrestrictionsallowgreatscopeinstrategyand
expressionofplayers'individuality.Decisionsinonepartoftheboardmaybeinfluencedbyan
apparentlyunrelatedsituationinadistantpartoftheboard.Playsmadeearlyinthegamecanshapethe
natureofconflictahundredmoveslater.
ThegamecomplexityofGoissuchthatdescribingevenelementarystrategyfillsmanyintroductory
books.Infact,numericalestimatesshowthatthenumberofpossiblegamesofGofarexceedsthe
numberofatomsintheobservableuniverse.[nb16]
ResearchofgoendgamebyJohnH.Conwayledtotheinventionofthesurrealnumbers.[116]Goalso
contributedtodevelopmentofcombinatorialgametheory(withGoInfinitesimals[117]beingaspecific
exampleofitsuseinGo).
Softwareplayers
Mainarticle:ComputerGo
Goposesadauntingchallengetocomputerprogrammers.ThebestGoprogramsonlymanagetoreach
amateurdanlevel.[118]Onthesmall99board,thecomputerfaresbetter,andsomeprogramsnowwina
fractionoftheir99gamesagainstprofessionalplayers.Manyinthefieldofartificialintelligence
considerGotorequiremoreelementsthatmimichumanthoughtthanchess.[119]
ThereasonswhycomputerprogramsdonotplayGoatthe
professionaldanlevelinclude:[120]
Thenumberofspacesontheboardismuchlarger(over
fivetimesthenumberofspacesonachessboard361vs.
64).Onmostturnstherearemanymorepossiblemovesin
Gothaninchess.Throughoutmostofthegame,the
numberoflegalmovesstaysataround150250perturn,
andrarelyfallsbelow50(inchess,theaveragenumberof
Afinishedbeginner'sgameona
movesis37).[121]Becauseanexhaustivecomputer
1313board.Gosoftwarecanreach
programforGomustcalculateandcompareeverypossible
strongerlevelsonasmallerboard
legalmoveineachply(playerturn),itsabilitytocalculate
size.
thebestplaysissharplyreducedwhentherearealarge
numberofpossiblemoves.Mostcomputergame
algorithms,suchasthoseforchess,computeseveralmoves
inadvance.Givenanaverageof200availablemovesthroughmostofthegame,foracomputerto
calculateitsnextmovebyexhaustivelyanticipatingthenextfourmovesofeachpossibleplay
(twoofitsownandtwoofitsopponent's),itwouldhavetoconsidermorethan320billion
(3.2 1011)possiblecombinations.Toexhaustivelycalculatethenexteightmoves,wouldrequire
computing512quintillion(5.12 1020)possiblecombinations.AsofMarch2014,themost
powerfulsupercomputerintheworld,NUDT's"Tianhe2",cansustain33.86petaflops.[122]Atthis
rate,evengivenanexceedinglylowestimateof10operationsrequiredtoassessthevalueofone
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playofastone,Tianhe2wouldrequire4hourstoassessallpossiblecombinationsofthenext
eightmovesinordertomakeasingleplay.
Theplacementofasinglestoneintheinitialphasecanaffecttheplayofthegameahundredor
moremoveslater.Acomputerwouldhavetopredictthisinfluence,anditwouldbeunworkableto
attempttoexhaustivelyanalyzethenexthundredmoves.
Incapturebasedgames(suchaschess),apositioncanoftenbeevaluatedrelativelyeasily,suchas
bycalculatingwhohasamaterialadvantageormoreactivepieces.[nb17]InGo,thereisoftenno
easywaytoevaluateaposition.[123]Howevera6kyuhumancanevaluateapositionataglance,
toseewhichplayerhasmoreterritory,andevenbeginnerscanestimatethescorewithin10points,
giventimetocountit.Thenumberofstonesontheboard(materialadvantage)isonlyaweak
indicatorofthestrengthofaposition,andaterritorialadvantage(moreemptypointssurrounded)
foroneplayermightbecompensatedbytheopponent'sstrongpositionsandinfluencealloverthe
board.Normallya3dancaneasilyjudgemostofthesepositions.
Asanillustration,thegreatesthandicapnormallygiventoaweakeropponentis9stones.Itwasnotuntil
August2008thatacomputerwonagameagainstaprofessionallevelplayeratthishandicap.Itwasthe
Mogoprogram,whichscoredthisfirstvictoryinanexhibitiongameplayedduringtheUSGo
Congress.[124][125]
Softwareassistance
Mainarticle:Gosoftware
Anabundanceofsoftwareisavailabletosupportplayersofthe
game.Thisincludesprogramsthatcanbeusedtovieworedit
gamerecordsanddiagrams,programsthatallowtheuserto
searchforpatternsinthegamesofstrongplayers,andprograms
thatallowuserstoplayagainsteachotherovertheInternet.
Somewebserversprovidegraphicalaidslikemaps,toaid
learningduringplay.Thesegraphicalaidsmaysuggestpossible
nextmoves,indicateareasofinfluence,highlightvitalstones
underattackandmarkstonesinatariorabouttobecaptured.
A99gamewithgraphicalaids.
Colorsandmarkingsshow
evaluationsbythecomputerassistant.
Thereareseveralfileformatsusedtostoregamerecords,the
mostpopularofwhichisSGF,shortforSmartGameFormat.
Programsusedforeditinggamerecordsallowtheusertorecord
notonlythemoves,butalsovariations,commentaryandfurtherinformationonthegame.[nb18]
Electronicdatabasescanbeusedtostudylifeanddeathsituations,joseki,fusekiandgamesbya
particularplayer.Programsareavailablethatgiveplayerspatternsearchingoptions,whichallowplayers
toresearchpositionsbysearchingforhighlevelgamesinwhichsimilarsituationsoccur.Suchsoftware
generallylistscommonfollowupmovesthathavebeenplayedbyprofessionalsandgivesstatisticson
win/lossratioinopeningsituations.
InternetbasedGoserversallowaccesstocompetitionwithplayersallovertheworld,forrealtimeand
turnbasedgames.[nb19]Suchserversalsoalloweasyaccesstoprofessionalteaching,withbothteaching
gamesandinteractivegamereviewbeingpossible.[nb20]
Inpopularcultureandscience
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Apartfromtechnicalliteratureandstudymaterial,Goanditsstrategieshavebeenthesubjectofseveral
worksoffiction,suchasTheMasterofGobyNobelprizewinningauthorYasunariKawabata[nb21]and
TheGirlWhoPlayedGobyShanSa.OtherbookshaveusedGoasathemeorminorplotdevice.For
example,thenovelShibumibyTrevaniancentersaroundthegameandusesGometaphors,[126]andThe
WayofGo:8AncientStrategySecretsforSuccessinBusinessandLifebyTroyAndersonappliesGo
strategytobusiness.[127]GO:AnAsianParadigmforBusinessStrategy[128]byMiuraYasuyuki,a
managerwithJapanAirlines,[129]usesGotodescribethethinkingandbehaviorofbusinessmen.[130]
Ofparticularnoteisthemanga(Japanesecomicbook)andanimeseriesHikarunoGo,releasedinJapan
in1998,whichhadalargeimpactinpopularizingGoamongyoungplayers,bothinJapanandas
translationswerereleasedabroad.[131][132]GoPlayerisasimilaranimatedseriesaboutyoungGo
playersthatairedinChina.
Similarly,Gohasbeenusedasasubjectorplotdeviceinfilm,suchas,ABeautifulMind,Tron:
Legacy,andTheGoMaster,abiopicofGoprofessionalGoSeigen.[133][nb22]2013'sTkynikita
bakariorTokyoNewcomerportraysaChineseforeignerGoplayermovingtoTokyo.[134]InKingHu's
wuxiafilmTheValiantOnes,thecharactersarecolorcodedasGostones(blackorotherdarkshadesfor
theChinese,whitefortheJapaneseinvaders),Goboardsandstonesareusedbythecharacterstokeep
trackofsoldierspriortobattle,andthebattlesthemselvesarestructuredlikeagameofGo.[135]
ThecorporationandbrandAtariwasnamedaftertheGoterm.[136]
HedgefundmanagerMarkSpitznagelusedweiqiashismaininvestingmetaphorinhispopular
investingbookTheDaoofCapital.[137]
Psychology
A2004reviewofliteraturebyFernandGobet,deVoogt&Retschitzki[138]showsthatrelativelylittle
scientificresearchhasbeencarriedoutonthepsychologyofGo,comparedwithothertraditionalboard
gamessuchaschessandMancala.ComputerGoresearchhasshownthatgiventhelargesearchtree,
knowledgeandpatternrecognitionaremoreimportantinGothaninotherstrategygames,suchas
chess.[138]AstudyoftheeffectsofageonGoplaying[139]hasshownthatmentaldeclineismilderwith
strongplayersthanwithweakerplayers.AccordingtothereviewofGobetandcolleagues,thepatternof
brainactivityobservedwithtechniquessuchasPETandfMRIdoesnotshowlargedifferencesbetween
Goandchess.Ontheotherhand,astudybyXiangchuanChenetal.[140]showedgreateractivationinthe
righthemisphereamongGoplayersthanamongchessplayers.Thereissomeevidencetosuggesta
correlationbetweenplayingboardgamesandreducedriskofAlzheimer'sdiseaseanddementia.[141]
Comparisons
Gobeginswithanemptyboard.Itisfocusedonbuildingfromthegroundup(nothingtosomething)
withmultiple,simultaneousbattlesleadingtoapointbasedwin.Chessistacticalratherthanstrategic,as
thepredeterminedstrategyistokilloneindividualpiece(theking).Thiscomparisonhasalsobeen
appliedtomilitaryandpoliticalhistory,withScottBoorman's1969bookTheProtractedGame
exploringthestrategyoftheCommunistPartyofChinaintheChineseCivilWarthroughthelensof
Go.[142]
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AsimilarcomparisonhasbeendrawnamongGo,chessandbackgammon,perhapsthethreeoldest
gamesthatenjoyworldwidepopularity.[143]Backgammonisa"manvs.fate"contest,withchance
playingastrongroleindeterminingtheoutcome.Chess,withrowsofsoldiersmarchingforwardto
captureeachother,embodiestheconflictof"manvs.man".BecausethehandicapsystemtellsGo
playerswheretheystandrelativetootherplayers,anhonestlyrankedplayercanexpecttoloseabout
halfoftheirgamestherefore,Gocanbeseenasembodyingthequestforselfimprovement,"manvs.
self".[143]
Seealso
Benson'salgorithmamethodfordeterminingthechainsthatareunconditionallyalive
Goopeningstrategy
Goproverbs
GovariantsandGamesplayedwithGoequipment
ListofGoorganizations
ListofprofessionalGotournaments
RoyalGameofUrabackgammonlikediceboardgameplayedinNearEastca.2500100BC,
knownfromarchaeology
Notes
1. Childrenbelowacertainagemayswalloworchokeonstones.
2. ThefullJapanesenameigoisderivedfromitsChinesenameweiqi,whichroughlytranslatesas"boardgame
ofsurrounding"seeEtymologyOfGo(http://senseis.xmp.net/?EtymologyOfGo)atSensei'sLibraryformore
information.TodifferentiatethegameGofromthecommonEnglishverbtogo,itisgenerallycapitalized
(Gao2007)or,ineventssponsoredbytheIngFoundation,spelledgoe.
3. TheKoreanword'baduk'derivesfromtheMiddleKoreanword'Badok',themeaningofwhichis
controversialthemoreplausibleetymologiesincludethesuffix'ok'addedto'Bad'creatingthemeaning'flat
andwideboard',orthejoiningof'Bad',meaning'field',and'Dok',meaning'stone'.Lessplausible
etymologiesincludeaderivationof'Badukdok',referringtotheplayingpiecesofthegame,oraderivation
fromChinese,meaning'toarrangepieces'.See,(October8,2005).
(http://terms.naver.com/entry.nhn?docId=982836&cid=85&categoryId=2641)..ISBN9788959660148.
RetrievedJune3,2014.
4. Compare"liberty",asmalllocalgovernmentunitinmedievalEnglandthe"localareaundercontrol".
5. Exceptionally,inJapaneseandKoreanrules,emptypoints,eventhosesurroundedbystonesofasinglecolor,
maycountasneutralterritoryifsomeofthemarealivebyseki.Seethesectionon"LifeandDeath"forseki.
6. Ingametheoreticalterms,sekipositionsareanexampleofaNashequilibrium.
7. Whetherornotagroupisweakorstrongreferstotheeasewithwhichitcanbekilledormadetolive.See
thisarticle(http://senseis.xmp.net/?BenjaminTeuber%2FGuideToBecomeStrong:v52)byBenjaminTeuber,
amateur6dan,forsomeviewsonhowimportantthisisfelttobe.
8. AfullexplanationoftheeternallifepositioncanbefoundonSensei'sLibrary(http://senseis.xmp.net/?
EternalLife),italsoappearsintheofficialtextforJapaneseRules,seetranslation(http://www
2.cs.cmu.edu/~wjh/go/rules/Japanese.html).
9. KakuTakagawatouredEuropearound1970,andreported(GoReview)ageneralstandardofamateur4dan.
ThisisagoodamateurlevelbutnomorethanmightbefoundinordinaryAsianclubs.Publishedcurrent
Europeanratingswouldsuggestaround100playersstrongerthanthat,withveryfewEuropean7dans.
10. EuropeanGohasbeendocumentedbyFrancoPratesi,Eurogo(Florence2003)inthreevolumes,upto1920,
19201950,and1950andlater.
11. SeeOvershootinWesterntypographyforsimilarsubtleadjustmenttocreateauniformappearance.
12. Roughly,onehasthetimetoplaythegameandthenalittletimetofinishitoff.Timewastingtacticsare
possibleinGo,sothatsuddendeathsystems,inwhichtimerunsoutatapredeterminedpointhowevermany
playsareinthegame,arerelativelyunpopular(intheWest).
13. LiterallyinJapanesebyyomimeans'readingofseconds'.
14. Typically,playersstoptheclock,andtheplayerinovertimesetshis/herclockforthedesiredinterval,counts
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15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
outtherequirednumberofstonesandsetstheremainingstonesoutofreach,soasnottobecomeconfused.If
twentymovesaremadeintime,thetimerisresettofiveminutesagain.
Inotherwords,Canadianbyoyomiisessentiallyastandardchessstyletimecontrol,basedonNmovesina
timeperiodT,imposedafteramainperiodisusedup.ItispossibletodecreaseT,orincreaseN,aseach
overtimeperiodexpiresbutsystemswithconstantTandN,forexample20playsin5minutes,arewidely
used.
Thenumberofboardpositionsisatmost3361(about10172)sinceeachpositioncanbewhite,black,or
vacant.Ignoring(illegal)suicidemoves,thereareatleast361!games(about10768)sinceeverypermutation
oftheboardpositionscorrespondstoagame.SeeGoandmathematicsformoredetails,whichincludesmuch
largerestimates.
WhilechesspositionevaluationissimplerthanGopositionevaluation,itisstillmorecomplicatedthan
simplycalculatingmaterialadvantageorpieceactivitypawnstructureandkingsafetymatter,asdothe
possibilitiesinfurtherplay.Thecomplexityofthealgorithmdiffersperengine.
ListsofsuchprogramsmaybefoundatSensei'sLibrary(http://senseis.xmp.net/?GoEditingPrograms)or
GoBase(http://gobase.org/software/editors/).
ListsofGoserversarekeptatSensei'sLibrary(http://senseis.xmp.net/?GoServers)andtheAGAwebsite
(http://www.usgo.org/resources/servers.html)
TheBritishGoAssociationprovidesalistofteachingservices(http://www.britgo.org/teaching/teaching.html)
AlistofbookscanbefoundatSensei'sLibrary(http://senseis.xmp.net/?Literature)
AlistoffilmscandefoundattheEGFInternetGoFilmography
(http://www.eurogofed.org/history/filmography.htm)
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Furtherreading
Introductorybooks
Baker,Karl.TheWaytoGo:HowtoPlaytheAsianGameofGo(http://www.usgo.org/waygo),American
GoAssociation,NewYork,rev.7thed.,2008,availableasfree.pdfdownloadorebook.
Bradley,MiltonN.GoforKids,YutopianEnterprises,SantaMonica,2001ISBN9781889554747.
Cho,Chikun.Go:ACompleteIntroductiontotheGame,KiseidoPublishers,Tokyo,1997,ISBN9784
906574506.
Cobb,William.TheBookofGo,SterlingPublishers,2002,ISBN9780806927299.
Iwamoto,Kaoru.GoforBeginners,Pantheon,NewYork,1977,ISBN9780394733319.
Kim,Janice,andJeongSoohyun.LearntoPlayGoseries,fivevolumes:GoodMovePress,Sheboygan,
Wisconsin,secondedition,1997.ISBN0964479613.
Matthews,Charles.TeachYourselfGo,McGrawHill,2004,ISBN9780071429771.
Shotwell,Peter.Go!MorethanaGame,TuttlePublishing,Boston,Revised2010.ISBN080483475X.
Historicalinterest
Boorman,ScottA.(1969),TheProtractedGame:AWeiCh'iInterpretationofMaoistRevolutionary
Strategy,NewYork,NY:OxfordUniversityPress,ISBN9780195014938
DeHavilland,WalterAugustus(1910),TheABCofGo:TheNationalWarGameofJapan,Yokohama,Kelly
&Walsh,OCLC4800147(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4800147)
Korschelt,Oscar(1966),TheTheoryandPracticeofGo,C.E.TuttleCo,ISBN9780804805728
Smith,Arthur(1956),TheGameofGo:TheNationalGameofJapan,C.E.TuttleCo,OCLC912228
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/912228)
Externallinks
Go(https://www.dmoz.org/Games/Board_Games/Abstract/Territory_Games/Go/)atDMOZ
InternationalGoFederation(IGF)(http://www.intergofed.org/),atintergofed.org
EuropeanGoFederation(EGF)(http://www.eurogofed.org/),ateurogofed.org
30/31
03/09/2015
AmericanGoAssociation(AGA)(http://www.usgo.org/),atusgo.org
TheNihonKiin(JapanGoAssociation)(http://www.nihonkiin.or.jp/indexe.htm),at
nihonkiin.or.jp
HistoryofGo(http://www.kiseido.com/three.htm)
Sensei'sLibrary(http://senseis.xmp.net/),awikiaboutandaroundthegameofGo
Goproblems.com(http://www.goproblems.com/),opendatabaseofinteractiveGoproblems,at
goproblems.com
GoGameGuru(http://gogameguru.com/),frequentlyupdatedsitewhereyoucanlearnGo,study
GoandreadGonews
Directdownloadforfreeprintandplay9x9GosetinA4
(http://ocastudios.com/static/projects/classics/ENbronze/go/releases/version010/ClassicsGo0
10EN.pdf)andletter(http://ocastudios.com/static/projects/classics/EN
bronze/go/releases/version010/ClassicsGo010US.pdf)formats.
TheInteractiveWaytoGo(http://playgo.to/iwtg/en/),aninteractivetutorialfortheGogame.
GNUGo(http://www.gnu.org/software/gnugo/),afreetextmodeGoengineprogram.
qGo(http://qgo.sourceforge.net/),afreegraphicaluserinterfaceGoclient,completewithafull
featuredSGFeditor.
anebookreleasebytheAmericanGoAssociationaboutthebasicsofGo.
(http://www.usgo.org/files/pdf/W2Go4Ebook.pdf,)
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Go_(game)&oldid=679268303"
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mayapply.Byusingthissite,youagreetotheTermsofUseandPrivacyPolicy.Wikipediaisa
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