Abstract

In the globalizing world where multinational companies work across the

borders the question of cultural differences and mutual understanding
seems to be highly relevant and has been discussed by many
researchers in the last decades. National cultures can be viewed as
norms, values and beliefs shared by individuals from a particular nation
that distinguishes it from other nations. Our cultural environment is
natural for us but people from other cultures may not be comfortable
with it or may not understand.
Therefore when we talk about differences between cultures, we are
speaking about generalities. Therefore we should be aware of the
expectations that every individual will behave in a manner consistent
with those generalizations, because even within cultures, people differ
from each other. The study of human behavior and the practice of
leadership and management continually require the use of
generalizations. It is still worth searching for models that predict
human behavior, even if the predictions may not be accurate. Some of
the most popular models are that of Trompenaars and Hofstedes.
In international business practices, reason and emotion both play a
role. Which of these dominates depends upon whether we are affective
(readily showing emotions) or emotionally neutral in our approach.
Members of neutral cultures do not telegraph their feelings, but keep
them carefully controlled and subdued. In cultures with high affect,
people show their feelings plainly by laughing, smiling, grimacing,
scowling, and sometimes crying, shouting, or walking out of the room.

This doesn't mean that people in neutral cultures are cold or unfeeling.
But in the course of normal business activities, neutral cultures are
more careful to monitor the amount of emotion they display.

Introduction
One way in which culture has often been understood is as a body of
knowledge that people have about a particular society. This body of
knowledge can be seen in various ways: as knowledge about cultural
artifacts or works of art; as knowledge about places and institutions; as
knowledge about events and symbols; or as knowledge about ways of
living. It is also possible to consider this aspect of culture in terms of
information and to teach the culture as if it were a set of the learnable
rules which can be mastered by students.
When translated into language teaching and learning, this knowledgebased view of culture often takes the form of teaching information
about another country, its people, its institutions, and so on. Culture is
not however, simply a body of knowledge but rather a framework in
which people live their lives and communicate shared meanings with
each other.

Culture is something that is within you, which forms you in terms of

who you are, who you will be, what you do and how you do it, without
you realizing it. It is simply the means of developing a lifestyle for
oneself. Dr. Olgun Cicek
Culture is most commonly used in three basic senses which are as
follows:

Excellence of taste in the fine arts known as high culture.

An integrated pattern of human knowledge, faith, and behavior
that depends upon the capacity for emblematic thought and
communal learning.
The set of shared attitudes, goals, values, norms, and practices
that characterizes an organization, nation or group.

A pictorial way to represent culture is to think of it like a lily pad on a

pond. What are visible above the surface are the artifacts the

symbols and the behavior you see enacted. The deeper levels are the
mindset assumptions and beliefs represented by the stem, leading
down to the murkier depths of the emotional ground, and finally the
motivational roots.

In terms of corporate culture dimensions, it is considered that slating

countries in each of quadrants makes is it easier and more
comprehensive to explore the basis of each type of corporate culture in

terms of how their employees learn, change, resolve conflicts,

motivate, etc.
Consequently, the four types of corporate cultures are:
1. Family - is one which is personal, with emphasis on close
relationships, but also one in which the parent, the father, has
far more authority than the other members.
2. Eiffel Tower - refers to countries which consider that structure is
more important than function. The boss here is not the father
figure, but rather a role.
3. Guided missile - the characteristics are equalitarianism and
impersonal and task oriented.
4. Incubator - The most important principle in this type of culture is
that organizations come second to individuals.

Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner argue that the problems between

various cultures may appear from the answers they give to three
categories of existential dilemmas:
1. Problems generated by our relationships with other people:
These constructs are theoretically based, derived from Talcott
Parsons five orientations covering the ways in which human
beings deal with each other. Trompenaars and Hampden-Turners
dimensions on the relationships with other people category are:
a. Universalism vs. Particularism - Rules or relationships?
b. Individualism vs. Communitarianism - Individual or group
functioning?

c. Neutral vs. Emotional - Display of emotions

d. Specific vs. Diffuse - How far is the involvement?
e. Achievement
vs.
Ascription
Status
attainment
backgrounds
2. Attitudes to time (Sequential vs. Synchronic) - Do we do things
once at a time or do we do it together?
3. Attitudes to environment (Internal vs. External control) - Do we
control our environment or do we work with it?

Culture is a very vital word which affects every aspect of life, like the
process of doing business and managing. One can see that cultural
differences are common between people of different nations,
organizations, and even between people of same organization but
different departments.
Methodology
The material collected and used in the report were the fruitful results of
the following:

Book
Reference
s

Online
Reference
s

Case
Studie

Questionnaire

Affective versus Neutral culture

In an affective culture, people do not object to a display of emotions. It
isn't considered necessary to hide feelings and to keep them inside.
Affective cultures may interpret the less explicit signals of a neutral
culture as less important. They may be ignored or even unnoticed.
People from affective cultures are less concerned with the precision of
communication than with the establishment and maintenance of
personal and social relationships. Displaying emotions and warmth is
valued. Emotions are persuasive in affective cultures and are often
used in arguments. Being cold and objective is the better flaw. A wise
and respected person speaks from the heart.
In a neutral culture, people are taught that it is incorrect to show one's
feelings overtly. This doesn't mean they do not have feelings, it just
means that the degree to which feeling may become manifest is
limited. They accept and are aware of feelings, but are in control of
them. In neutral cultures, showing too much emotion may erode your
power to interest people. Objectivity, facts, logic and cool head are
valued in a neutral culture. Emotional pleas or expressions of
feelings carry little weight and are considered soft. People in neutral

cultures become impatient when

feelings get in the way of clear
thinking.
Neutral
Do not reveal what they are thinking or
feeling
Cool and wellcontrolled conduct is
admired (but sometime can explode)
Statements are monotonic and lack an
emotional tone
The entire negotiation is typically
focused on the object or proposition
being discussed

Affective
Reveal thoughts and feelings verbally
and in face and posture
Heated, vital and animated expressions
are admired
Statements are emotional and dramatic

Negotiation is typically focused on the

persons involved and not so much on
the object of proposition being
discussed
Behavior during negotiations tends to Behavior is warm, expressive and
be detached, distant ambiguous and enthusiastic
cool
People stick to the point; the specific Can easily deviate and expand the
predetermined topics being discussed
discussion to the general context of the
relationship
In affective cultures, the expressions of emotions can be raised to the
level of art. It is important to present ideas aesthetically. The use of
poetry is an example. In neutral cultures, there is little interest in the
beauty of a well-crafted sentence. Again, aesthetics can be seen as
elevating or as futile. Bullet points can be viewed as lack of class and
refinement or as pragmatic or to the point.
Ang Lees film, Crouching Tiger Hidden Tiger, transports viewers to
Ancient China. Li Mu Bai, the films hero, is in love with Yu Shu Lien but
waits till the end express his feelings. In his culture, purity is the ideal
and implies detachment rather than indulging in passions. Meditation
allows one to reach this state of detachment. But as Bai is about to
die, he decides to declare his love. His act can be interpreted as
moving from culture as given to culture as a process. In this
instance, the hero ends up regretting his neutral orientation. He
eventually embraces the affective pole.
Degrees of Affectivity in Different Cultures
Since
all
non-verbal
mannerisms
are
culturally
acquired,
expressiveness differs from culture to culture regarding emotions. Latin

American, European and Mediterranean cultures are among the most

expressive: North American, Eastern European and African Cultures
vary their level of expression; and German and Asian cultures are
among the most reserved. In Middle Eastern cultures, it is considered
natural for people to express warmth and expression by speaking in
animated tones, moving close to another person and looking him or
her in the eyes, or by touching an arm around the shoulder, a kiss on
either sides of the cheek. However, people who come from more
reserved cultures such as Thailand may interpret loudness and
animated gestures as a sign of anger or disapproval. In some highcontext cultures in which preserving face and following hierarchical
rules for respect is important, people are more comfortable with
neutral expressions over expressions of affection.
In China people express their emotions naturally. Reactions are shown
immediately verbally and/or non-verbally by using mimic and gesture
in form of body signals. They dont avoid physical contact, which is well
known especially from Italians and Spanish. In contrast neutral cultures
like Japanese tend to hide their emotions and dont show them in
public. It is considered important not to let emotion influence
objectivity and reason in decision making. In general they feel
discomfort with physical contact in public and communicate in a more
subtle way which makes it difficult for members of other cultures to
read between the lines and get the message.
The Chinese use more intuition or feeling in making a business
decision. The Americans are in the middle of this dimension. They
express their emotions but try to avoid that they wont influence the
rational decision making, especially in business situations. Germany,
France and Finland are also more centered within the scale of this
context neutral versus affective. These cultures respond from a nonemotional level in business life. They often expect gratification for their
work achievements not immediately but later on.
Cultural display rules are enforced by pressure from all levels of
society. Thais, who are a part of a collective culture, are generally
under pressure to suppress feelings of negativity and anger. Unlike
individualistic cultures like that of the U.S., in which emotions are
perceived as highly individual, in Thai culture feelings are seen to be
entirely linked and interconnected with those of others. Negativityparticularly anger- is not openly expressed or even discussed in many

Asian cultures. Arguing with your lover loudly and publicly, waving your
hands, and generally losing your cool (and losing face) is considered
barbaric and rude. In Thailand, complaints about cold weather,
discomfort or weariness, can also be considered rude.
Many Americans, on the other hand, are desensitized to aggression in
its many forms- passive and active; mental, emotional, and physical;
subtle and stated. Likewise, feelings of depression and despair are
hardly censored. Of course these feelings are present in the life of any
human being. Yet for many Americans it is incredibly normal and
natural to express them in hyperbolic, dramatized ways. In contrast,
the Thais avoid conflict at all costs. Whether annoyed, embarrassed, or
angry, they smile and chuckle.
The anecdote below shows how one persons idea of affirmation and
positive response can mean another persons shame and
embarrassment.
Jane Reynolds was the executive director of an important trade
association in Singapore. An outgoing, enthusiastic American who was
successful in gaining the cooperation of the associations members,
she has lived in Singapore for ten years and got along with people
there very well.
Jane was pleased when she was asked to chair the annual meeting of a
Thai womens organization in Bangkok. Although Mrs. Reynolds was an
experienced speaker and discussion leader, this was the first time for
her to chair a conference in Thailand. When Jane asked friends and
colleagues for advice, they warned her that Thai women tended to be
somewhat shy in public. They would probably be hesitant to offer their
view and opinions in front of a large group.
So Jane was delighted when, during the morning session, first one and
then two other Thai participants quietly offered useful comments and
suggestions. She showed her delight in characteristic fashion. Getting
up from the table with eyebrows raised and arms waving, Mrs.
Reynolds exuberantly thanked the three women and praised them for
their contributions, making sure to speak loudly enough that all the
attendees would be able to hear.
The meeting then continued, but for some reason there was no more
input from the floor. In fact, the Thai women stopped responding to the

chairpersons questions as well, remaining silent for the reminder of

the conference.
After the meeting, two of the Thai members who had spoken up
approached Jane and tearfully asked, Why were you so angry with us
this morning? We dont know what we did to upset you. Jane hastily
replied that she wasnt angry or upset at all, but the two women just
their goodbyes and walked sadly away.
Affective and Neutral Culture in Business
In some cultures, the expression of emotions is fully encouraged,
whereas in others emotional expression is unacceptable and is seen as
a sign of weakness or loss of control. Emotional expression is part of
business life in Latin countries, whereas Asian countries such as Japan
or China would find this intolerable and see it as a loss of face and
therefore a loss of respect.
There are business situations in which emotional behavior results in
loss of face and respect and ultimately, in the loss of relationship with
foreign business partners. But even if emotions can be freely
expressed, there is a question about the type emotions that is
acceptable. Researchers point out cross cultural differences in the
acceptability of emotions. For example, US culture is obsessed with
positive and optimistic presentation; consequently, assertiveness,
positive self-presentation and optimism are highly values in USA. This
means that the expression of regret and self-effacing behavior are less
acceptable.
Elisabeth Marx, author of Breaking through culture shock, talks in her
book about her experience working in Singapore. She mentioned that
her staff meetings were classic examples of cross-cultural
communication. The Singaporeans typically behaved in a rational and
unemotional way when expressing their opinion in group meetings.
They wanted to find a harmonious solution and therefore focused on
consensus decision making. Ultimately, they did not want to lose face.
Western expatriates, in contrast, debated ferociously, showing anger,
frustration and enthusiasm, and generally did not care whether their
opinion were extreme and against the majority. Most situations worked
out because everybody recognized and accepted others style and the
different cultural rules despite frustrations on both sides.

Intercultural Communication
The word communication means exchange of information. The key to
effective cross-cultural communication is knowledge. First, it is
essential that people understand the potential problems of crosscultural communication, and makes a conscious effort to overcome
these problems. Second, it is important to assume that ones efforts
will not always be successful, and adjust ones behavior appropriately.
For example, one should always assume that there is a significant
possibility that cultural differences are causing communication
problems, and be willing to be patient and forgiving, rather than hostile
and aggressive, if problems develop. One should respond slowly and
carefully in cross-cultural exchanges, not jumping to the conclusion
that you know what is being thought and said.
There is various means of communication subdivided into two
categories
1 Verbal: This is based on spoken words or voices. Can be
distinguished based on the tone of the voice or on the words
themselves.
2 Non-verbal: is the communication through the actions (body
language) and eye contact.
As an example of an indirect style of verbal communication, the
Japanese communication style has both close personal relationships
and huge information network (Matsumoto et al., 1988). In this
communication style messages are implicit and indirect, because the
Japanese dont depend on the language only to deliver a certain
message, so the receiver should focuses on the facial expressions the
timing and the voice tune.
Communication in Affective cultures
Different types of cultures have different styles of communication.
Some emotional countries like Mxico and china are known for their
affective communication style.
So we conclude that in the affective style, meaning is perceived
through nonverbal signs, and intuition should be used to decode the
messages

Affective cultures, such as Latin and Middle Eastern:

1 Express emotions more immediately, openly and passionately.
2 Can be seen as being out of control and inconsistent.
3 Have a wider range of facial expressions and physical gestures
during conversation.
4 Talk loudly when excited, and love the art of arguing and debate.
5 Are more enthusiastic and spontaneous.
6 Consider their emotions (intuitions) in their decision making
process.
Communication in Neutral cultures
In the United States and Canada, people use the direct style of verbal
communication. Communicators meet only to accomplish objectives,
and often the parties at a meeting dont know each other very well.
Speakers are typically direct and focused.
Exacting style is used in neutral countries like England and Germany.
Messages are delivered in a precise and direct short way.
Communication with too many words is considered to exaggeration.
A well-known research shows that American subjects report more
verbal and nonverbal emotional reactions than Japanese subjects
(Matsumoto et al. 1988). Sometimes differences are not only
quantitative, but qualitative or related with cultural meaning of the
emotional expression. For instance, Chinese novels report that persons
smile to hide distress, anger or embarrassment (Kleinberg 1954). A
classic research suggests that Japanese subjects smile when
experiencing distress in the presence of a high status person, however
when they are alone they displayed as negative behaviors as the
American subjects, who always act in the same way (Ekman and
Friesen 1972). More recent large scale survey data found that Asian
subjects reported less verbal and nonverbal emotional reactions
(Matsumoto et al. 1988).

Neutral cultures, such as Anglo-Saxon and Asian:

1. Do not openly or directly show emotions and opinions and
consider it inappropriate to exhibit emotions in certain situations.
2. Value self-control, being calm and rational, and not going to
emotional extremes.
3. Can be viewed as cold or aloof.
4. Discourage touching or excessive gestures and body language.
5. May speak in monotone in formal conversations.
6. Separate their emotions from the decision making process, and
prefer to focus on logic.
Reconciling Neutral and Affective Cultures
Cultural dilemmas need to be reconciled in a process of understanding
the advantages of each cultural preference. In the same way that
people have variations in meanings for different cultures, so
organizations have different meanings for the people working in them.
Different meanings lead to different, specific solutions to certain
problems.
It would be very difficult for business to exist within the extremes of
the two different cultures until and unless they have formed a great
deal of understanding between each other. It is rather difficult to form
a conclusion as to which culture generally could be proved better than
the other corporately since they both seem to have their pros and
cons. In some situations, one might stand out to be better than the

other. But it is evident that these two cultures are successful in the
regions where they are highly promoted.
They do however face problems when required to deal with people
from the other culture. The people of the neutral culture are easily
accused of being cold hearted, whereas the affective people are
considered to be inconsistent and out of control. So the first step to be
implemented is to recognize the differences and not make any
judgments based on emotions or on lack of them. By doing so and
understanding each other, the benefits could be far greater than that
of being different.
AFFECTIVE
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Focus on objective
along with the
feelings of the
individuals
involved

NEUTRAL
Case Studies have been performed
which depict the importance of
reconciliation between the two cultures. In one case, problems arising
when people belonging to neutral cultures had been employed in an
affective based organization were noticed and then how reconciliation
resolved those problems. In another case, a study was performed in
which affective participants could identify the nationality of the people
based on analyzing their affective (emotional) expressions and hence

divide the group of people into the two categories of cultures based on
the nationality judgments made. In another case, a usual consensus of
cultural difference between men and women was studied, and so on.
The point trying to be proved here is that it is necessary for the two
cultures to understand each other so that they can work together
leading to better Intercultural Business etiquette.
Case Study
The case study being studied in this assignment paper observes how a
group of Norwegian managers sojourning in Spain experience cultural
differences, whether trying to adapt to the Spanish culture as such or
experiencing cultural clash results. This case study is a massive one
with enormous potentials as it considers all the underlying aspects of
cultural differences with respect to Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner
theories. But as for this paper, the focus will only be on the ideas and
results of relevance to the topic.
General Findings
As stated in the previous chapters, all the Norwegians interviewed for
this paper were managers, with various positions within companies,
ranking from middle to top management. Most of their subordinates
were Spanish, making sojourners dive into the Spanish culture
complete.
All respondents have had at least one year of experience in their
current expatriate position, ranging from one to eight years. Most of
them have been working / studying abroad before this current
assignment.
They were all working in various fields of activity, such as:

Food import
Property development
Dairy industry
Fertilizer business
Life style management

They had to adapt to the local environment in terms of:

Communication: How and what you say to your peers was

different from their customs. Due to the language barrier and the
cultural filter, the message must be very clear and precise, not to
provoke any misunderstandings;
Expectations: While certain practices, such as employee
initiative, delegation, showing up in time for meetings, were
accustom in Norway, expecting the same in Spain turned out to
be not a good strategy.
Way of doing business: Bureaucracy is omnipresent; therefore
you have to find a way to deal with it. One solution has been to
hire someone who knows the way around things.

Among the various issues they had to deal with upon their arrival in
Spain, the most important ones have been considered:
1. Language - While most of them were aware of it and started to
learn the language while still in Norway, for all language has
been a shock, amplified by the lack of English language
knowledge of the locals.
2. Bureaucracy - The bureaucracy was considered really tough, as
all respondents had trouble working with the public
administration.
3. Time perception - Time perception is another issue for a
Norwegian manager in Spain. While some have fought it and
imposed to their colleagues their perception of time, others have
accepted that this is how the Spanish people are and adjusted to
this reality.
4. Maana attitude - The maana attitude defines the relaxed
and untroubled by deadlines perspective of the Spanish people.
Not acknowledging rules, deferring things and not finishing the
task are not very accustomed habits and easy to understand by
the Norwegians.
Common Grounds and Particularities
On the basis of interviewing the Norwegian managers, the Neutral vs.
Affective aspect found all Norwegians in favor of openly express
emotions and four cases in which the Spanish colleagues were
positively influencing, by expressing their feelings, the work. There was
actually a happy note about being able to express emotions more
openly than in Norway. Only one considered that, maybe because the

company was male oriented people were not expressing enough

their feelings, and being an expatriate made him stand out from the
crowd.
When reviewing the means of communication used, it came as no
surprise, due to the size of the respective companies, that informal
meetings and emails were preferred. Only the representatives of
foreign companies had mentioned a strict report system, but still, in
daily activities, informal meetings, emails or the blackboard were the
most used. As well, when rigor and transparency were sought upon,
formal meetings or official letters had been employed.
The way the profession contributed to work relations in Spain was
positive, as most of the interviewees mentioned the ease of proving
themselves and the need for them of their companies. In life style
management case the profession made work more difficult, as the
sojourner had to rely on relationships, which is different case when
compared with an IT job, where you already know everything before
you practice your job, but it also made it better, as the sojourner had
to dive faster and more complete into the local culture.
On the ethics matter, the answers had been more diplomatic than
anything, with few examples different ways of doing business, such as
legal permits and building standards. However, the main point had
been that once you understand the way things work, then you should
not consider the ethical issues as an impediment to business
relationships.
Research Analysis and Conclusion
As predicted by the various cross-cultural studies, the sojourners had
to adapt their management style to the new realities, but also had to
impose their standards to their working environment. What the
theoretical developments had predicted, the two way adaptation,
appeared evident in all the interviews.
On the Neutral vs. Affective aspect, it is argued the Spanish tend to
exhibit and not to separate emotions from work. Their behavior may be
interpreted as aggressive or even out of control by the Norwegians.
The research showed that the Spanish people were indeed very
emotional and open about their emotions, but this was not to
the disagreement of the Norwegians. Even more, the

Norwegians found it very good to behave this way and were

very positive about it. Even work and the results were seen as
positively influenced by the openness in showing emotions. This
dimension anticipated the behavior of the Spanish people, but did not
perceive correctly the Norwegian perspective. This could be due to the
acceptance of some of the characteristics of the host culture or to the
realization that, once experiencing it, the openness is better than a
hold out.
It is expected, according to the proposed theory that a Norwegian
manager working in Spain would feel that the Spanish subordinates do
not focus on their tasks enough, would not collaborate and give proper
feedback. The general feedback was exactly this. The collaboration
between employees was almost inexistent; there was no focus on tasks
as well, with people looking, for example to finish work faster to go
home than to better serve the customers. Subordinates feedback was
more related to their counterparts and the issues they have to
complete their job, than being constructive.
In general a following conclusion can be made that on the Neutral vs.
Affective aspect, the Norwegians not only will not hide emotions and
not display them, but will approve and exhibit open feelings at work.
They actually found it very good to behave this way and were very
positive about it, but only asked to be warned or taught of this
particular piece of information beforehand.