Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Page 1 of 253
Table of Contents
TWI TUITION NOTES FOR 3.2U COURSE (DIS 2)........................................................................... 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS........................................................................................................................... 2
PREFACE................................................................................................................................................... 8
THE CERTIFICATION SCHEME FOR WELDMENT INSPECTION PERSONNEL ORGANISATION AND
EXAMINATION.......................................................................................................................................... 8
1
Certification Scheme for Weldment Inspection Personnel (CSWIP)......................................... 8
2
2.1
TWI...................................................................................................................................................... 8
Company Profile .................................................................................................................................. 8
2.1.1
Single Source of Expertise ........................................................................................................ 8
2.1.2
Non-profit Company ................................................................................................................. 8
2.1.3
Global Benefits.......................................................................................................................... 8
2.1.4
Confidential Consultancy .......................................................................................................... 9
Inspector Categories........................................................................................................................... 12
The CSWIP 3.2U Examination .......................................................................................................... 12
4.2.1
The Theory Examination......................................................................................................... 12
4.2.2
Practical Examination.............................................................................................................. 12
CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................................................................. 15
INSPECTION METHODS AVAILABLE TO ASSESS UNDERWATER STRUCTURES ......................................... 15
1
Visual Inspection..................................................................................................................... 15
2
Video ....................................................................................................................................... 16
3
Photography............................................................................................................................ 16
4
Cathodic Potential Readings .................................................................................................. 16
5
Ultrasonic Inspection Techniques........................................................................................... 16
6
Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) ....................................................................................... 16
7
Radiography............................................................................................................................ 17
8
Alternating Current Potential Drop (ACPD).......................................................................... 17
9
Electro Magnetic Detection Techniques (EMD or EMT)........................................................ 17
10 Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) .................................................................. 17
11 Flooded Member Detection (FMD) ........................................................................................ 17
12 Summary of Inspection Methods and Their Use ..................................................................... 18
13 Taking Measurements ............................................................................................................. 18
14 Linear Measurement ............................................................................................................... 19
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
15
Circular Measurements........................................................................................................... 19
15.1
15.2
15.3
16
Callipers........................................................................................................................................ 19
Vernier Gauges ............................................................................................................................. 20
Specialist Jigs ............................................................................................................................... 20
17
Ruler ............................................................................................................................................. 19
Magnetic Tape .............................................................................................................................. 19
Flexible Tape Measures................................................................................................................ 19
Electronic Methods....................................................................................................................... 19
Protractor ...................................................................................................................................... 20
Pendulum Gauges ......................................................................................................................... 20
CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................................................. 25
Page 2 of 253
CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................................................. 35
TYPES OF CORROSION ............................................................................................................................ 35
1
Corrosion Cells....................................................................................................................... 35
2
Dissimilar Metal Corrosion Cell ............................................................................................ 35
2.1
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
CHAPTER 4 ............................................................................................................................................. 52
FACTORS AFFECTING CORROSION RATES .............................................................................................. 52
1
Polarisation and Corrosion Rate ............................................................................................ 52
2
Environmental Factors Affecting Corrosion Rates ................................................................. 53
2.1
2.2
2.3
Temperature ....................................................................................................................................... 53
Water Flow Rate ................................................................................................................................ 54
The pH Value of the Water ................................................................................................................ 55
CHAPTER 5 ............................................................................................................................................. 59
CORROSION PROTECTION ....................................................................................................................... 59
1
Corrosion Protection .............................................................................................................. 59
2
Cathodic Protection ................................................................................................................ 60
2.1
Paints ................................................................................................................................................. 68
5
6
CHAPTER 6 ............................................................................................................................................. 75
CORROSION PROTECTION MONITORING ................................................................................................. 75
1
Monitoring Corrosion Protection ........................................................................................... 75
1.1
Inspection Requirements.................................................................................................................... 75
3
4
Necessary Equipment......................................................................................................................... 79
Procedure ........................................................................................................................................... 80
Page 3 of 253
Operating Procedures............................................................................................................. 82
5.1
CHAPTER 7 ............................................................................................................................................. 86
WELDING AND WELDING DEFECTS ........................................................................................................ 86
1
Joining Metal Components ..................................................................................................... 86
2
Fabricating Offshore Structures ............................................................................................. 86
3
Welding Processes .................................................................................................................. 86
3.1
5
6
Types of Weld.......................................................................................................................... 90
Welding Metallurgy ................................................................................................................ 91
6.1
3
4
5
6
7
Page 4 of 253
8
9
Couplant................................................................................................................................ 134
The Ultrasonic Beam ............................................................................................................ 135
9.1
9.2
9.3
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Polarity............................................................................................................................................. 161
Magnetic Field ................................................................................................................................. 162
3.2.1
Characteristics of the Magnetic Lines of Force ..................................................................... 162
Magnetisation................................................................................................................................... 174
5.1.1
Use of Permanent Magnets.................................................................................................... 174
5.1.2
Strength Required for MPI Permanent Magnets.................................................................... 175
5.1.3
Advantages and Disadvantages of Permanent Magnets......................................................... 176
5.2 Electromagnet (or Yoke) ............................................................................................................... 177
5.2.1
Strength Required for MPI Electromagnets........................................................................... 177
5.2.2
Advantages............................................................................................................................ 177
Page 5 of 253
6
7
How Defects Interact With the Induced Magnetic Field ....................................................... 187
Detection of the Magnetic Field............................................................................................ 188
7.1
7.2
7.3
Detecting the Distortion in the Magnetic Field (Flux Leakage) ........................................... 191
8.1
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Glossary...................................................................................................................................... 205
MPI Standards ............................................................................................................................ 207
Page 6 of 253
2
3
4
4.1
4
4.1
10
11
Page 7 of 253
PREFACE
The Certification Scheme for Weldment
Inspection Personnel Organisation and
Examination
1
TWI
Is a world centre for materials joining technology and is the parent organisation
for TWI Certification.
2.1
Company Profile
TWI Ltd, the operating arm of The Welding Institute, is one of the world's
foremost independent research and technology organisations. Based at Great
Abington near Cambridge since 1946, TWI provides industry with engineering
solutions in structures incorporating welding and associated technologies
(surfacing, coating, cutting, etc.) through Information
Advice and technology transfer
Consultancy and project support
Contract R&D
Training and qualification
Personal membership
2.1.1 Single Source of Expertise
TWI Ltd is the only single source of expertise in every aspect of joining
technology for engineering materials - metals, plastics, ceramics and
composites.
2.1.2 Non-profit Company
TWI is a non-profit distributing company, limited by guarantee and owned by its
Members; it is therefore able to offer independent advice. It is internationally
renowned for bringing together multidisciplinary teams to implement established
or advanced joining technology or to solve problems arising at any stage - from
initial design, materials selection, production and quality assurance, through to
service performance and repair.
2.1.3 Global Benefits
Over 450 skilled staff are dedicated to helping industry apply all forms of joining
technology safely and efficiently. Some 3200 companies and organisations Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006
Page 8 of 253
The body with overall responsibility for the activities of TWI Certification Ltd is
the Certification Management Board
Professional Board of TWI
Membership, Registration
& Education Committee
Membership, Registration
& Education Committee
CSWIP Welding
Specialists & Practitioners
Management Committee
CSWIP Plastics Welders
Certification Management Committee
Welding Fabricator
Certification Management Committee
Certification Scheme for
Welder Training Organisations
CSWIP In-Service Inspection
Management Committee
Page 9 of 253
Page 10 of 253
Page 11 of 253
Inspector Categories
Page 12 of 253
Page 13 of 253
Page 14 of 253
CHAPTER 1
Inspection Methods Available to Assess
Underwater Structures
1
Visual Inspection
Disadvantages
Table 1.1
A visual inspection will be completed before any other inspection method or
non-destructive test is undertaken to identify any features or areas of concern
that may impact on the quality of these other methods.
To properly assess the extent of any defects identified during a CVI it will be
necessary to measure the flaws. Comments on standard measurements are
contained in paragraph 13.
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Page 15 of 253
Video
Disadvantages
Instant playback
Safety
Photography
Page 16 of 253
Radiography
This method is explained in Chapter 11. The method is widely used in pipeline
survey and occasionally for platform inspection. It is used in specialised
applications.
8
This method is explained in Chapter 11. It is not widely used but can be
deployed to measure the depth of surface breaking crack-like features. It is not
used as a detection method.
9
These methods are fully explained in Chapter 11. These methods are being
more widely deployed and in some cases are superseding MPI. The method
can identify surface breaking crack-like features even under non-conductive
coatings and can size them for length and depth. A permanent record is made
at the time of the inspection
10 Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM)
This method is fully explained in Chapter 11. The method is a variation of the
EMD technique and is employed in the same manner. The method can also be
used to measure the thickness of coatings, which may be useful offshore.
11 Flooded Member Detection (FMD)
This method is fully explained in Chapter 11. The method is used to assess the
integrity of the structural members in a batch-testing manner. The method is a
go/no go technique that is quickly applied and gains results quite fast. However,
when results indicate a loss of member integrity follow up inspections with other
methods must be deployed to identify the cause of the lack of integrity.
Page 17 of 253
Widely
Used
Frequency
Uses
Visual Inspection
Yes
Daily
Video
Yes
Daily
Photography
Yes
Daily
CP Readings
Yes
Very
frequently
Assessment of CP system
coverage
Ultrasonic DTM
Yes
Often
Ultrasonic A-scan
No
MPI
Yes
Often
Radiography
No
ACPD
No
Seldom
EMD
Yes
Often
ACFM
Yes
Often
FMD
Yes
Very often
13 Taking Measurements
All the methods outlined in this chapter are useful for identifying some in-service
defects or damage, some are better than others for certain types of damage
and some will record dimensions when defects are identified while others,
especially CVI will not. It is, of course, essential that any defect be measured as
accurately as possible so that the actual risk of failure posed by it may be
accurately assessed.
The major reasons for taking measurements are: -
Page 18 of 253
Page 19 of 253
Figure 1.3
Pendulum Gauge
17 Dents and Deformations
Impact damage can be measured either directly, or by photogrammetry or
electronically.
17.1 Profile Gauges
If the damaged area is less that 300mm profile gauges may be used. They are
a comparison method and the accuracy will be 0.5mm. Care must be taken
not to disturb the setting of the pins once the profile is obtained. See Figure 1.4
Page 20 of 253
Figure 1.4
Profile Gauge
17.2 Pit Gauge
Small corrosion pits or similar may be measured with a pit gauge that consists
of a calibrated plunger that is pushed into the pit and the depth read off from the
calibrated part.
17.3 Linear Angular Measurement (LAM) Gauge
The LAM is an accurate measuring device specifically designed to take angular
and depth measurements. It can effectively measure:
Pit depth
Misalignment
Weld leg length
Weld throat thickness
Excessive weld metal
Undercut
All the weld profile angles and measurements
The gauge can take measurements from flat or curved surfaces. Figure 1.5
refers.
Page 21 of 253
Figure 1.5
LAM Gauge
17.4 Casts
A cast may be made of any depression to accurately mimic the exact shape.
Several materials may be used.
Plasticine
Putty
Two part compounds (e.g. Microset)
There are a number of problems that may occur when using casting materials: The cast may be difficult to remove without distortion
The cast may be deformed or damaged during transfer to the surface
The cast is a negative image
The casting material may be difficult to apply. In cold seawater two part
compounds may not flow and malleable materials do not mould easily. A
hot water box may be required
17.5 Straight Edge
This method may also be used for small deformations. Holding the straight edge
over the area and using a ruler to measure vertically down at small increments
obtains a profile of the damage. The accuracy may be 0.5mm.
Taut Wire
This method may be used for any size deformation. A wire is stretched over the
deformed area and vertical measurements taken at small increments obtain the
profile.
Page 22 of 253
Figure 1.6
Taut Wire
Page 23 of 253
Bibliography
A Handbook for Underwater Inspectors
L K Porter
HMSO
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
Page 24 of 253
CHAPTER 2
Corrosion
1
With time most materials react with their environment to change their structure.
The reaction in metals is called corrosion, in polymers (plastics) degradation
and in concrete weathering.
Corrosion in metals is defined as the chemical or electrochemical reaction
between a metal and its environment, which leads to one of three
consequences:
The removal of the metal
The formation of an oxide
The formation of another chemical compound
This change in the metal will be expected if the thermodynamics (energy state)
of the system is considered.
The FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS states:
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed
As a direct consequence of this Law when spontaneous changes occur they
must follow a rule, which is:
Whenever a spontaneous change occurs it must release free energy
from the system to the surrounding at constant temperature and pressure
Which is a way of stating the SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS When
corrosion occurs naturally it releases free energy, as it is a spontaneous
process.
Take the case of a metal such as iron or aluminium as an example; both are
fund in nature as ores which, when analysed, are found to be a chemical
compound including oxygen and carbon amongst other elements. This
necessitates the extraction of the metal itself from the other elements before it
can be used in fabrication. The process whereby the metal is extracted requires
either the smelting of the ore or an electrolysis process. The final metal
produced is therefore at a higher energy level than the ore from which it was
extracted i.e. energy is added to the system.
One of the fundamental laws of equilibrium is that all systems try to reduce their
energy level to a minimum. This is why water runs downhill thus reducing its
potential energy level as it flows. In similar fashion metals tend to reduce their
energy and therefore the rule imposed by the second Law. Thus free energy is
released.
There are numerous forms of energy but the energy causing corrosion is
chemical energy that is utilised to form lower energy chemical compounds, like
the metal oxide, which resemble the original ore. Because steel (iron alloys of
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Page 25 of 253
Figure 2.1
Changes in Energy Levels of
a Typical Metal Extracted From Ore
2
Knowing there is a driving force for the process it is necessary to consider the
mechanism by which corrosion can take place.
Firstly a reminder of the basic structure of the atom will assist in the
understanding to the topic. In its simplest form an atom is a positive nucleus
surrounded by negatively charged electrons. Figure 2.2 shows a simplified
diagram of the structure of an atom that is adequate for the purposes of this
discussion.
Figure 2.2
Simple Structure of an Atom
The overall charge on the atom is zero and an atom is so composed that the
negative charge of the electrons is equal to the positive charge of the nucleus.
Page 26 of 253
The reaction in which the metal is changed from its metallic state into its ionic
state is known as an anodic reaction that is part of an overall reaction involving
the metal and other species present in the environment. This process is also
called oxidation. The overall reaction may be summarised by a chemical
equation thus:
M
Mz+ + ze-
Z may be 1, 2 or 3. Higher values are possible but rare. Reaction such as those
indicated by this equation that produce electrons are known as oxidation Figure
2.3 illustrates this anodic reaction diagrammatically.
Figure 2.3
Anodic Reaction
The site at which it takes place is the anode, which is positive using
conventional notation. The anodic reaction for iron releases two electrons. This
Page 27 of 253
Figure 2.4
Anodic Sites on Surface of
Iron Exposed To Seawater
This is one part of the reaction in electrochemical corrosion that takes place in
the presence of an electrolyte that is often water or a water-based solution of
ionic compounds such as acids, bases or salts. The metal ion passes into
solution and the electron passes through the metal that is not actually being
corroded, that is, an electric current flows as indicated in Figure 2.4
2.2
These free electrons formed in the anode reaction must be used up if the
reaction is to proceed. This part of the reaction in the electrochemical corrosion
process therefore takes place at the site where the free electrons are
neutralised and is known as the cathodic reaction. Alternatively reactions such
as this that consume electrons are also known as reduction reactions. A part
reaction is illustrated in Figure 2.5
Page 28 of 253
Figure 2.5
Cathodic Reaction
Typically a complete reaction is for the free electrons to be taken up by positive
ions and atoms of oxygen in the electrolyte. This gives the oxygen a negative
charge. Oxygen, however, readily accepts the free electrons because for its
electron stability it needs eight electrons in its outer valence shell yet occurs
naturally with only 6. Figure 6.6 refers.
Figure 2.6
Cathode Reaction
Page 29 of 253
Hydrogen evolution
H2
2H2O
4OH-
M3+ + e
M2+
Seawater Corrosion
These partial reactions are included here because they can be used to interpret
virtually all corrosion problems. For example, consider iron in seawater;
corrosion occurs.
The anodic reaction is:
Fe2+ + 2e-
Fe
The seawater contains dissolved oxygen and therefore: The cathodic reaction is:
O2 + 2H2O + 4e-
4OH-
The effective overall reaction can be found by adding these two equations thus:
2Fe + 2H2O + O2
2Fe2+ + 4OH-
2Fe(OH)2
2Fe(OH)3
Page 30 of 253
Figure 2.7
Corrosion Circuit
As this is an electrochemical reaction and the chemistry has been touched on
already a few basic electrical definitions will round off this section.
3
Electrical Theory
Electricity is the passage of electrons between two defined points. This normally
occurs through a metal wire connecting the two points and is called a current.
Electricity can also pass through suitable aqueous solutions, but the electrical
charge is then carried by ions.
The amount of charge carried by an electron is known and when a given
electron flow is passed at a constant rate it is measured in amperes and
is given the symbol I.
o In the MKS system one ampere is defined as that constant current
which, if maintained in each of two infinitely long straight parallel
wires of negligible cross-section placed 1 m apart, in a vacuum,
will produce between the wires a force of 2 x 10-7 Newtons per m
length
The driving force causing this current to flow is the potential difference
between two points and is measured in volts, which has the symbol V.
o In the MKS system this is defined as that difference of electrical
potential between two points of a wire carrying a constant current
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Figure 2.8
Conventional and Electron Flow
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Page 33 of 253
Page 34 of 253
CHAPTER 3
Types of Corrosion
1
Corrosion Cells
Corrosion cells, using the corrosion process outlined in Chapter 2, can be set
up by many different means, but they all operate because there is some
dissimilarity between the anode and the cathode, such as:
Dissimilar metals
Dissimilar phases in the grains of the metal
Dissimilar energy levels between the grain and the grain boundary of the
metal
Dissimilar ion concentrations
Dissimilar oxygen concentrations
2
It is found that when dissimilar metals are placed in the same fluid (electrolyte)
a potential difference (voltage) exists between them.
This can be demonstrated easily by placing two rods of different metals in water
and connecting a voltmeter between them. The voltmeter measures a voltage
and current flows from the anode to the cathode via the outside connection.
The cell acts as a very basic, low powered battery and in battery terms the
anode is the negative and the cathode the positive. Electrons flow from the
negative terminal to the positive terminal in the external circuit. Figure 7.7
refers.
It is possible to determine which of the two metals will be the cathode and which
the anode by reference to an Electrochemical Force Series.
2.1
Page 35 of 253
Metal Atom
Potassium
Calcium
Sodium
Magnesium
K+ + e++
-2.92
-
Ca
+ 2e
-2.87
Na + e
-2.71
Mg++ + 2e++
-2.34
Beryllium
Be
Be
+ 2e
-1.70
Aluminium
Al
Al+++ + 3e-
-1.67
Manganese
Mn
++
Mn
++
+2e
-1.05
-0.76
Zinc
Zn
Zn
+ 2e
Chromium
Cr
Cr+++ + 3e+++
-0.71
Gallium
Ga
Ga
+ 3e
-0.52
Iron
Fe
Fe++ + 2e-
-0.44
Cadmium
Indium
Thallium
Cd
In
++
+ 2e
-0.40
+++
-0.34
Cd
In
Ti
+ 3e
Ti+ + e++
-0.34
-
Cobalt
Co
Co
+ 2e
-0.28
Nickel
Ni
Ni++ + 2e-
-0.25
Tin
Sn
++
Sn
++
-0.14
-0.13
0.00
+ 2e
Lead
Pb
Pb
Hydrogen
H2
2H+ + 2e-
Copper
Copper
Mercury
Silver
Palladium
Cu
Cu
2Hg
Ag
Pd
++
Cu
+ 2e
+ 2e
Cu+ + eHg2
++
+
0.52
-
+ 2e
Ag + e
0.80
Pd++ + 2e++
Hg
Platinum
Pt
Pt++ + 2e-
Gold
Au
+++
Au
0.83
Hg
Au
0.80
Mercury
Gold
0.34
+ 2e
0.85
Ca 1.2
+ 3e
Ca 1.42
Au + e
1.68
Table 3.1
Electrochemical Force Series
Similar tables are produced for metals under actual conditions and these are
called Galvanic Series. Table 3.2 give the series for seawater. The same rule
applies to the Galvanic Series as for the foregoing table, i.e. metals found
higher in the series are cathodic to any metal below them. For example, zinc is
Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006
Page 36 of 253
Table 3.2
Galvanic Series in Seawater
Page 37 of 253
MOH + H+
Page 38 of 253
Figure 3.3
Crevice Corrosion
4
Pitting
Page 39 of 253
Figure 3.4
Point Defects in a
Crystal Lattice
These point defects are very significant in the theory of alloying where
they cause a significant improvement in mechanical properties of metals.
They also play a role in some corrosion mechanisms, notably hydrogen
embrittlement, selective attack, oxidation and hot corrosion, that all rely
on the diffusion of species through the metal lattice
Another type of defect occurs within the grain structure when planes of
atoms are not perfectly fitted into the lattice. These are known as line
defects. An example of this type of defect is the dislocation and a specific
example of this type of dislocation is:
o Edge Dislocations
This is where an unfinished plane of atoms is present between two
other planes. Figure 3.5a refers
o Screw Dislocations
This is where a plane is skewed to give it a different alignment to its
immediate neighbour. Figure 3.5b refers
Page 40 of 253
Figure 3.5
(a) Edge Dislocation (b) Screw Dislocation
Corrosion pits once formed propagate in the same way as crevice corrosion; it
is the initiation phase that is different. In the case of corrosion pits the initiation
is dependant on metallurgical factors alone.
Now consider the case of a water drop laying on the surface of a sheet of
clean mild steel
o The corrosion process initiates uniformly on the surface of the
steel under the water. This consumes oxygen by the normal
cathode reaction in what is a neutral solution at this stage
o This causes an oxygen gradient to form within the water drop. It is
obvious that the wetted area around the water/air interface has
more oxygen diffusion from the air that the centre of the drop
o This concentration gradient anodically polarises the central region
which dissolves
o The hydroxyl ions generated in the centre of the drop at the
cathode diffuse inwards and react with iron ions diffusing
outwards, causing the deposition of insoluble corrosion product
around the depression, or pit
Page 41 of 253
Figure 3.6
The Mechanism of Pitting Because Of
Differential-aeration Beneath a Water Drop
As the process continues the corrosion products accumulate over the pit and its
immediate surroundings, forming a scab or tubercle and isolating the
environment within the pit from the bulk electrolyte. It is thought that the
autocatalytic process is assisted by an increased concentration of chloride ions
within the pit. This type of corrosion would be possible in the splash zone of a
structure if it were not protected with a coating such as paint
5
Inter-granular Corrosion
Page 42 of 253
Figure 3.7
Corrosion in Two Phase Metal
In the Galvanic Series the phase is above the phase and will therefore
corrode
6
The driving force behind grain boundary corrosion is the area of higher energy
found at the grain boundary itself. These higher energy regions become the
anodic sites while the bulk of the grain itself becomes the cathode.
This situation results in the loss of material in the anodic reaction at the grain
boundaries themselves in the form of a line.
Page 43 of 253
Figure 3.8
Grain Boundary Corrosion
Weld decay or preferential corrosion is an example of this type of decay.
In this case the boundary is the fusion boundary that forms along the toe
of the weld and is a region of higher energy. This region becomes the
anode and corrosion sets in, often giving quite significant visual
indications of its presence. Figure 3.9 refers
Figure 3.9
Weld Decay or Preferential Corrosion
7
Page 44 of 253
Fretting Corrosion
Page 45 of 253
Figure 3.10
Schematic Illustration of the
Wear-oxidation Theory of
Fretting Corrosion
The wear-oxidation mechanism is based on the concept that cold welding or
fusion occurs at the interface between metal surfaces under pressure and,
during the subsequent relative motion, these contact points are ruptured and
fragments of metal are removed.
These fragments, because of their small diameter and the heat due to friction
are immediately oxidized. This process is repeated resulting in the loss of metal
and accumulation of oxide residue.
Figure 3.11
Schematic Illustration of the
Oxidation-wear Theory of
Fretting Corrosion
The oxidation-wear concept is based on the hypothesis that most metal
surfaces are protected from atmospheric oxidation by a thin, adherent oxide
layer.
When metals are placed in contact under load and subjected to repeated
relative motion, the oxide layer is ruptured at high points and results in oxide
debris. It is assumed that the exposed metal re-oxidizes and the process is
repeated.
Page 46 of 253
Figure 3.12
Possible Fretting Corrosion
between Riser and Riser Clamp
9
Erosion Corrosion
This is a self-explanatory name for a form of corrosion that results from a metal
being attacked because of the relative motion between an electrolyte and a
metal surface. Examples of this type of corrosion are attributable to mechanical
effects, such as, wear, abrasion and scouring.
Soft metals such as, copper, brass, pure aluminium and lead are particularly
vulnerable.
Two main forms of erosion corrosion are:
Corrosion associated with laminar flow
Damage caused by impingement in turbulent conditions
A laminar flow will cause several effects:
The ionic distribution in the double layer is carried away by the flow and
equilibrium cannot be established which leads to an increased rate of
dissolution. Figure 4.1 Chapter 4 refers
Where the increased flow replenishes aggressive ions such as chloride
and sulphide this has a detrimental effect and corrosion rates increase
If the flow contains any solid particles protective layers may be scoured
away causing excessive corrosion
Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issued 01/09/2006
Page 47 of 253
Figure 3.13
Effects of Flow in Pipes
10 Corrosion Fatigue
There are many similarities between corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion
cracking but the most significant difference is that corrosion fatigue is extremely
non-specific.
Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006
Page 48 of 253
Page 49 of 253
Bibliography
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
Corrosion for Students of Science and Engineering
K R Trethewey & J Chamberlain
Longman Scientific & Technical
Page 50 of 253
Page 51 of 253
CHAPTER 4
Factors Affecting Corrosion Rates
1
Me-
This means that there are two reactions involving the flow of electrons and the
rate at which these reactions occur can be given by two current densities.
The necessity for using current density as a measurement of corrosion currents
can be demonstrated by considering two pieces of metal; one say, of 10 mm2,
the other of 1 mm2 and suppose they both corrode such that the current flow is
10 electrons per second. The smaller piece will obviously corrode 10 times
faster than the larger piece. Thus the surface area of the corroding metal must
be taken into account when measuring current.
The unit of current density is Am-2 (amps per square meter)
The corrosion rate and the current density are directly related; which makes
the topic quite important when considering the long-term deterioration of metals
in aqueous solution
These two current densities can be indicated as forward and reverse reaction
currents thus: i
and i
and at equilibrium (Eo)
as the exchange current density.
i = i = io and io is known
If a net current (i) is applied to the surface i I this applied net current will be
the difference between the forward and reverse currents. This difference in
current changes the electrode potential and this new potential is given the value
Ei and the electrode is said to be polarized. The change in electrode potential
is called polarization and is given the Greek letter (eta).
= Ei - Eo
There are two main polarization components to consider.
Concentration Polarization
Caused by the difference in concentration between the layer of electrolyte
nearest the electrode surface and the bulk of the electrolyte.
o The initial polarization at the anode produces a surfeit of positive
cations that in turn causes a non-homogeneous distribution of ions
with the most densely populated layer nearest to the electrode
being the Helmholtz and the second more diffuse being the GuoyChapman. In this layer the potential changes exponentially. This
Page 52 of 253
Figure 4.1
Concentration Polarization (The Double Layer)
Activation Polarization
Caused by a retardation of the electrode reaction. The polarization of an
anode is always positive and that of a cathode always negative.
Later in these notes the monitoring of corrosion in a seawater environment will
be discussed and reference will be made there to measuring both potential and
current density
2
Temperature
Page 53 of 253
Figure 4.2
The Effect of Temperature on
Corrosion of Steel in Seawater
2.2
In general if the flow rate is increased the rate at which metal is removed is also
increased.
If there is impingement of the flow on the metal or aeration takes place in the
region of the surface, then a very much larger rate of metal removal is
experienced locally. The pitting of ships propellers and pump and dredger
impellers are general examples of this.
Tests carried out by P Ffield show how the corrosion of steel pipes carrying
seawater is effected in a straightforward way by increasing the velocity of the
flow. Figure 4.3 illustrates his findings.
Page 54 of 253
Figure 4.3
Effect of Seawater Velocity on Corrosion
of Steel at Ambient Temperature Exposed 38 Days
2.3
H+ + OH-
The Law of Mass Action can be applied to this equilibrium process and
assuming the concentration of water in dilute solution is constant given
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) a new equation for water can be
written thus: [H+]. [OH-] = constant
(I)
This constant has been measured experimentally as 10-14 (STP) and this value
and the relationship equation form the basis of a scale of acidity.
All acids have one common property that is the presence in aqueous solution of
the hydrogen ion.
The opposite of acid is alkali or basic, which means that acids are neutralised
by alkalis and that alkalinity, is associated with hydroxyl ions.
Page 55 of 253
Figure 4.4
pH Scale
Page 56 of 253
Bibliography
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
Corrosion for Students of Science and Engineering
K R Trethewey & J Chamberlain
Longman Scientific & Technical
Page 57 of 253
Page 58 of 253
CHAPTER 5
Corrosion Protection
1
Corrosion Protection
Figure 5.1
Pourbaix Diagram for
Iron in Water
It can be seen from Figure 5.1 that there are three distinct possible states of
corrosion depending on electrode potentials and pH values:
Page 59 of 253
Cathodic Protection
Apart from the three stages indicated by Figure 5.1 it is also possible to
determine basic strategies for preventing corrosion.
Making the electrode potential more positive will produce passivation at
point C
Making the electrode potential more negative will produce immunity at
point B
Making the electrolyte more basic will produce passivation at point D
Altering the electrical potential to produce passivation or immunity by the
methods of cathodic or anodic protection is the most useful technique for
offshore structures.
In designing a Cathodic Protection system the system designer starts by
determining an acceptable corrosion rate (r) this information is input to a graph
to determine a value for current density (I). This level of current density will
ensure the required corrosion rate is achieved.
The electric potential to achieve this current is approximately -850 mV. Now it
may seem that potentials more negative that 850 mV (Ag/AgCl) would produce
even less metal loss. There are two reasons why it is not prudent to use very
much more negative potentials.
At potentials much more negative than 1000 mV (Ag/AgCl) the
possibility of hydrogen evolution exists and this can cause hydrogen
embrittlement
Secondly large currents are associated with more negative potentials
that produce high local concentrations of hydroxyl ions that often damage
barrier coating such as paint if it is present
These last two points are more likely to occur with an electrical impressed
current protection system but non-the-less are quite valid which makes the
choice of 800 to 900 mV (Ag/AgCl) a valid design parameter in all cases for
offshore platforms.
Page 60 of 253
2.1
With this method of corrosion prevention the entire structure is made into the
cathode in a massive corrosion cell as indicated diagrammatically in Chapter 7,
Figure 7.7. The structure will therefore not corrode but at the expense of the
anode, which is sacrificed providing the electron flow and gives the process its
name. Refer to Figure 5.2
Figure 5.2
Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection
The anode must be picked from the appropriate galvanic series. The most
appropriate metals are zinc, aluminium and magnesium.
This method of corrosion protection is almost as straightforward as that. The
main question is how much anode material will be required?
This question has two parts:
How large a surface area must the anodes protect?
How long will the protection last?
To answer the question an example will be given:
An uncoated steel offshore drilling platform has a sacrificial anode
cathodic protection system installed designed to last for 10 years. What
anode material should be used and how many anodes are required?
o Total wetted surface area of structure
Minimum number of anodes required
= 2500 m2
= 2510
Page 61 of 253
Disadvantages
No danger of overprotection
No running costs
Page 62 of 253
Figure 5.4
The Principle of Impressed Current
Cathodic Protection Using a Potentiostat
The anode material is selected from the top of the galvanic series not the
bottom. Materials such as titanium, Platonised niobium and lead/silver alloys
are used. The anode and supply cables are insulated from the structure to
prevent any of the problems associated with over-protection.
Noble metals, virtually non-consumable anodes, can be used in this system
because in electrolytes of pH 7 or less the anode reaction is the oxidation of
water, rather than metal dissolution: 2H2O
O2 + 4H+ + 4e-
O2 + 2H2O + 4e-
In seawater the reaction is usually the oxidation of chloride ions to chloride gas:
2Cl-
Cl2 + 2e-
Page 63 of 253
Material
Platinum
8 x 10-6
0.25 1.0
Steel
6,8 9.1
Iron
Approx 9.5
Cast Iron
4.5 6.8
Lead-Platinum
0.09
Marine environments
Lead-Silver
0.09
Marine environments
Graphite
0.1 1.0
Platonised Metals
Table 5.5
Some Impressed Current Anode Materials
and Their Properties
(From Brand)
2.2.1 Practical Considerations for Installing ICCP Systems
Anodes made from materials such as listed in Table 5.7 are capable of
supplying high current densities and it would be possible to protect a structure
with a few large anodes supplied with a high current. However, in practice
anodes are usually distribute at regular intervals over the whole structure. This
is because: The high current density that would be present in the immediate vicinity
of a single anode could damage paint surfaces and possibly cause
embrittlement as previously discussed.
o The use of more anodes reduces the current density for each one
and reduces the probability of this type of damage
Offshore structures have a reasonably complicated geometry that makes
it difficult for corrosion engineers to predict the total distribution
potentials. Therefore it is prudent to use more anodes, each one
protecting a smaller area thus minimising the areas at risk of inadequate
protection
o When designing the system should the corrosion engineers have
any doubts about protecting any particular area of the structure
Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006
Page 64 of 253
Figure 5.6
Diagrammatic Layout of an
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection System
Page 65 of 253
Figure 5.7
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection
Distribution of Anodes and Dielectric Shield
As indicated in paragraph 2.2.1 the actual distribution of the anodes on any
structure may be either: Platform Based
Here numerous anodes are attached to the structure at intervals around
it in similar fashion to sacrificial anodes but ensuring that they are
insulated from the structure. Figure 5.8 refers.
o Two problems are associated with this method. One is the
possibility of shadow areas where inadequate protection is
provided. This problem can be solved by the use of sacrificial
anodes complementing the ICCP system as indicated earlier. The
second problem is the possibility of current flowing directly from
the anode to the adjacent structure. This could cause
embrittlement as discussed earlier and to avoid this dielectric
shields are employed to insulate the structure electrically. Also the
current is limited by design because each anode is positioned to
provide adequate protection for the local area only. This limits as
well the possibility of embrittlement and coating damage. See
Figure 5.7
o There is also a diver safety consideration in that these anodes are
at about 80 V potential with some 1000 A current. If divers are
employed adjacent to any of the anodes they should be isolated
from the system
Remote from the Structure
A number of anodes may be placed on the seabed at a designated
distance from the structure.
Page 66 of 253
Figure 5.8
Diagram of ICCP System
with Anodes Remote from Structure
2.2.2 Reference or Control Electrodes
These electrodes are commonly zinc, silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl) or (SCC)
or copper/copper-sulphate (CSE). CSE is favoured in applications with
reinforced concrete.
Reference or control electrodes are vital components of any ICCP system. They
determine the current required from the power source, without these items the
system cannot provide a quantifiable degree of protection. Figure 5.9 refers.
Page 67 of 253
Figure 5.9
Zinc Reference Electrode Installed
On an Offshore Structure
3
Coatings form a barrier between the electrolyte and the surface of the protected
structure. They may be paints, organic films, varnishes, metal coatings or
enamels and even sheathing. It is surprising how effective coatings can be
when consideration is given to the thickness of a typical paint coat. This may be
only in the order of 25 to 100 microns thick for some applications.
3.1
Paints
Page 68 of 253
Figure 5.10
Galvanising
Spray coats utilise a specialised torch that is fed with wires of the coating
metal that are melted and blown out by it. The molten metal is expressed
in the form of droplets travelling at 100 to 150 m s-1 that flatten and
adhere on impact with the component
Cladding uses metal skins laminated onto the component. The skin can
be applied by
o Rolling
o Explosive welding
Page 69 of 253
Figure 5.11
Monel Cladding on
an Offshore Riser
Diffusion requires the component to be heated to just below the melting
point of the coating metal in the presence of the coating in powder form
and in an inert atmosphere. The component is allowed to baste for
several hours and the coating diffuses into the surface of the component.
4
Page 70 of 253
Anodic Inhibitors
Anodic inhibitors increase the polarisation of the anode by reaction with the ions
of the corroding metals to produce either thin passive films or salts of limited
solubility that coat the anode. See Figure 5.12
Figure 5.12
Anodic Inhibitor
4.2
Cathodic Inhibitors
Page 71 of 253
Adsorption Inhibitors
Adsorption inhibitors interrupt the ion flow from the metal surface by forming
long organic molecules with side chains that are adsorbed and desorbed from
the metal surface. These bulky molecules can limit the diffusion of oxygen to the
surface, or trap the metal ions on the surface, stabilise the double layer and
reduce the rate of dissolution
In general anodic inhibitors are more efficient than cathodic ones.
5
This aspect of corrosion protection has been indicated earlier in this chapter.
The methods employed to protect structures from corrosion can be summarised
thus: Avoid all unnecessary bimetallic corrosion cells
Avoid differential-aeration cells (crevices, debris traps, inadequate
drainage, etc.)
Avoid stray currents from electrical machinery or conductors
Choose the material with the best properties for the environment
6
Anodic Protection
Page 72 of 253
Bibliography
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
Corrosion for Students of Science and Engineering
K R Trethewey & J Chamberlain
Longman Scientific & Technical
Page 73 of 253
Page 74 of 253
CHAPTER 6
Corrosion Protection Monitoring
1
It has been indicated several times during this discussion on corrosion that
there are variables presented in-service that cannot be adequately predicted.
Therefore a monitoring regime is necessary to ensure that the designed
corrosion protection system is operating to its design specifications and that
there are no in-service effects interfering with this.
The amount of current from sacrificial anodes or from an impressed current
system required for protection varies:
From metal to metal
With the geometry of the structure
With differences in sea water environment (temperature, pH value etc.)
With any other factors that affects the resistance of the circuit
Since the amount for current required for protection of any structure cannot be
accurately predicted or distributed evenly through the structure, the method of
checking for adequate protection is to measure the potential and current density
of the structure at various places.
1.1
Inspection Requirements
Page 75 of 253
High purity zinc (99.9% pure) is most commonly used with remote mounted
monitoring systems as shown in Chapter 5 Figure 5.9. The site for mounting the
electrode is selected because it is either, a representative site, it is an area of
marginal protection or it is an area of high stress and it is installed as part of the
impressed current system. The electrode is connected to a meter in the surface
control room. See Figure 6.1
Figure 6.1
High Purity Zinc Electrode (ZRE)
Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006
Page 76 of 253
Figure 6.2
Diver-held CP Meter
(Bathycorrometer or similar)
Page 77 of 253
Figure 6.3
Contact CP Reading Taken By an ROV
Figure 6.4
Proximity CP Measurement
3
Page 78 of 253
Figure 6.5
Monitored Electrode
4
Necessary Equipment
Three Calomel Electrodes complete with electrical connectors, or three screwon calomel cells for hand-held CP meters (these are available for the
Bathycorrometer and can be provided with screw in electrical connectors, which
should be specified. The electric connector is provided so that the cells can be
proven as described below.)
High impedance (10 ) voltmeter
Zinc (99.9% pure) block with clamp and electrical connector
Plastic bucket filled with fresh seawater (not from fire main which may contain
inhibitors)
Log sheets
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Page 79 of 253
Procedure
The first part of the procedure proves that the calomel cells are chemically
saturated and sufficiently stable enough to be used as reference cells.
There are different types of cells available. One type is specifically designed for
use with a Bathycorrometer. This type has a solid polymer body protecting the
calomel cell. The procedure outlined below also applies to this type of cell;
however it is not possible to visually confirm they are fully saturated with
solution. They are sealed, and to confirm they are saturated it is necessary to
unscrew a sealing cap to gain access to the solution reservoir.
Visually inspect the electrodes to ensure they are undamaged and full of
solution. The solution is potassium chloride (K Cl) and if the solution is
saturated or supersaturated solid crystals may be seen in the phial.
(Commonly the phials are glass or clear plastic)
Label the electrodes 1,2 and 3
Soak the electrodes in the bucket for 24 hours, being careful to immerse
each one only as far as the filling hole in the phial
While the electrodes continue to soak connect electrode 1 to the
negative terminal of the voltmeter and electrode 2 to the positive terminal
and record the reading
Repeat the test with each permutation of electrodes
1 and 3
2 and 3
o Acceptable readings between any pair of electrodes is 0 2 mv
Figure 6.6
Proving Calomel Reference Cells
If all the readings are within this range any electrode may be used
If one reading is out of this range the electrode not in that pair is the one
to use
If one reading is in range either of the electrodes in that pair can be used
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Page 80 of 253
Select the proven calomel electrode and immerse the tip for 30 minutes into a
plastic bucket on deck
Take a zinc block, attach a clamp and electric wire and place the block
into the same bucket
Connect the calomel electrode to the negative terminal of a high
resistance voltmeter via the electric cable attached to the electrode
Connect the zinc block to the positive terminal of the voltmeter via its
electric connector. (Immerse only the zinc, not the clamp or connector)
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Page 81 of 253
Before initiating this procedure ensure that the insulation on the conductors for
the proximity cell is intact. This may be achieved by using an insulation test
meter. The cable must be properly insulated to avoid any possibility of the
copper conductor being exposed to seawater and affecting the readings.
Select a proven calomel cell and immerse the tip in a bucket of fresh
seawater for 30 minutes
Immerse the Ag/AgCl proximity probe in the same bucket for the same
time
Connect the negative terminal of the high resistance voltmeter to the
Ag/AgCl half-cell
Connect the positive terminal of the voltmeter to the calomel electrode
Take the reading. Acceptable readings are 0 10 mV
Remove the calomel electrode and immerse the zinc block (only)
positioned 100 mm from the Ag/AgCl half-cell. The zinc block is
connected to the positive terminal of the meter system via the clamp and
electrical connection
Take the reading. Acceptable readings are 1.00 V to 1.050 V
5
Operating Procedures
To ensure that accuracy is maintained and that repeatable results are obtained
CP monitoring methods should follow a procedure as follows.
Ensure any self-contained meters are fully charged and maintain a
battery-charging log. (Usual requirements for battery-operated equipment
is 14 to 16 hours from fully discharged)
Ensure the probe tip for contact meters is sharp (hand-held meters are
usually supplied with spare tips)
Page 82 of 253
Following are the normal range of readings expected during a survey of a steel
structure
Over-protected structure
Zinc
Protected Steel
Unprotected Steel
Calomel (K Cl)
0 to 0.01 V (0 to 10 mV)
Page 83 of 253
Bibliography
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
Corrosion for Students of Science and Engineering
K R Trethewey & J Chamberlain
Longman Scientific & Technical
Page 84 of 253
Page 85 of 253
CHAPTER 7
Welding and Welding Defects
1
Steel fabricated structures are used extensively offshore as has been indicated
in previous chapters. In fabricating the structures the designers choose to use
welding as the prime means of joining the various parts together. However, it is
extremely difficult indeed to guarantee that any particular weld is free from all
faults and because of this welds are constantly inspected to ensure they are not
about to fail. The knowledge of how the welding was achieved in the first place
is of great assistance when inspecting welded joints because all techniques
have certain faults that are common to that technique. It is therefore important
to have some knowledge of the main type of welding.
3
Welding Processes
Currently there are more than thirty-five different welding processes used in
industry. These different welding processes can be classified into seven major
groups. All processes within each group have similar characteristics and thus
similar effects on the parent metals. The seven groups are:
Solid phase welding
Thermo-chemical welding
Electric-resistance welding
Unshielded arc welding
Radiant energy welding
Flux-shielded arc welding
Gas-shielded arc welding
Page 86 of 253
This is the most widely used of all the welding processes. An arc is formed
between a consumable electrode and the work, the heat thus formed melts and
fuses the joint together. The electrode provides the filler metal and the flux is
used to prevent contamination. For example:
Manual Metal Arc (MMA) Welding
This is the most widely used technique. In this process, heat to melt the
work piece is supplied by an electric arc; the electrode is covered by flux and
melts down forming small drops, which are transferred to the weld pool; the
flux forms molten slag that protects the weld together with protective gases
formed at the same time. See Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1
Manual Metal Arc Welding
Common faults associated with MMA are:
Overlap
Porosity
Slag inclusion
Excessive spatter
Lack of fusion
Crater cracks
Arc strike
Incomplete penetration
Undercut
Excessive penetration
Page 87 of 253
There are approximately 110 different welded joint variations; however the vast
majority of these are not seen in the construction of offshore structures.
Therefore it is only necessary to have knowledge of only five types of joint.
4.1
The two components that make up this joint are fitted together end to end at an
angle of between 135o and 180o. This joint is used to join pipe sections end to
end, welding plates together and numerous other applications. See Figure 7.2.
Figure 7.2
Butt Joint
4.2
T Joint
Figure 7.3
T Joint
4.3
Lap Joint
The two components are fitted one on top of the other. The angle between them
is 0o to 5o. See Figure 7.4.
Page 88 of 253
Figure 7.4
Lap Joint
4.4
Corner Joint
The two components are connected at the ends to make a joint at an angle
between 30o and 135o. See Figure 7.5
Figure 7.5
Corner Joint
4.5
Cruciform Joint
A joint made by welding two components to a third at right angles, on the same
axis, on opposite sides of the third component to form the shape of a cross. See
Figure 7.6.
Page 89 of 253
Figure 7.6
Cruciform Joint
5
Types of Weld
The two types of weld most frequently inspected on offshore structures are the
butt and the fillet.
A butt weld is defined as: A tension resisting weld in which the bulk of the weld metal is contained within
the planes of thickness of the joined parent metals.
A fillet weld is defined as: The bulk of a fillet weld is contained outside the parent metal planes or
thickness.
The fillet weld has less strength than the butt weld. See Figure 7.7
Page 90 of 253
Figure 7.7
Types of Weld
Butt and Fillet Welds
As fillet welds are not used for structural joints that must withstand high stresses
the butt weld will be the type of weld most frequently inspected offshore. All
nodes including any Safety Critical Nodes on the structure will be constructed
with butt welds.
6
Welding Metallurgy
The welding processes outlined in paragraph 2 and the types of joint and types
of weld specified in paragraphs 3 and 4 are all designed for the purpose of
fixing components together safely for the entire duration of the design life of the
structure. In order that this prime aim may be achieved the mechanism by which
welding takes place must be understood. The prime factor in welding is
temperature. The various welding processes, types of weld and types of joint
are all designed so that the heat generated during the welding process can be
dissipated uniformly as the molten metal cools once the weld metal is
deposited. To form an appreciation of how this occurs consider Figure 7.8.
Page 91 of 253
Figure 7.8
Temperature Variation in a Butt Weld
At point 1 within the molten weld pool, the temperature will be above the melting
point of the filler rod metal. The welding current and technique of the welder
determine this temperature. The main heat flow away from the weld pool will be
along the parent plate. Between point 1 and 2, the temperature must raise
above the parent metal melting temperature so that fusion (i.e. melting the
parent plate and mixing with the weld pool metal) occurs. This region (between
point 1 and 2) is known as the fusion zone and can be readily seen if a sample
of the weld is sectioned, polished and etched. The temperature then reduces
from point 2 to 3, which is a region of the parent metal that has sufficient heat
input to cause grain structure modification, known as the heat affected zone
(HAZ).
HAZ
One of the means of making a material softer (often called annealing) is
to heat it up and allow it to cool slowly. A common example of this is
copper pipes for domestic water systems that are softened in this way in
order to bend them to required shapes. To achieve this softening effect a
material has to be heated above its re-crystallisation temperature (Trecry).
Above this temperature, grains in the material will reform and grow.
In the diagram of the weld, Figure 7.8 this temperature is reached at point 3 so
that the material between point 2 and 3 that has been raised above the reIssue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006
Page 92 of 253
Figure 7.9
Weld Regions or Zones
This temperature management is as important for cooling as it is for heat
energy input into the weld. The cooling rate must be as controlled as the heat
flow during the actual welding. In general, fast cooling rates (often referred to as
quenching) make the material harder. In steel, this comes about by the
formation of a structure known as martinsite. Martinsitic steel has a grain
structure arranged in a regular lattice, which makes the steel hard and less
tough (i.e. less able to withstand crack propagation).
Note that if the cooling rate is not properly controlled and the material is allowed
to quench it has the opposite effect to annealing outlined above.
6.1
While heat input and cooling rate control may be of paramount importance to
the finished quality of a weld there are several other factors that must also be
considered. Defects, for example porosity, often arise in welds due to gas
penetrating the weld pool protection. Gases that are likely to be present in the
weld are hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. These are derived from the
atmosphere, water, hydrocarbons (usually in the form of grease and oil) and
other oxides present in the vicinity of the weld because of a lack of care in
preparation to see that the weld area is clean and dry. These products get into
the arc and provide a supply of gas that can be dissolved in the liquid metal of
the weld pool. On cooling, the solubility of the dissolved gas in metal reduces
and the gas comes out of solution to form bubbles trapped in the weld metal; or
sometimes the gas diffuses into the parent metal. Hydrogen diffusing into the
HAZ will cause hydrogen embrittlement, which may lead to cracking.
The different temperatures in the regions around the weld will cause differential
expansion. On cooling, if cracking does not immediately occur in the weld or in
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Page 93 of 253
Welding Terms
There are a number of standard, defined, welding terms and also symbols that
are used internationally to define different parts or elements of welds. These
terms and symbols are defined in several international standards.
BS EN 24063:1992, ISO 4063:1990:
Welding, brazing, soldering and
braze welding of metals. Nomenclature of processes and reference
numbers for symbolic representation on drawings
BS EN 22553:1995:
Welded, brazed and soldered joints. Symbolic
representation on drawings
BS EN ISO 5817:2003:
Welding. Fusion-welded joints in steel, nickel,
titanium and their alloys (beam welding excluded). Quality levels for
imperfections
BS EN 13622:2002:
Gas welding equipment. Terminology. Terms
used for gas welding equipment
BS 499-1:1991:
Welding terms and symbols. Glossary for welding,
brazing and thermal cutting
(This standard has the status of being current, partially replaced by BS EN 13622:2002)
A list of extracts from these standards that may apply to in-service inspection is
compiled below.
7.1
Page 94 of 253
Figure 7.10
Standard Weld Terms for Plate Preparation
7.2
Page 95 of 253
Page 96 of 253
Figure 7.11
Weld Feature Terminology
7.3
Page 97 of 253
Figure 7.12
Weld Process Terminology
7.4
Page 98 of 253
Figure 7.13
Nodes and Nozzles
8
Page 99 of 253
Cracks
These are linear discontinuities produced by fracture, cracks may be; Longitudinal
Transverse
Crater
Centreline
Toe
HAZ
Figure 12.14 and 12.15 refer.
Figure 12.14
Cracks
Figure 12.15
HAZ Cracking
Cavities
Figure 12.16
Cavities
8.3
Solid Inclusions
These are volumetric defects that are caused by solids trapped in the weld pool
before it solidifies.
Figure 12.17
Slag Inclusions
8.4
Figure 12.18
Lack of Fusion and Penetration
8.5
Imperfect Shape
Excess weld metal
Weld metal lying outside the plane joining the toes
Excess penetration
Excess weld metal protruding through the root
Root concavity
A shallow grove in the root
Incompletely filled grove
A grove caused by insufficient weld metal being laid onto the cap
Undercut
A grove in the toe of the weld where parent plate is gouged due to the
welding current
Overlap
Figure 12.19
Imperfect shape
8.6
Miscellaneous
Stray flash, or arc strike
Burn marks on the parent metal caused by striking arcs with the welding rod
off the line of the weld
Excessive dressing
Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006
Figure 12.20
Miscellaneous Defects
Internal weld defects are categorised broadly into two types: Planar Defects:
These have a large surface area but small volume such as cracks and
laminations. They are essentially 2 dimensional.
Volumetric Defects:
Inclusions, porosity and other internal flaws that have a large volume
compared to surface area are in this category. They are 3 dimensional and
will also include undercut and lack of penetration. This category of defect is
caused during fabrication, not in-service; while planar defects may be
caused by in-service deterioration.
9.1
During fabrication the weld dimensions are checked and verified against the
weld design specifications to ensure that the welding is completed to the
required quality to meet design parameters ensuring that it is fit for purpose.
Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006
Figure 12.21
Welding Institute Gauge
Measuring Various Weld Parameters
9.2.2 Welding Institute Leg Length Gauge
This gauge is specially designed for measuring T joint leg length as indicated in
Figure 12.22
Figure 12.22
Welding Institute
Leg Length Gauge
Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006
Bibliography
Underwater Inspection
Mel Bayliss
David Short
Mary Bax
Principles of welding technology
L M Gourd
CHAPTER 8
Ultrasonic Inspection
1
Ultrasonic Inspection
Producing Ultrasound
Ultrasonic testing depends on the manner in which sound waves pass through
the material under test. Ultrasonic sound waves are used because it has been
determined that at frequencies in this part of the frequency spectrum sound
waves travel furthest with the minimum loss of energy. Thus the greatest
penetration into solid materials is achieved by this selection. Table 8.1 refers.
2.1
What Is Ultrasonic?
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM
Velocity of a wave = Frequency x wavelength (f x ) Speed of sound in air = 330 m sec-1
Speed of light in a vacuum = 3 x 108 m sec-1
Sound Waves
Frequency
(kHz)
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
Electro-magnetic Waves
(Travelling at the speed of light)
10
2.5 kHz
10
LF
10
MF
10
10
10
UHF
10
SHF
10
EHF
10
VLF
Radio frequencies
HF
VHF
Infra-red
10
10
10
11
3.8 Red
10
12
7.6 Visible
10
13
10
14
10
15
10
16
10
17
10
18
10
19
10
20
10
21
10
22
10
23
Ultra-violet
X-rays
-rays
Cosmic radiation
Table 8.1
The Frequency Spectrum
The time for one cycle is known as the periodic time (P) and is measured in
seconds. Therefore: -
Figure 8.2
Graph of a Signal with a Frequency of 1 Hertz (Hz)
Considering a sound wave it can be compared with Figure 8.2 in that as the
sound wave train passes through a material it propagates a stress front that
causes the atoms within the crystal lattice structure of the material to be
alternatively tensile and compressively stressed and relaxed.
Figure 8.3
The Stress Variation with Time at a
Point in a Solid Subjected To Ultrasonic Impulse
from an Ultrasonic Transducer
The frequency of the signal shown in Figure 8.3 may be calculated thus: -
The periodic time (the time taken for one cycle) is calculated hence: -
It is not usual to include all the zeros with the numbers related to frequency.
Normally the writing is reduced by the use of prefixes thus: -
Number
Engineering
Prefix
Symbol
1,000,000,000
109
giga
1,000,000
106
mega
1,000
103
Kilo
0.001
10-3
milli
0.000001
10-6
micro
Table 8.4
Number Prefixes Used With Frequency
The frequency calculated above would normally be written as 10 kHz and the
period of the signal as 100 sec.
2.3
So far only the effects of the wave passing one point in the material have been
considered. However, the wave itself is passing along through the material.
(Like a surface wave on water, the water at any point goes up and down, but as
well as this, the wave travels forwards).
Ultrasonic waves travel through a solid at the speed of sound for a given type of
wave in a given material. That is, the speed of travel of a sound wave is
different for different types of wave and the speed of travel is also different in
different materials.
2.4
Sound waves propagate through a material (liquid, solid or gas) by causing the
atoms to oscillate as the wave front passes through it. There are two types of
wave that propagate through the solid material and three types that propagate
as surface wave along the surface skin of the material.
2.4.1 Waves That Propagate Through Solids
The two type of wave that propagate through a solid are discussed below.
2.4.1.1 Longitudinal or Compression Waves
This type of wave is denoted by the symbol L. Thus, VL is the velocity of
propagation of these longitudinal or compression waves. With this type of wave
propagation, the direction of oscillation of the atoms is the same as the direction
of the wave propagation. Figure 8.5 refers.
Figure 8.5
Longitudinal or Compression Wave
2.4.1.2 Shear or Transverse Waves
Shear or transverse waves are denoted by the symbol T. Thus VT is the velocity
of propagation of these waves. The direction of oscillation of the atoms in this
mode of travel is at right angles to the direction of motion of the propagating
wave. Figure 8.6 refers.
Figure 8.6
Transverse or Shear Wave
Figure 8.7
Diagrammatic Representation of the Movement of the
Atoms as a Shear Wave Passes through the Material
If Figure 8.7 is compared with Figure 8.5 it may be seen that both diagrams
represent the wave at a given instant in time. The main difference is in the
movement of the atoms. Whereas in the compression wave the atoms are
compressed and pulled apart in the direction that the wave is moving, the
shear wave atoms are displaced pass each other that is sheared.
2.4.2 Surface Waves
Of the three types of surface wave used in ultrasonic testing none have uses in
underwater inspection.
Raleigh Waves
The Raleigh Wave is the main type of surface wave. These waves travel
only on the surface of the material. The atomic motion of the wave is
elliptical, with the major axis of the ellipse perpendicular to the surface, thus
resembling a surface wave on water. The wave can be easily damped out if
the surface is in contact with either a solid or a fluid. This mode of travel is
not used underwater.
Lamb Waves
These waves are generated when the thickness of the material is
comparable with the wavelength of the Lamb wave. There are two main
types of Lamb waves, symmetrical and asymmetrical. Each has a series of
modes of travel. In this respect they differ from the wave trains mentioned so
far that only propagate in one mode. On land, Lamb waves are applied for
testing thin wall tubing and for laminar defects, which lie very close to the
Symbol
Condition
Atomic Motion
Single
Velocity
Comments on
Underwater Use
Longitudinal
or
Compression
VL
Passes
through the
large bulk of
the material
Longitudinal
that is, in the
direction of
wave
propagation
Yes
Used for
thickness and
lamination
measurement
Shear or
Transverse
VT
Passes
through the
large bulk of
the material
Transverse
that is, at right
angles to the
direction of
wave
propagation
Yes
Raleigh
(often
referred to as
surface
waves)
VS
Semi-infinite
free surface
Compound
that is, motion
up and down as
well as in the
direction of
wave
propagation
Yes
Not used
underwater
Lamb (plate
waves)
VRN
Thin sheet
Compound
No
Not used
underwater
Thin rods
VO
Small diameter
bars
Compound
Yes
Not used
underwater
Table 8.7
Properties of Ultrasonic Waves
3
In order that ultrasonic waves can be used to measure depths and sizes within
any material it is a fundamental principal that the velocity of the sound wave
remains constant for different samples of the same material. This is in fact the
case; furthermore the ultrasonic wave obeys the laws of light and can therefore
be used with confidence for inspection tasks.
A summary of wave velocities of the various waves discussed here in a
selection of materials is shown in Table 8.8.
Material
VL
VT
VS
3100
VO
2900
5100
Density
(kgm-3)
Modulus
(GNm-2)
Modulus
(GNm-2)
2710
70.8
26.5
Aluminium
6350
Araldite
2500
1200
Concrete
4600
2000
Brass (Naval)
4430
2120
1950
3490
8100
98.4
36.4
Copper
4660
2260
1930
3710
8900
122.7
45.5
Lead (Pure)
2160
700
630
1200
11400
16.1
5.6
Air
333
Bronze,
Phosphor (5%)
3530
2230
2010
3430
8860
Lead,
Antimony (6%)
2160
810
740
1370
10900
Steel
(Structural)
5940
3250
213.3
82.9
Steel
5850
3230
2790
5170
7800
Steel
Stainless 302
5660
3120
3120
4900
8030
Steel
Stainless 410
7390
2990
2160
5030
7670
Water
1490
1000
Motor Oil
1740
870
Transformer
Oil
1380
920
Nylon
2620
1080
1100
3.59
1.28
Polyethylene
2340
925
940
2.26
0.80
Perspex
(Plexi-glass)
2730
1430
1180
6.33
2.41
7850
Table 8.8
Acoustic Velocities for Different Modes
in Selected Materials
4
Ultrasonic Wavelength
Figure 8.9
Compression Wave Passing From One
Material (Perspex) Into another (Steel)
Acoustic Attenuation
A further effect on the sound wave is the reduction in energy of the wave as it
passes through the material. Large amounts of attenuation will reduce the
penetrability of the wave and a loss of the back wall reflection could be caused
by this effect.
The main physical phenomena that attenuate the ultrasonic signal are,
Scattering
Diffusion
Viscous damping losses
Relaxation losses
The first two are due to the wave motion of the ultrasound and the second two
are due to the effect of stressing the atoms in the material.
5.3
Figure 8.10
Power in the Ultrasonic Signal
Will Decrease With Distance into the Material
The amount of signal attenuation is given by the curve that joins up the peaks of
the graphs and the attenuation in decibels (dB) is given by
Figure 8.11
Attenuation of the Ultrasonic Signal
between the First and Second Echoes
= 20 log10 (1.5)
= 20 x 0.1761
= 3.52 dB
What would the attenuation be if V2 were exactly half V1 and what would
it be if V2 were one-tenth V1?
(Answer
6 dB and 20 dB)
The last two calculated results are most important, as they are both utilised in
practical material testing. It should be remembered that if the signal is halved
that is a 6 dB drop and if the signal is one tenth that is a 20 dB drop. A table
showing the ratios associated with gains of 0 to 20 dB is shown as Table 8.12.
Decibel Gain
Ratio V1 to V2
1.0
1.26
1.6
2.0
2.5
10
3.2
12
4.0
14
5.0
16
6.3
18
7.9
20
10.0
Comments
No change, the ratio is 1:1
Thus far it has been established that the ultrasonic wave travels at a know
speed in a straight line and it has been mentioned that the wave obeys the laws
of light. In order to predict the direction that the wave travels as it passes
through interfaces into different materials it is necessary to determine what
happens when the wave meets an interface.
An interface is any boundary between two materials of differing properties (e.g.
water and steel, perspex and steel, water and air etc.).
An interface will include the outside edges of a component and indeed, the back
surface is referred to as the back wall. Similarly the surfaces of a crack or a
porosity bubble are boundaries also.
At these interfaces, in accordance with the laws of light, the direction of travel of
the wave after meeting the interface will be determined by the law of reflection
for the wave moving in the initial material (material 1) and the law of refraction
(Snells Law) for the wave that passes into the second material (material 2).
5.4.1 Law of Reflection
This states that the angle the reflected wave makes with the normal angle to the
interface from which the wave is being reflected is the same as the angle that
the incident wave makes with the same normal angle. Figure 8.13 refers.
Figure 8.13
Reflection of an Ultrasound
Wave from an Interface
When the angle of incidence is 0o the reflected angle is also 0o so the wave is
reflected back along the incident direction. The wave is travelling in the same
material therefore there will be no change in wavelength of the signal or the
mode of travel of the wave. This is the ideal condition for thickness
measurement using ultrasonic compression waves.
5.4.2 Law of Refraction
At an interface, part of the ultrasonic wave is reflected and the rest will pass into
the second material. The path in the second material will still be a straight line,
but the direction of this wave will not be continuous with the direction of the
incident wave, as it will have been turned through an angle that can be
determined by Snells Law.
Snells Law of Refraction states that: -
Angle need not be larger than as shown in Figure 8.14. The value of is
determined by the properties of material 1 and material 2. The wavelength will
always change between the two materials.
Figure 8.14
Snells Law
The constant in Snells Law is the ratio of the velocity of sound in the two
materials, so that Snells Law can be written: -
As there are two velocities of sound in a material, VL and VT, if the incident
wave can cause these then there will be two resulting refracted waves.
Now an incident compression (longitudinal) wave at an angle can produce two
stress waves, or forces, at the interface, as it has a component parallel to the
interface given by sine that will produce a shear wave in material 2 and a
normal component given by cos that will produce a compression wave in
material 2. See Figure 8.15.
Figure 8.15
Force Exerted by the Incident
Wave on the Interface
Both these resulting waves in material 2 will be turned from the incident
direction by an angle determined by Snells Law and the velocity of sound in the
two materials. Figure 8.16 refers.
Figure 8.16
Reflected and Refracted Shear Wave and
Compression Wave at an Interface of Two Materials
The angle that the compression wave makes with the normal in material 2 is
determined from Snells Law, which gives: -
The angle that the resulting shear wave makes with the normal in material 2 is
again determined using Snells Law, except that this time the velocity of sound
of the shear wave VT2 is used in the equation, so that: -
Thus the angle that the resulting shear wave makes with the normal in material
2 (T) is the angle whose sine is: -
Example: -
Figure 8.17
Diagram of Wave Configuration
from a Perspex Block at 10o
5.4.2.1 The Reflected Compression Wave in the Perspex
The law of reflection tells us that the angle of reflection equals the angle of
incidence, so that the reflected wave makes an angle of 10o to the normal.
Test Frequency
The test frequency used for flaw detection in land-based equipment varies with
different applications. Table 8.18 gives some examples of frequency and
application.
Applications
Frequency Range
Concrete
25 100 kHz
Wood
Natural rocks
Coarse grain metal structures (e.g. cast iron,
copper, stainless steel)
Plastics
Forgings
1 10 MHz
Welds
1 2.25 MHz
Table 8.18
Selected Applications and Frequencies
Ultrasonic Transducers
A transducer is any device that transforms energy from one form to another.
Figure 8.19
Basic Arrangement of a
Single Crystal Transducer
7.1
There are a number of different types of probes some designed for specific
tasks. However, in the sphere of underwater inspection and NDT it is only
necessary to be familiar with the main types.
All probes are designed to transmit an ultrasonic signal into the test specimen
with maximum efficiency. The configuration of any probe is dependant on the
actual task it is designed for. There are broadly four types of probe.
Single Crystal Probes
Twin Crystal Probes
Compression or Zero Degree Probes
Angle Probes
7.1.1 Single Crystal Probes
These probes are designed to utilise a single Piezo electric crystal that both
transmits and receives the ultrasonic signal. The acoustic characteristics of this
transducer are quite specific and the selected crystals possess particular
characteristics. The crystal must transmit the signal, stop ringing, ring down to
rest, pick up any reflected signal, ring up to produce electrical energy that is
passed onto the receiver amplifier.
So, the natural frequency of the crystal needs to be very widely separated from
the ultrasonic frequency being used for the test. Figure 8.19 indicates the main
design features of a single crystal compression probe.
Figure 8.20
Twin Crystal Compression Probe
7.1.3 Compression or Zero Degree Probes
This type of probe transmits longitudinal waves that are transmitted into the test
specimen at the normal angle. Thus there is no refraction and the signal passes
directly through the specimen at the normal. This type of probe may be single or
twin crystal. Figures 8.19 and 8.20 refer
7.1.4 Angle Probes
Angle probes produce an ultrasonic beam that is introduced into the material at
an angle to the interface, and not perpendicular, as is the case of normal angle
probes. The angle is determined to either match the weld angle of preparation
or to introduce the beam at an angle most propitious to reflect from internal
defects. As has been shown this type of probe, in accordance with Snells Law,
can produce shear and compression waves, purely shear waves or surface
waves depending on the probe angle. Figure 8.21 refers.
Figure 8.21
Single Crystal Angle Probe Using a Piezo electric
Crystal in Compression Mode, The Angle on the Wedge
Producing a Shear Wave in the Material
7.2
Probe Selection
Couplant
Ultrasonic testing cannot be carried out in air without the use of a suitable
coupling agent between the transducer and the test surface. This is because
Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006
In order to use the passage of the ultrasonic wave through the material to
search for defects, it is necessary that the effective volume of the material
covered by the beam be visualised. An easy analogy for this is to visualise a
beam of light from a hand torch (flashlight) as this illustrates an ultrasonic beam
exactly.
The shape of the beam can be considered as a short cylindrical portion
containing the Dead Zone and Near Zone followed by a conically shaped Far
Zone (or Far Region).
9.1
This is the region immediately ahead of the crystal face. It is a zone that cannot
differentiate reflected signals from defects due to the interference caused by
ringing the crystal to produce the initial pulse. This interference is due to the
crystal vibrations taking time to reach resonance and then taking time to return
to rest. During this ringing period spurious harmonic frequencies are produced
and while the crystal is being stimulated electrically it cannot simultaneously be
stimulated mechanically. The volume of this region is extremely dependant
upon the electronic circuitry that governs pulse length, amplifier recovery time
gain setting and selection of the crystal itself.
This region is usually of the order of 1 to 3 wavelengths in depth and the probe
designer will normally construct the probe so that it is contained within the
dimensions of the shoe. This region of the beam cannot be used for testing.
9.2
This is the name given to the cylindrical portion of the beam that extends from
the face of the crystal to a predictable depth. As it commences at the crystal
face it includes the dead zone. The depth or length of the near zone is
calculated using the expression: -
D = crystal diameter
4 = constant
= wavelength
This equation calculates the length of the near zone from the crystal face in one
material. If, however, the near zone is not contained within the shoe, an
Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006
In the far zone (or region) the ultrasonic beam spreads from a cylindrical shape
to a cone, as can be visualised by considering a torch of flashlight beam. The
boundary of the cone is defined by the degree of attenuation of the maximum
power at any cross-section of the cone to a given level of reduced power, either
a 6 dB or 20 dB drop.
The angle of spread of the cone is defined as , (in Figure 8.22 the cone angle
is indicated as being /2, which shows the actual angle of spread from the edge
of the cylindrical region of the beam. This angle subtends angle at the face of
the crystal) the following equation is used to calculate the angle of spread of the
far zone from the boundary of the near zone, which is /2: -
= wavelength
D = diameter of the crystal
k = constant (for 6 dB drop k = 0.56 for 20 dB drop k = 1.06)
This region of the beam is generally the part used for thickness measurement,
flaw detection and flaw measurement as the ultrasonic energy of the beam
decays exponentially according to an inverse square rule and is therefore
predictable. Furthermore there are no discernable interfering signals in this
region to confuse the interpretation of the reflected signal. Figure 8.22 refers.
Figure 8.22
The Shape of the Ultrasonic Beam and the Beam Energy Envelope
Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006
Figure 8.23
Flaw Detection by Decrease in
Energy of the Ultrasonic Wave
The second principle of ultrasonic testing is based on the reflection of energy
from a flaw or interface. This is the method used in underwater ultrasonic
inspection and it is the basis of a majority of ultrasonic test systems. The
principle is illustrated in Figure 8.24
Figure 8.24
Flaw Detection by Reflection
of the Ultrasonic Wave
11 Ultrasonic Test Systems
From paragraph 10 it will be seen that an ultrasonic test system should be able
to measure either the amplitude of the signal if the through transmission type of
test is used or the time required for the ultrasonic signal to travel between
specific interfaces if the pulse/echo method is employed. A versatile test system
will measure both the parameters at the same time. For thickness measurement
the main use of ultrasonic testing sub-sea is for the measurement of the time
the ultrasonic signal takes to travel between specific interfaces, as Figure 8.24
illustrates.
A test system for ultrasonic thickness measurement is based on a pulse/echo
flaw detector circuit. A simple block diagram for this arrangement is shown in
Figure 8.25
Figure 8.25
Basic Block Diagram
of a Pulse Echo Ultrasonic System
The technique employed is to generate a short duration (up to about 15 cycles)
electrical pulse that is fed to the transmitting crystal, which then rings and
converts the electrical energy to mechanical vibrations because of the Piezo
electric effect. These pulses are produced cyclically so that a wave train is set
up in the test piece. As these pulses of ultrasound impact on reflecting surfaces
such as the back wall, a crack, an inclusion or a lack of fusion, the wave is
reflected back along the transmission path.
This reflected wave train is detected by the receiving crystal; which changes
these mechanical vibrations into pulses of electrical energy, which is then fed to
the amplifier and timing circuits. The circuits compare the time of transmission
with the time of reception to determine the period of time taken for the signal to
be reflected. This indicates the distance to this reflecting surface. This reflected
signal is finally displayed on a cathode ray tube (CRT) in the case of a flaw
detector and as a digital display in a digital thickness meter
The wave train set up by the pulses of energy effectively sets up a continuous
signal that is used to display information either on the CRT or the digital display
continuously. However electronically there is sufficient time between pulses to
allow the receive crystal to receive the reflected signal.
11.1 The Flaw Detector
There are several types of units that can be used in this system, depending on
the method employed for timing and indicating the pulses of energy. For
ultrasonic flaw detection the indicator is generally a CRT (or cathode ray
Figure 8.26
Drawing of a Baugh and Weedon
PA 1011 A-scan Flaw Detector Control Panel
Figure 8.27
IIW V1 Block
12.2 Pre-calibration Checks
For portable sets check the power supply is fully charged
Switch on the set and allow it to warm up for 15 minutes, or the manufacturers
recommended time. This allows the CRT and other circuits to reach operating
temperature and stabilise.
12.2.1 CRT Display
Adjust the focus and brilliance of the spot on the CRT screen. The spot will
normally not be visible, but will, however, appear as a line across the screen
Use the delay control to adjust the time base to display the initial pulse (the first
transmitted pulse) on the screen
Position the course range control to the required range. (This may be between
10 mm and 1 m depending on the actual instrument).
Select and connect the required probe. (For thickness measurement and
lamination testing this will be a 0o or normal angle compression probe either
single or twin crystal).
Figure 8.28
A-scan Flaw Detector
Calibrated to 100 mm
12.3.1 Setting Sensitivity
On completion of calibration it is necessary to adjust the sensitivity to conform
to the requirements for identifying and sizing the smallest specified flaw. This
may be, for example a flaw that is 2 or 3 in size, although this would be a very
sensitive setting as the minimum flaw size that may be achieved is of the order
of 1 to 2 .
Whatever the required sensitivity is should be detailed in the workbook or the
procedure agreed with the contracting party.
The procedure will require that the gains be adjusted so that a reflected signal
from the smallest identifiable defect is displayed discretely on the screen and is
not lost in background clutter.
The general practise for scanning with compression probes for laminations is to
adjust the gain setting so that the first back wall echo from the parent plate is
displayed at full screen height.
An alternative method is to adjust to full screen height the first back wall echo
from a specified (say 1.5 mm diameter) hole drilled horizontally into a reference
block at the maximum range for the test.
Figure 8.27 shows a diagram of the International Institute of Welding V1
calibration block. This block is an industry standard calibration block and
contains such a 1.5 mm diameter hole.
Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006
Figure 8.29
A Method For Setting
Resolution
13 The 6 dB Drop Method For Plotting Laminations
It is common for steel plate to be tested for laminations before structural welding
is undertaken. A normal angle probe will be used and the entire test surface will
be scanned, initially fairly quickly to get an impression of how the reflected
signals are displayed on the CRT display. This is followed by a detailed scan
based on a grid search to fully scan the entire test area.
If any laminations are discovered the initial reaction is to make temporary marks
with a paint stick or chinagraph pencil on the surface of the parent plate to give
a first impression of the size and shape of the defect. This is followed by a
careful scan employing the 6 dB drop method to accurately size the flaw and
determine its shape.
13.1 The 6 dB Drop Method Explained
The probe is manipulated over the defect area until a maximum amplitude
signal is displayed on the CRT. The height of this signal is noted or, if it is very
strong, the gains are adjusted to display this echo at full screen height.
The probe is then manipulated around the defect area until the signal displayed
on the screen reduces in amplitude.
The probe is manoeuvred to a position where the initial echo signal is reduced
to the maximum that was obtained. This represents a 6 dB reduction in signal
Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006
Figure 8.30
6 dB Drop Method
13.2 Lamination Plotting
Should there be any laminations in the scanning area the signal will be reflected
from these and not the flaw. To avoid this the entire area is scanned with a
compression probe prior to using the angle probe. The area may be marked out
in a grid pattern to ensure 100% coverage. See Figure 8.31
Figure 8.31
Scanning for Laminations
14 Digital Thickness Meters
Digital thickness meters measure the thickness of the material using
longitudinal waves propagated by a compression probe and transmitted into the
material under test at the normal angle.
The system method can be demonstrated by considering a thickness measuring
system using a twin crystal compression probe with the instrument having a
CRT display. The screen will display the initial pulse and the signal from the
BWE. The distance measured across the screen, the X-axis, represents the
time difference between these two signals. The thickness of the material can
then be calculated as shown in paragraph 11.2.1. A diagram of this system is
shown in Figure 8.33.
Figure 8.33
Schematic Block Diagram of
the Methodology for Digital Thickness Meters
Figure 8.34
Block Diagram of a Sea Probe
Digital Thickness Meter
If Figure 8.34 is compared with 8.25 it will be seen that the circuitry is exactly
similar except for the method of display.
The actual procedure for taking wall thickness readings will be: o Ensure the DTM is fully charged prior to use
o Ensure that a properly qualified inspector is available to conduct
the survey
o Take calibration readings and record these onto the appropriate
data sheet. (Strictly speaking this is a confirmation reading as the
type of instrument referred to here is factory calibrated)
o These readings are best done on a reference block in the form of
a step wedge to confirm the instrument is in calibration over its
entire test range
o Record the serial number of the instrument, and the calibration or
reference block
Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006
Figure 8.35
Typical Ultrasonic Inspection
Data Sheet
14.2 Accuracy of the Readings Obtained With a DTM
A DTM is only designed to give a single readout for each application of the
probe. This is different from an A-scan instrument, which is designed to display
multiple reflections simultaneously on the CRT screen.
It is therefore necessary to consider the effects on the ultrasonic beam
generated by a DTM as the beam propagates through the material under test.
The beam may reflect from an inclusion
The beam may reflect from an isolated corrosion pit
The beam might reflect from the sidewalls of a long narrow plate
If the back wall is very corroded the beam may be totally scattered
Poor probe contact will prevent the beam propagating into the material at
all
Figure 8.36
Possible Problems Associated With a DTM
Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006
Figure 8.37
Sea Probe SP 200
Underwater Digital Thickness Meter
15 Converting Underwater DTM Readings
With specially designed, underwater DTMs like the Sea Probe (see Figure 8.37)
and Cygnus meter the display gives a direct digital readout of thickness.
With these instruments this reading is based on the value of VL for structural
steel because the meter is designed with this velocity set into the circuits. In fact
the meter is factory calibrated for use specifically on structural steel
components. Therefore when these meters are used to test steel structures the
circuitry works out the distance electronically based on the expressions given
above. They will not give an accurate read-out for any other material
To convert readings obtained from materials other than structural steel simply
divide the meter reading by the value of VL for steel and multiply by the value of
VL for the new material.
For example, if a measurement is made on aluminium the reading
obtained is multiplied by 6350 and divided by 5940 to give the correct
thickness measurement for aluminium.
Say the meter indicates 30.5 mm.
Then the required thickness for aluminium is: -
Figure 8.38
Angle Probe Scanning
the Preparation Face of a Weld
The probe is traversed along the weld until the signal from the flaw is
maximised. Further traversing of the probe will drop the signal height on the
CRT in the same manner as for a 6 dB drop but with angle probes the signal is
reduced to 1/10th using a 20 dB drop. This point can be plotted and the defect
size obtained by numerous such manipulations of the probe.
17 Care and Maintenance of Equipment
The care of all ultrasonic equipment follows the same pattern.
Clean all terminations, plugs, leads and controls
Wash off all housings with potable water
Charge all batteries in accordance with manufactures recommendations
Do not overcharge (with some batteries this may evolve Hydrogen gas
and cause an explosive hazard)
Store equipment is a dry warm place
Be aware of the danger of electric shock from some components
CHAPTER 9
Magnetic Particle Inspection
1
History of Magnetism
Even in very early times, it was known that magnetite (an iron ore FE3O4)
attracted small pieces of iron. Also, if magnetite were shaped into a shaft and
suspended it would rotate and align its longest axis in a North-South direction.
This gave rise to its name loadstone, derived from an Anglo-Saxon word
meaning way or course. The directive property of magnetite was utilised in
early navigational devices.
The Frenchman De Magnette discovered the first method of forming an
artificial magnet in 1600. He found that heating and hammering an iron bar
produced a power in the bar that enabled it to attract pieces of iron. This
power, named after him, was called magnetism.
In 1819, the German Oested observed a relationship between electricity and
magnetism. He noticed that when a compass was placed near a currentcarrying wire, the compass needle showed a deflection. This phenomenon is
now known as electro-magnetism.
2
Types of Magnetism
FERROMAGNETIC
PARAMAGNETIC
DIAMAGNETIC
Iron
Platinum
Bismuth
Nickel
Palladium
Antimony
Cobalt
Most non-metals
Steel
Oxygen
Concrete
Table 9.1
Theory of Magnetism
Figure 9.2
Magnetic Domains
If an external magnetic field is applied to the material the domains are aligned
north to south in a common direction. Hence, one end of the material will be the
north pole and the other the south pole. Figure 9.3 refers.
Figure 9.3
Material in a Magnetised State
3.1
Polarity
When the material is magnetised it has a north and a south pole. These poles
are located at opposite ends of the material and magnetism seems to be
concentrated at these points. The north or north seeking pole of a magnet is
said to be the pole that points towards the earths North Pole; the south pole of
the magnet pointing towards the earths South Pole. Magnetic poles show
attraction and repulsion, like poles repelling and unlike poles attracting. See
Figure 9.4
Figure 9.4
Like Poles Repel Unlike Poles Attract
3.2
Magnetic Field
This is described as the area surrounding the magnet in which the magnetic
forces exist. Lines of force or lines of magnetic flux represent the magnetic field.
These lines are purely imaginary and were introduced by Michael Faraday as a
means of visualising the distribution and density (flux density) of a magnetic
field. The symbol used for magnetic flux is and the SI unit is the weber (1 Wb
= 108 Mx). The CGS unit is the Maxwell (Mx) and 1 Mx = 10-8 Wb. The Tesla (T)
is the SI unit used in practical magnetic particle inspection (MPI) 1 T = 1 Wb.
3.2.1 Characteristics of the Magnetic Lines of Force
The magnetic lines of forceThey are considered to have direction as if flowing, though no actual
movement occurs
Travel from the north pole to the south pole externally
Travel from south pole to north pole internally
They form a closed loop
They all have the same strength
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Figure 9.5
Magnetic Field Surrounding
a Bar Magnet
The magnetic field produced by a current-carrying conductor forms closed
circles perpendicular to the conductor, see Figure 9.6 and 9.7.
Figure 9.6
Magnetic Field Surrounding a Conductor
Figure 9.7
Diagram of a Magnetic Field
Surrounding a Conductor
(Figures 9.6, 9.7 and 9.8 attributed to University of Iowa)
This equation for the magnetising force is the basis of the calculations for how
much current to use to set up an adequate magnetic field for MPI.
In free space (vacuum, air or other non-magnetic material), B = o H. The value
of o is 4 x 10-7 (T Am-1) and represents the permeability of free space
(sometimes referred to as the magnetic space constant).
In a magnetic material, B and H can vary independently and the coefficient of
B/H is called the RELATIVE PERMEABILITY and is often given the symbol r
(for air r = 1 while for certain nickel-iron alloys it can be as high as 100,000).
Relative permeability is not a constant value; it varies with B and H. Figure 9.8
gives an indication of the relative permeability for a selection of ferromagnetic
materials, including steel.
Figure 9.8
Variation of Relative Permeability
With Magnetising Force
When magnetising a piece of steel using an electrical magnetising force, there
is not a uniform increase in flux density with a uniform increase in magnetising
force see Figure 9.9.
Figure 9.9
Induced Magnetic Field
Figure 9.10
Variation of Flux Density With
Magnetising Force
Figure 9.11
Hysteresis Loop
In Figure 9.11 OP is the initial magnetisation curve as seen in Figure 9.9. After
point P, the current reduces and the flux density reduces. The curve then
passes through Hc to Br then to P, which is the maximum flux density for the
magnetic field in the opposite direction. The current now increases again and
the flux density reduces to Hc and as the current increases in the opposite
direction the curve climbs to point P at maximum H. Successive cycles trace out
the hysteresis loop P, Hc, P, Hc, P. The loop shows that energy is used up
each cycle and is dissipated in the form of heat and whilst this heating effect is
rapidly dissipated underwater, on land the material being magnetised will get
quite hot. The value of Br indicates that when the magnetising force is removed
the material will still be magnetic. The name for this is remanence (or residual
magnetism in the USA) and Hc is the magnetising force required to remove it.
This is known as coercivity. In practice, the residual magnetism is removed by
gradually reducing the magnetising force (lowering the current) so that the loops
get smaller, thus reducing the residual magnetism. Figure 9.15 following refers.
4.1
The terms retentivity and permeability have been used in connection with
magnetism and MPI for very many years and while they still remain in use the
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Retentivity
Permeability ()
Permeability has been defined as the ease with which a material can be
magnetised. Of course, it is only some of the ferromagnetic group that are
usefully magnetised. Those that are easy to magnetise are: Soft iron
Low carbon steel
These were said to have high permeability. As a contrast high carbon steel,
which required more magnetising force to produce the same amount of
magnetisation, was said to have low permeability. See Table 9.12
4.4
Coercive Force
Reluctance
This is another term that has been in use for many years in MPI. It is a term
used to describe the opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows to the
establishment of a magnetic field. Reluctance is analogous to the resistance in
an electrical circuit, however it does not have units while resistance does of
course. (This term is sometimes used as the opposite of permeability; low permeability would
indicate high reluctance and visa versa).
Low Permeability
High Permeability
(Difficult to magnetise)
(Easily magnetised)
High Retentivity
Low Retentivity
High Remanence
Low Remanence
High Reluctance
Low Reluctance
Demagnetising
After a work piece is magnetised for inspection a residual magnetic field will
remain, the strength of this field will depend on the retentivity of the material.
4.6.1 Measuring the Residual Field
Applying a Field Strength Indicator to the work piece will assess the magnitude
of the residual field. This is a sensitive meter that has a small bar magnet
mounted on a bearing built in. This magnet will swing to align itself with any
magnetic field that is present in the test area. These meters may be calibrated,
in which case the magnitude of the residual field may be read off directly, or
they may be un-calibrated.
It must be emphasised that these meters are only for measuring residual field
strength. They are far too sensitive to measure the magnitude of the induced
field applied for an inspection and will be damaged if they are attempted to be
used for this purpose. See Figures 9.13 and 9.14
Figure 9.13
Field Strength Indicator Diagram
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Figure 9.14
Field Indicator
This residual field should be removed: Prior to MPI to prevent the possibility of magnetic vector fields that would
reduce the sensitivity of the inspection
o A vector is the result of two opposing forces that is orientated in a
different direction to either of them. With an unknown residual field
interacting or opposing the applied field the vector will be
unpredictable
On offshore structures before MPI as they are fixed in the earths
magnetic field subject to constant vibration and may be weakly magnetic
After the inspection so as not to interfere with any sensitive electronic or
electrical equipment
Prior to welding as residual magnetic fields may cause arc blow
As required before any other process is initiated that may be affected by
stray residual magnetic fields
The process is illustrated in Figure 9.15 and only requires that the hysteresis be
collapsed. This can be achieved most easily electrically by reducing the
magnetising force over a short period of time as indicated in the diagram.
Practically this may be accomplished by winding a coil around the site to be
demagnetised then using a rheostat to wind down the current as opposed to
switching it off which would leave a residual field.
Figure 9.15
Collapsing the Hysteresis Loop
To Demagnetise a Material
There are other methods for demagnetising other than reducing the current with
a rheostat.
4.7
AC Aperture Coil
Figure 9.16
AC Coil
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This is a time consuming method, which will not be used offshore but is applied
when it is necessary to demagnetise strong residual fields that have been
induced by a DC force or strong permanent magnets.
The component is placed in the coil then a DC is applied that is high enough to
produce a magnetic field stronger than the residual field. The polarity is then
reversed and the current reduced in measured steps to ensure the residual field
is reduced by each step. This process is continued until the residual field is
reduced to zero. See Figure 9.17
Figure 9.17
Reversing DC Coil
4.9
AC Electromagnets
Figure 9.18
Demagnetising With an AC Yoke
(This method may also be applied with a permanent magnet.)
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This system of inspection is based on the phenomenon that the path of the
magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material is distorted because inhomogeneities
(like cracks, blowholes, inclusions, grain boundaries etc.) have different
magnetic properties to a greater or lesser degree than the surrounding material.
All systems of magnetic non-destructive testing need some method of detecting
this distortion of the magnetic flux, most often called flux leakage. Of course all
such systems need a method for producing the magnetic field in the first
instance.
5.1
Magnetisation
The magnetic field can be set up in a magnetic material in the following ways: Align the test piece North South in the earths magnetic field
Heat the test piece to the Curie point and align North/South
Induced Magnetism: by the use of a permanent magnet
Induced Magnetism: by passing an electric current directly through the
work piece
Induced Magnetism: by passing an electric current through a conductor
close to the work piece
The first two methods are only of interest in a laboratory and are of no further
interest.
The last three methods are applied underwater mainly by diver inspectors but
could also be utilised by ROV
5.1.1 Use of Permanent Magnets
(This also applies to electro-magnets)
A U shaped magnet is used, the work piece completing the magnetic path or
circuit between the poles. The lines of flux that normally exist between the poles
are concentrated in the work piece, instead of returning through the air because
the work piece completes the magnetic circuit in the same manner as a keeper
normally acts. Figures 9.19A and B refer. The direction of the magnetic field set
up using a permanent magnet is shown in Figure 9.19A. The maximum
disturbance to the magnetic field and hence the maximum flux leakage is
caused by defects that are at right angles to the field. This of course is true no
matter how the magnetic field is produced. Figure 9.19C and D refer.
Figure 9.19
Permanent Magnets
Inducing Magnetic Flux
5.1.2 Strength Required for MPI Permanent Magnets
The strength for a permanent magnet used in MPI is stated in BS EN ISO 99341:2001 (this replaces BS 6072:1981 which remains current).
The requirement is that the permanent magnet must be able to lift at least 18
kilograms with a pole spacing of between 75 to 150 mm. The area that can be
inspected lies between the poles and extends to half the pole spacing at right
angles to this dimension. If the magnet is too weak the field will be insufficient to
give a clear magnetic pattern, if too strong a dense accumulation of iron
particles from the detection medium will make the patterns difficult to interpret,
especially in the region of the pole pieces.
On straight work pieces like plates and cylinders good contact between the pole
pieces and the work pieces is easily obtained by having shaped pole pieces, flat
for plate and radiused for cylindrical-shaped work pieces. For more complicated
shapes, for example when examining the weld at 12 oclock on the joint of a
vertical diagonal member on a node, the pole pieces need to rotate as well as
being shaped in order to make good contact. Figure 9.20 refers
Figure 9.20
Flexible Pole Electro-magnet
Electro-magnets have the advantage that they can be applied and removed
from the work piece easily when the current is off, but this system does need an
electrical supply.
5.1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Permanent Magnets
Any system used for testing will have advantages and disadvantages and the
use of permanent magnets, as a system for MPI is no exception.
5.1.3.1 Advantages
Magnets are cheap and readily available
No power supply is required for permanent magnets
There are no contact problems with the poles and the work piece, thus arching
or damage to the surface is avoided
They will be self-supporting and can be used overhead easily
They are relatively lightweight
5.1.3.2 Disadvantages
All permanent magnets loose strength with age and each time a magnet is used
it will loose a small amount of its strength
They only produce a direct longitudinal field. There is no skin effect.
Figure 9.21
Electromagnet
5.2.2 Advantages
Either AC or pulsed DC can be used to induce the magnetic field
The current can be adjusted thus controlling flux density
The magnetising current can be switched off for easy removal from the metal
surface
Passing a current through the work piece produces a circular field between the
contact points as shown in Figure 9.22. The orientation of this field can be seen
to be different to that produced by permanent magnets, which is longitudinal.
The magnitude of the current employed will depend on:
The plate thickness
Prod separation
The current requirement as stated in BS EN ISO 9934-1:2001 is that for every 1
mm prod separation 4 to 5 Amperes current is required. This means that if the
prod separation is 200 mm between 800 and 1000 Amps are required. (This
requirement is equivalent to 100 Amps per one-inch prod separation).
Figure 9.22
Magnetic Field Produced
by Current Flow Prods
Figure 9.23
Skin Effect in a Circular Component
Figure 9.24
OIS Mark 2 Sub-sea MPI Unit
and Current Flow Prods
In the case of prod testing the advantages and disadvantages are listed below
5.3.2 Advantages
Either AC or DC may be used
Low voltage may be used (typically 3 V)
Adjusting current output will control Field strength
There will be no collection of indicating medium around the prods
5.3.3 Disadvantages
Without good prod contact there will be no induced magnetic field
A heavy transformer must be used to drop the voltage
There is always the danger of arching on the metal surface
There is a danger of overheating the equipment
If arching does occur metal inclusions from the prod tips may result
5.4
Figure 9.25
Longitudinal Magnetisation Produced Inside a Coil
A ferromagnetic material placed in the coil, or outside parallel to and touching
the coil, will experience longitudinal magnetism.
This method is widely used offshore and two practical applications will serve to
show how the technique may be applied.
5.4.1 Evenly Spaced Coil
A flexible cable is wound around the test piece so that the area under inspection
is contained within the encircling coil with individual wraps of the coil being
evenly spaced equidistant to each other. Figure 9.26 refers.
Figure 9.26
Evenly Spaced Coil
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Where
I = Required current (DC)
T = Wall thickness of the work piece
Y = Coil spacing
4 = Constant
7.5 = constant
If AC is to be used the formula is modified to: -
Where
I = Required current (AC)
10 = Constant
Y = Coil spacing
7.7 = Constant
As AC will produce magnetic flux only on the skin of the work piece the
thickness of the material is of no consequence therefore another constant 10
replaces T.
5.4.2 Close Wrapped Coil
In this technique the inspection area does not have to lie inside the encircling
coils. However, the test zone must still lie close enough to the ends of the coil to
ensure an adequate flux density in this area. Figure 9.27 refers.
Figure 9.27
Close Wrapped Coil
The current requirement for this technique is determined by the formula: -
Where
I peak = The peak current value (AC)
r = The radius of the coil (mm)
N = Number of turns in the coil (minimum 3)
16 = Constant
The distance either end of the coil where minimum field strength of 1.0 Tesla
should be present is given by the formula: -
Where
d = Width of the inspection area (where field strength = 1.0 T)
N = Number of turns in the coil
I = Peak current (Amps)
30 = Constant
It is also possible to produce a transverse magnetic field by looping the
conductor into a configuration called parallel loops, see Figure 9.28
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Figure 9.28
Parallel Loops
This produces a transverse field between the two sides of the loop. The loop
has to be positioned so that the current in the two sides of it is moving in the
same direction or else the magnetic fields will tend to cancel instead of
reinforce. Furthermore the return cables not forming the parallel loops must be
a minimum of 10d away from the inspection area as shown in Figure 9.28. The
direction of the field may be ascertained by applying the right hand rule. The
required current may be found by applying the formula: I peak (ac) = 30 x d
It will be noted that this is the coil end effect formula transposed.
5.4.2.1 The Right Hand Rule
If the thumb of the right hand is extended in a thumbs up gesture and the
fingers are loosely gripped the thumb indicates the conventional current flow
and the fingers indicate the direction of the circular magnetic field produced.
See Figure 9.29
Figure 9.29
The Right Hand Rule
The OIS Mark 2 Sub-sea MPI unit may be used for this technique. Current up to
1000 Amps can be used. See Figure 9.30
Figure 9.31
OIS Mark 2 Sub-sea MPI Unit
Showing Flexible Cables Connected That May
be used as Parallel Conductors or Encircling Coils
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Both techniques are used for land base inspections but the continuous
technique is used almost exclusively for underwater applications because of the
possibility of wash out or dilution of the indicating medium in the water.
5.5.1 Continuous Magnetisation
This technique entails magnetising the work piece at the same time as the
indicating medium is applied. The area under inspection is then examined while
the magnetic field is maintained. This method is generally regarded as being the
more sensitive, but indications of defects other than actual damage such as
cracks can be given; for example, leakage fields from the coil wrapped around
the work piece and flux leakage in the vicinity of a prod from spurious
indications such as grain boundaries, due to high flux density in these regions.
The closer the magnetic field is to saturation the more sensitive it is to flux
leakage due to small order inhomogeneities in the material. Figure 9.31 refers.
The recommended flux level for satisfactory crack detection is between 1/3 and
full saturation.
Figure 9.31
Variation of Types of Defects Giving Indications
as the Field Strength Increases
5.5.2 Residual Magnetisation
In the residual technique the work piece is magnetised and the indicating
medium is still applied at the same time. However, the actual inspection is
completed with the magnetising force removed and the work piece is examined
with only any residual field producing the flux leakage at any discontinuities. As
these fields are much weaker than those produced by the continuous method
there is much lower sensitivity. Of course, the technique does eliminate
spurious or false indications.
Underwater it could be used re-inspect any suspect area where the suspicion is
that a false indication has been identified.
6
Figure 9.33
Discontinuities Interacting
With the Magnetic Field
The orientation of the defect to the direction of flow of the lines of flux will
determine how strong an indication will be, or even if an indication will be seen
at all. The strongest indication will be given by discontinuities at 90o to the lines
of flux as it cuts through the maximum number and causes most distortion to
the field, if the orientation is at 45o the indication will be less strong because the
defect is cutting less flux lines. If the flaw is parallel with the lines of force it will
not cut any and will not be seen, as it gives no indication. Figure 9.34 refers.
Figure 9.34
Flaw Orientation
Because of the affect that defect orientation has on how strong an indication will
be given it is most important that the induced magnetic field be applied in two
directions, perpendicular to each other. This will ensure maximum sensitivity for
the test and should ensure that all defects are identified no matter what their
orientation within the magnetic field.
7
In MPI it is essential that a diver inspector know that a magnetic field does
actually exist in the test area that has been set up. There are test devices;
called flux indicators available designed specifically to detect magnetic fields.
This is a strip of steel that has 3 fine longitudinal cuts in it. This is completely
encased in two strips of brass. When this is placed in a magnetic field at 90o to
the expected orientation and indicating medium is applied, the cuts will appear
as crack indications provided the field is strong enough. These are available
with different degrees of sensitivity. See figure 9.34 and 9.39
Figure 9.34
Burmah Castrol Strip
7.2
Berthold Penetrameter
Figure 9.36
Berthold Penetrameter
7.3
Gauss Meter
This is an electric powered meter that will read the field strength directly from
the input of a probe that is applied to the test area. The meter gives a digital
readout in Tesla. Figure 9.36 refers
Figure 9.36
Combined Gauss Meter
and White and Black Light Meter
Visual Detection
Figure 9.37
Settlement Flask
The recommended concentrations for a valid result are different for different
inks.
8.2.2 Fluorescent Inks
Ferromagnetic particles
Other solids
10% by weight
Other solids
10% by weight
As the chosen method for detecting MPI indications is vision the ambient light
conditions and the quality and quantity of ultraviolet light must be at correct
levels. The standards for adequate lighting is stated in BS EN ISO 3059:2001.
The minimum requirements for ambient and ultraviolet light as stated in the
standard are summarised below.
9.1
There must be a minimum of 500 lux white light in the viewing area. This light
should be provided using a diffused light source if possible. (An 80-watt
fluorescent light tube gives 500 watt at 1 m distance).
9.2
The background light level must be dark with ambient light not exceeding 20 lux
so that the fluorescence from the ink particles has sufficient contrast to be easily
seen.
The ultraviolet light must be a minimum of 1000 W cm-2. The wavelength of the
light should be 365 to 400 nm. (Refer to the electromagnetic spectrum in
Chapter 13 Ultrasonic Inspection).
9.2.1 Safety Considerations With Ultraviolet Light
Ultraviolet light can be harmful to health causing burns, cataracts and cancer if
not used under controlled conditions.
As can be seen from the electromagnetic spectrum ultraviolet light covers a
range of frequencies. These have been split into UVA and UVB with UVA, being
the less harmful wavelengths. Wavelengths between 365 and 400 nm produce
UVA which is why they are used for MPI testing.
Mercury vapour spot light bulbs, which produce light by discharging an arc in
mercury vapour contained in the bulb, produce a large amount of ultraviolet light
along with visible white light.
This type of bulb is put into a housing and a Woods filter is placed in front of it.
The woods filter blocks the harmful wavelengths of UV light while allowing UVA
at 365 nm to pass through.
Care should still be exercised when using ultraviolet light to avoid either looking
into it directly or shining it into anyone elses eyes.
9.3
There are a number of reasons to test ultraviolet lights used for MPI:
The intensity must be high enough to create sufficient fluorescence in the
ink to make identification of flaws possible
The wavelength of the light must be in the correct part of the spectrum
for operator safety
The mercury vapour bulbs degenerate with use and produce less
ultraviolet light as they age. They must be checked regularly because of
this
The requirements stated in the standard must be met
The procedure for testing an ultraviolet light is laid down below.
Figure 9.38
Testing Output From
A Black Light
Figure 9.39
OIS Underwater Black Light
With Castrol Strip Attached by Cord
Figure 9.40
Direct Current
Using DC to induce a magnetic field will produce a field that penetrates into
the work piece and will be a better method for discovering defects that are
just below the metal surface. In ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic field
produced by DC generally penetrates the entire cross-section of the
component; whereas, the field produced using alternating current is
concentrated in a thin layer at the surface of the component.
Figure 9.41
Alternating Current
Furthermore as the current is constantly reversing no single value for the
current can be measured. To determine a single measured value for an AC
the Root Mean Square (RMS) value is calculated. This is indicated on
Figure 9.41. To calculate the RMS value all that is required is to divide the
peak value by the constant 1.414. The normal situation is that an amperage
reading indicates the current being applied. The meter will be indicating an
RMS value. Therefore to obtain the peak value multiply the meter reading by
1.414. (This may be required if the applied current is close to the saturation
value for the work piece).
Rectified Alternating Current
Clearly, the skin effect limits the use of AC since some inspection
applications may call for the detection of sub-surface defects. However, the
convenient access to AC drives its use beyond surface flaw inspections.
However, AC can easily be converted to current that is very much like DC
Figure 9.42
Rectified Alternating Current
(Figures 9.30, and 9.43 attributed to University of Iowa)
Figure 9.43
Spurious or Non-relevant Indications
14 Reporting Indications
Any indications should be reported in a standard manner.
The distance from the datum mark
The length
The orientation and position relative to the weld
Whether the indication is strong or weak
Whether the indication is continuous or intermittent
Whether it branches or not with the orientation of any branches
Position of the indication, whether on the weld, toe, HAZ, parent plate
etc.
Always use the correct terminology.
An example of a report sheet is reproduced in Figure 9.44
Client:
Location:
Dive number:
Description of workpiece
Node reference:
Date:
of
Equipment:
Used: Make & Serial No:
Ink:
% by vol:
Permanent
Make:
magnet:
Coil:
Water based:
Parallel loop:
Fluorescent:
U/V lamp:
Black:
Ink dispenser:
Current used:
Amps
Other:
AC:
DC:
Turns:
Cleaning:
HP water:
HP grit:
LP grit:
Hyd wire brush
Hand:
Viewing conditions: Ambient light
Lux Surface finish:
2
W/CM
_
UV/A
General report:
Flux indicator: 3oc
6oc
9oc
12oc
Diver:
Test restrictions:
Client:
Inspection engineer
Figure 9.44
Sample Data Report Sheet
15 Recording Indications
The actual MPI indications may be recorded in a number of ways.
15.1 Ultraviolet Photography
A conventional photograph can be taken using either: An ultraviolet lamp and a long exposure on the camera
An appropriate ultraviolet filter on the strobe and expose for the flash
15.2 Cast
This is used with dry powder not ink and therefore has no underwater
application. The indication is exposed with the dry powder and a cast such as
microset is applied. The dry powder particles are captured in the cast.
15.3 Foil Packets (Magfoil)
These are supplied in ready-made packets that have two compartments that are
separated by an internal barrier that is ruptured when the packet is applied to
the test site. The two compartments contain magnetic particles and the mixing
liquid that are kept apart until the barrier is ruptured. A triangular wire flux
indicator is also mounted inside the packet.
The method of operation is to break the internal barrier and mix the contents by
manipulating the bag. This takes approximately 45 seconds and the contents
will take on a grey colour.
Apply the bag to the test site. The contents will remain liquid for 100
seconds.
Apply the magnetising force during this period
The defect indication will be recorded as a white mark in the packet
Leave the packet in place until the liquid sets (approximately 5 minutes)
The packet can then be removed and the indication length and breadth
can be measured. These dimensions will give an indication of defect
length and depth
15.4 Video
Some video cameras will capture the visible light of the fluorescent particles
when the ultraviolet light is directed on them. This signal can be recorded on
disc.
15.5 Rubberised Tape Transfer
An adhesive rubberised tape can be applied to a dry indication. The magnetic
particles adhere to the tape, which can then be peeled off. This cannot be
applied underwater. It may have a possible use in a welding habitat.
16 Factors Affecting MPI Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a magnetic particle inspection is the effectiveness with which
the test will discover defects and crack-like features in the material. This will
depend in the main on three factors: The diver inspector
The equipment being used
The conditions on site
For maximum efficiency of the operation, the diver inspector should, as well as
being comfortable and as well equipped for the dive as possible: -
Figure 9.45
Sensitivity of a Magnetic Particle Inspection
16.1 Factors Affecting Contrast
The following points should be considered in connection with the contrast of the
test.
16.1.1 Surface Condition (1)
The effectiveness of the cleaning processes to produce a bright finish is an
important factor here. A paint background would help if coloured magnetic
particles were being used.
16.1.2 Lighting (2)
If the ambient lighting is too high, for example because of bright sun near the
surface, the tests must be done at night when fluorescent inks are used. The
diver inspector should monitor regularly the intensity of the ultraviolet lamp to
detect any deterioration in brightness, which would decrease the efficiency of
detecting defects.
Consequential Poles:
Electromagnetism:
Field Strength:
Figure 9.46
Field Strength
Flux:
Flux Density:
Flux Indictor:
Flux Leakage:
Hysteresis:
Permeability ():
Poles:
Reluctance:
Residual Magnetism:
Retentivity:
Saturation:
Vector Field:
Bibliography
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
Iowa State University
Web site
CHAPTER 10
Cleaning for Inspection and Profile Grinding
1
General Comments
There are two prime reasons for cleaning areas of structures. The first is to
prepare the area for CVI, MPI or other NDT. The second is to remove excessive
marine growth, debris or other fouling. In either case only discrete areas of the
structure will be cleaned, not the entire jacket. A number of methods for
cleaning exist and are tabulated in Table 10.1
Method
Advantages
Disadvantages
ROV
Hand Cleaning
(Scrapers etc)
Inexpensive, easy to
deploy
NO
Pneumatics
More efficient
YES
Hydraulics
More efficient
YES
HP Water Jet
YES
HP Water Grit
Entrainment
NO
Grit Blasting
Hazardous, maintenance,
backup team required
YES
LP Air Grit
YES
Cavitation Jet
Effective on hard
growth, safe, no grit
Inhibitors (Including
Henderson Rings)
No diver intervention
required
NO
NO
Table 10.1
1.1
HP Water Jets
HP water jets are widely used offshore as are the grit entrainment and LP grit
blasting systems. These methods of cleaning have potential to harm the
operator and therefore some safety considerations must be included with any
discussion as to their use. A Hughes standard system is shown in Figure 10.2
Figure 10.2
Hughes HP Water Jet
Safety considerations are:
Never block or wire the trigger open
When in use never point at anything other then the area to be cleaned
Keep clear of any retro-jets
Never get any part of the body in front of the jet
Ensure that all HP hoses, fittings and unions are in test, good condition
and are correctly fitted and tightened
If grit is used be aware of the grit entering the life-support system
because of circulation in the water
If grit penetrates the suit or gloves take medical advice immediately
Treat the equipment with respect, it is capable of maiming or even killing
if not handled correctly
All HP water jet or grit guns must be properly designed for underwater
use.
1.2
The Diving Medical Advisory Committee (DMAC) has published the following
advice on managing any accident that might occur while using this type of
equipment.
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The outcome depends upon the extent of the initial injury and the presence or
absence of infection and even through the injury seems trivial on the surface
and the patient has no complaints, it is of great importance to arrange for
medical examination as quickly as possible. Where surgical examination is not
immediately possible in a remote situation, first aid measures are confined to
dressing the wound and observing the patient closely for the development of
further complaints over four or five days. The development of fever and a rising
pulse rate suggest the injury is serious together with persistence or occurrence
of pain. On evacuation, the diver should carry the following card, which outlines
the possible nature of the injury.
This man has been involved with high pressure water jetting up to 14,500
psi (100Mpa, 1000 bar, 1019 Kgcm-2) with a jet velocity of 900 mph (1440
Kmhr-1). Please take this into account when making your diagnosis.
Unusual infections with micro-aerophilic organism occurring at low
temperatures have been reported. These may be gram negative pathogens
such as are found in sewage, bacterial swabs and blood cultures may
therefore be helpful
2
The standard of surface finish that is normally adopted in the North Sea was
originally a Swedish standard for specifying blast cleaning of steel prior to the
application of paint coatings. This standard in now incorporated into BS EN ISO
8501-1:2001, BS 7079-A1: 1989 and .BS EN ISO 8501-1: Supplement: 2001,
BS 7079-A1: Supplement 1: 1996 The specifications from these standard
normally applied offshore are:
SA 1
Light cleaning, removal of gross fouling (for general visual inspection)
SA 2
Cleaning to paint coat including removal of loose paint and corrosion
products
SA 2
Very thorough blast cleaning with grit entrainment resulting in dull matt metal
finish. (This is the most widely adopted cleaning level applied offshore as it
leave a surface, sometimes referred to as stippled, that does not unduly
reflect light. It is an excellent surface for CVI, MPI Video, Photography and
all other NDT.)
Area to Be Cleaned
The size of the cleaned area must be large enough to ensure that there is a
valid inspection but small enough to ensure that time is not wasted in unnecessary cleaning.
For CVI and MPI the area cleaned to SA 2 should include the weld and an
area 75mm wide either side of it. Also an area large enough to allow access for
inspection equipment and the diver inspector should be cleaned to SA 1 either
side of the weld. An area approximately 1m wide should be sufficient. See
Figure 10.3.
Figure 10.3
Cleaned Area
4
Profile Grinding
Profile grinding may be required during the fabrication stage of the structures
life as a means of improving the profile of fabrication welds that may have
process faults such as, excessive weld metal, undercut, poor restart, stray arc,
spatter or any other fabrication flaws. If pressure vessels such as caissons and
conductors are constructed to PD 5500:2000 all welds should be dressed to
comply with the requirements of the standard. Profile grinding obviously has an
established place in welding fabrication.
Profile Grinding
Figure 10.4
Remedial Grinding
Bibliography
A Handbook for Underwater Inspectors
L K Porter
HMSO
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
CHAPTER 11
Other NDT Methods Used Offshore
1
Introduction
Radiography
Disadvantages
Production of Radiation
X-ray Production
Figure 11.2
Production of X-rays
As well as being bulky and heavy high voltages are required to produce the
electron stream and this presents a hazard to diver deployment. Commercially
this equipment is not used underwater.
4
Production of Rays
Figure 11.3
Diver Deployed Radioactive Source in Housing
Figure 11.4
Source Placed at 12 Oclock
Setup for First Exposure
(Arrow indicates direction of 3 oclock)
Figure 11.5
Source Connected to Surface Unlocked
with Key Removed Ready to be exposed
Figure 11.6
Placing Film Cassettes for Double Wall
Single Image Technique
4.1
Safety
The radiation emitted from the source will cause silver halides contained in the
film emulsion to react in the same way that light causes a reaction in
photography. The more radiation falling on the film the darker it will appear
when developed. Figure 11.7 illustrates the method.
Figure 11.7
Radiation Exposing the Film
The preferred method of recording an image is the single wall, single image or
panoramic technique, which is illustrated in Figure 11.8. The alternative when
there is only access to one side is the double wall single image technique as
shown in Figure 11.6.
Figure 11.8
Single Wall Single Image or
Panoramic Technique
5.1
Radiograph Quality
The quality of the radiograph is important because it will determine how small a
defect can be found. Radiography is best at recording volumetric defects not
planar as illustrated in Figure 11.7. The quality of the radiograph is commonly
indicated by the use of an Image Quality Indicator (IQI). This is a plastic packet
that contains wires of different diameters that record or not on the radiograph.
The size of the smallest wire that records is the size of the smallest defect that
will show on the radiograph. See Figure 11.9
Figure 11.9
Image Quality Indicator
6
Figure 11.10
The Eddy Current Principle
These eddy currents will induce another magnetic field that is called the
secondary field, which has the opposite orientation to the primary field. These
two fields can be balanced via the instrumentation that can have a display that
would then read zero.
This would be the case with a plane conducting material with no discontinuities.
If there were a surface breaking crack in the plate this will cause the lines of
current flow to bunch together which in turn will cause the induced lines of
magnetic flux to bunch. As seen in Chapter 9 this increases the flux density, this
in turn increases the magnetic field strength in the secondary magnetic field.
This causes an imbalance between the two fields that will be indicated on the
instrument display, which is commonly a CRT. Figure 11.11 refers.
Figure 18.12
Effects of a Crack
Interacting With the
Eddy Currents
There are a number of factors that can affect the eddy currents apart from
surface breaking cracks: Probe lift off can cause spurious indications
Varying permeability can cause spurious indications
If the probe is close to the edge of a plate edge effect will cause
spurious indications
Differences in material thickness can cause spurious indications
Figure 11.12 refers
Figure 18.13
Spurious Indications
Other factors that effect eddy currents are: Test probe frequency
The higher the frequency the less the penetration
Material permeability
The higher the permeability the less the penetration
Material conductivity
The higher the conductivity the less the penetration
Table 11.13 indicates the advantages and disadvantages of the method.
EMD/ACFM Advantages over MPI
Alternating current exhibits a skin effect as has been mentioned previously. The
skin effect is more prevalent the higher the frequency of the alternating current.
A pair of probes, called field probes is placed in contact with the surface of the
material being tested and a current is applied across them. The current will flow
from one probe to the other through the skin of the material. A second probe,
which is the equivalent of the two prods of a voltmeter, measures the potential
drop between them when they are placed in the current field established by the
field probes. This establishes a baseline reading. The sensing probe is then
placed to straddle the crack and a different reading is obtained because the
resistance path is longer. Care must be exercised to ensure that the current
carrying conductor for the field probes is kept as far away from the measuring
probe and its umbilical as possible to avoid any interference with the readings.
See Figure 11.14
Figure 11.14
Methodology for ACPD
Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006
Figure 11.15
ACPD Underwater Probe
8
ACFM will find and size surface-breaking defects in most metals even through
coatings up to 5mm thick. ACFM has largely replaced MPI offshore in the UK
sector of the North Sea. The method is applied by diver inspectors and may be
achievable by ROVs in the near future. The diver inspector manipulates the
probe and the surface technician interprets the results and records the data.
The minimum qualification for the diver inspector is 3.1U. A 3.2U diver inspector
is often specified; however as remedial grinding may be necessary. The
scanning techniques and terminology are as for the EMD techniques in
paragraph 7.1 above. ROV deployed probes will require 3.3U qualified
personnel.
Cleaning standard of SA 1 is required.
8.1
The ACFM method was evolved to combine the ACPD technique of sizing with
a method that does not require surface contact. This is achieved by inducing an
electric field similar to EMD methods. With ACFM the induced electric field then
induces magnetic fields as with EMD methods and these magnetic fields are
measured electronically to determine crack length and depth. The fact that
electric fields exhibit the skin effect is utilised to confine the measurement of the
magnetic field to the crack area only. Figure 11.16 refers.
Figure 11.16
Principle of Operation of ACFM
8.2
The standard ACFM probe contains both the field induction and the magnetic
field sensors in one probe assembly. No electrical contact is required to the
worksite and therefore cleaning to SA 1 is sufficient.
There are two cables connected to the probe, one for input current to the field
induction unit and one to carry output current from the magnetic field sensors.
These two cables are contained in a single umbilical. Care should be exercised
not to pass this close to the probe assembly as it could alter the induced field
strength.
The diver inspector under directions from the surface technician manipulates
the probe. The surface technician will brief the diver as detailed in paragraph
6.1 before the inspection. Interpretation is completed on the surface by the
surface technician and the results are all recorded in real time and can be
reviewed at any time during or after the inspection.
The system does not suffer from probe lift off as EMD does. Cracks can be
sized for length and depth.
Radiographic FMD
This technique places and exposes a source on one side of the tubular while a
dosimeter is held opposite on the other side. The radiation penetrating the
tubular will be much less if it is flooded than if it is dry. The diameter and wall
thickness of the member must be known so that the expected doses may be
calculated. The most common source used for this method is caesium 137 and
safety zones must be established around the ROV when it is on deck with the
source fitted. The last person to leave the ROV before launching is the
radiographer and the first person to approach it on recovery is the radiographer.
No cleaning is required as long as the thickness can be assessed as the
software will compensate for the marine growth.
Figure 11.17 illustrates the technique and Figure 11.18 shows a typical
configuration on an ROV.
Figure 11.17
Radiographic FMD
Figure 11.18
Radiographic FMD Mounted on ROV
10 Ultrasonic FMD
The ultrasonic technique uses a standoff ultrasonic method with an A-scan
display. The 500 kHz probe is mounted on a standoff frame which must be held
exactly at the normal to the surface of the member. The ultrasonic signal is
propagated through the water to the near wall of the member. If the member is
dry there is a reflected signal from the near wall only. If the member is flooded
there is a reflected signal from the near wall and from, either the far wall or the
surface of the internal water. It is a go/no go method the same as the
radiographic technique. Figure 11.19 refers.
Figure 11.19
Ultrasonic FMD
The cleaning standard is SA 2. As this method is diver deployed the necessary
cleaning can be accomplished by the diver prior to taking the reading.
11 General Point for all FMD Readings
All FMD readings must be taken at either the 6 oclock position on any
horizontal members or as low as possible on any vertical or vertical diagonal
members. This is because this is the point where liquid will accumulate. It is
also vital to know the diameter and wall thickness of any member that is to be
tested.
Bibliography
A Handbook for Underwater Inspectors
L K Porter
HMSO
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
Appendix 1
Extract of Offshore
Technology Report OTH 84 206
Category A (Defects)
Cracks
Cracks can be divided into three categories:
Fine cracks not more than 1mm wide
Medium cracks between 1mm and 2mm wide
Wide cracks more than 2mm wide
The edges of the fracture are normally sharp and the aggregate may also be
fractured. The usual cause is structural movement. Although all concrete
structures have some cracks in them they will not become significant until they
are measurable, which usually only occurs in-service
Delamination
A Delamination is a thin sheet of concrete, which has become partially or
completely detached from the main structure. Beneath the Delamination the
surface of the structure is much rougher and shows aggregate. Delamination is
caused by corrosion of a layer of reinforcement or possibly impact damage and
is principally an in-service defect
Pop-out
A pop out is a small conical depression in the concrete surface, usually with a
piece of corroding reinforcement at its base. It is caused by the expansion of
isolated particles in the concrete or by corrosion of the ends of reinforcing bars.
This causes the surface of the concrete to be put under tension and will so
produce local failure in the form of a conical piece of the concrete popping out
from the structure. The edges will usually be sharp and well defined. Pop outs
are an in-service defect
Impact Damage
Impact damage is described as a rough area in which the smooth surface of the
concrete has been removed by means of a blow or impact. It is caused by a
blow from an object, which will dislodge part of the structure usually at the
edges or corners. Impact damage could occur either during the construction
phase or the installation phase. It should have been found and corrected
Tearing
Tearing is crack-like in its appearance but the width will vary and the edges are
often rough and indistinct. Coarse aggregate will not be broken. It will be widest
at the mid-length point and it will tend to taper towards the ends. There may be
some indications of rust staining. While the concrete was inside the slip form
Figure A1.1
Exposed Reinforcement
Faulty Repair
Any repair, which allows the ingress of seawater to the reinforcement cage,
should be described as faulty. Normally this will have the appearance of a
patch, which will be of different texture and colour to the surrounding concrete.
There may also be cracking around the edge of the repair and maybe a poor
porous surface to the repair. The cause is normally a defect, which has
occurred during the construction phase and ahs been repaired badly
Figure A1.2
Faulty repair
Variable Cover
Concrete protect the reinforcement cage by passivation but in order for this to
be effective then there must be a minimum thickness of concrete over the
reinforcement. This defect may not be visible but in extreme cases there may
be some rust staining seen. The cause is either due to the reinforcement cage
being displaced or the slip form shutter being dislodged. Variable cover is a
construction defect.
All of the above are defects primarily because they will allow a more or less
unrestricted flow of seawater to the reinforcement cage, thus allowing corrosion
to take place
Category B (Areas of Concern)
Embedded Objects
Consists of objects such as wire, nails, wood etc., which have been accidentally
dropped into the concrete while it is still wet and become embedded objects.
They will all have been included at the time of construction
Figure A1.3
Embedded Object
Cast in sockets
The visible description of cast in sockets is just a small hole, which may have
some threads visible inside. They will have been caused by the use of bolt
fixings during the construction phase. The bolts will have been removed leaving
the sockets still embedded in the concrete. They may well be filled with mortar.
Cast in sockets will have been included during the construction phase
Figure A1.4
Cast in Socket
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Figure A1.5
Recessed Metal Plate
Water jet damage
Water jets can be used to cut through concrete, so great care must be taken in
order to prevent the damage of the surface of the concrete during cleaning
operations. If damage occurs it will form dark lines in an irregular pattern over
an area of concrete, which has been cleaned. Aggregate may be exposed and
the surface will feel rough to the touch.
The damage is caused by the use of pressures which are too high, or by the
use of a jet which is too small.
Water jet damage will occur in-service
Figure A1.6
Water Jet Damage
Abrasion
Abrasion can look similar to water jet damage but the surface will be smooth.
Although the aggregate may well be visible the edges will be well defined.
Abrasion will be caused by movement of hard objects against the concreter
wearing away (abrading) the surface of the concrete. This is normally an inservice problem
Figure A1.7
Abrasion
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Figure A1.8
Formwork Misalignment
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Figure A1.9
Blowholes
Scabbling
This will have a rough surface appearance due to the surface of the concrete
having been removed so exposing the course aggregate.
This is an intentional removal of the smooth surface, usually prior to placing
further concrete. It will normally be done at the construction phase
Figure A1.10
Scabbling
Rubbing down marks
Irregular marks on the surface of the concrete may have the appearance of
brush marks on wet concrete.
These are caused by the rubbing down of the concrete to remove surface
blemishes as they emerge from the formwork. It may indicate a repair.
Rubbing down marks will have been done at the construction phase
Good repair
This will be a repair, which has a smooth and complete appearance, which in
not likely to allow seawater ingress to the reinforcement cage.
This will have been done to repair a slight defect from the construction phase
Figure A1.11
Good Repair
Regular horizontal ridge
These are ridges formed on the surface of the concrete, which are spaced
regularly and will normally extend all around the structure.
As the slip form shutters rise the concrete should be self-supporting as it
emerges from the bottom of the shutter. The shutter will be jacked up
approximately once every hour and will then be stationary for the next hour.
While the shutter is stationary there is often some sagging of the concrete from
the base of the shutter, which will form a ridge.
This will be formed at the construction phase
Irregular horizontal ridge
Irregular horizontal ridges may be from 50mm to 250mm apart but will not
expose aggregate.
These ridges are a feature of slip forming. The shutters are tapered at the top
and the pressure of each pour of concrete may cause outward movement of the
shutters at the bottom allowing grout seepage below the shutters.
These are formed during the construction phase
Vertical drag marks
These are straight vertical marks with a coarse surface, sometimes referred to
as pebble runs.
The drag marks are normally caused by stones or pebbles being trapped
behind the slip form shutters and being dragged up the structure with them, so
Figure A1.12
Vertical Drag Marks
Resin mortar repair
This is a patchy of a plastic type of substance on the surface of the structure.
It indicates that a defect has been repaired, maybe in the service life of the
structure.
It can be an in-service blemish
Figure A1.13
Resin Mortar Repair
Curing compound
These are large areas of coloured coating, which may well be peeling off and
flaking.
Curing compounds are applied to concrete during the construction process to
reduce water loss by evaporation during the curing of the concrete.
Therefore curing compound will be applied during the construction phase
Figure A1.14
Curing Compound
Grout run
These will often be associated with a construction joint and will have the
appearance of ragged, irregular runs of grout, adhering to the surface of the
concrete.
They are formed by the leakage of concrete from the bottom of poorly fitting
shutters. The concrete underneath will be unaffected by the run and so it will not
pose a problem.
Grout runs will be formed during the construction phase
Figure A1.15
Grout Run
General Concrete Terms
Spalling
Spalling does not appear as a specific term, this is because spalling is
considered to be a symptom of something more serious. A spall is a loose piece
of concrete, which must have come from a spalled area. One of the Category A
defects will be the cause of the spall.
Grout
Grout is a semi-fluid slurry consisting of cement and water.
Gunite
Concrete sprayed by compressed air. Will have high strength and density, used
to repair walls and as weight coat on pipelines. It has a darker colourisation
than normal concrete.
Cable Duct
Cast tubular duct through which the pre-stressing tendons will run. Normally
grout filled after tensioning.
Prestressed concrete
Concrete that has all the tensile and shear stresses relieved by the introduction
of compressive stress on the structure.
Base Raft
The foundation slab bearing on the seabed.
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