Sodha Pravaha (A Multidisciplinary Referred Research Journal) ASC, Banaras Hindu

University, Vol.III, Issue-3, July 2013(ISSN 2231-4113)

Dimensions of Social Exclusion and Inclusion of Scheduled Castes,

Scheduled Tribes and Minority Communities in India
Dr. Dasarathi Bhuiyan
Abstract:
In India, social exclusion has been predominantly used in understanding
caste/Religion based is crimination. Caste /religion are a unique determinant of social
exclusion in the Indian Sub-continent. Social and religious groups appear to accentuate
social exclusion by denying certain opportunities pertaining to social and religious
practices and access to services and resources. Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and
Minorities particularly Muslims are in continuous struggle to secure a livelihood in the
face of adverse social, economic and political circumstances. Poverty is never static, it is
dynamic. People and communities move in and out of poverty and the specific form that
poverty takes changes over time. Poverty is thus a dynamic and relational condition that
affects different people in different ways and at different times. The poor are neither a
homogeneous group nor passive victims, and poverty is not a static condition that is
described by material conditions alone. If the government can ensure the promised
entitlements to the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and minority community, their
status can be gradually improved and the process of mainstreaming them would be
expedited.
Introduction:
The concept of social exclusion/inclusion figured prominently in the policy discourse
in France in the mid 1970s. The concept was later adopted by the European Union in the late
1980s as a key concept in social policy and in many instances replaced the concept of
poverty. This concept which had first appeared in Europe as a response to the crisis of the
welfare State has now gained considerable currency over the last five years in both official
and development discourses in India.
The concept of social exclusion as it appeared in France and Europe in general, was
tied to the effect of the failure of integrative institution. As Room[2] points out, the concept
has its roots in the functionalist social theory of Emile Durkheim. Writing at the turn of the
20th century Durkheim was concerned with how social order and stability could be
maintained in a society where social dislocations accompanied the transitions from an
agrarian to industrial society. OBrien and Penna (2007)[3] argues that the concept of social
exclusion and the contemporary European research agenda on it has been informed by the
problems associated with maintaining social order and stability. Durkheims moral sociology
echoes down the centuries, and much greater significance has been a re-rendering of
Durkheim in the resurgence of neo-Parsonian systems analysis and neo-functionalism in
sociology and social policy analysis from the late1970s onwards. [4]

Debate on Social Exclusion and Inclusion of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and
Minority Communities:
The constitution of India recognizes the principle of non-discrimination and equal
opportunity to all, irrespective of caste, race, religion, colour, sex, ethnicity etc. Despite the
promises made in the constitution, various forms of discrimination continue to persist in our
society because the constitutional remedy is often inaccessible to the Scheduled Castes,
Scheduled Tribes and religious minorities, literally taking away the equally quotient of their
rights in terms of implementation.
Social exclusion exists in various spheres and in many forms. Race and caste have
however dominated the discourse on social exclusion. The notion about social exclusion
varies from one to another society depending upon the changing context. Within an Indian
context, exclusion is witnessed in various forms and it is much inter-related. It revolves
around the societal interventions and institutions that exclude, discriminate, isolate and
deprive some groups on the basis of group identities like caste, language and ethnicity. For
example, the nature of exclusion revolving around the caste system needs to be understood
and conceptualized. It is known to all that caste based exclusion has formed the basis of
various anti-discriminatory policies and programmes in India.
The social structure of India is unequal and hierarchical.

In the organizational

scheme of the caste system the civil, cultural and economic rights of each individual caste are
pre-determined or ascribed by birth and made hereditary. The caste system shows a
fundamental discrimination in economic, social and civil spheres of human life. It demarcates
the line of discrimination based on caste identity and the occupational association. It is also
necessary to note that since civil, cultural and economic rights of each caste are ascribed, and
are compulsory, the institution of caste necessarily involves forced exclusion of one caste
from the rights of another. This restricted social arrangement obviously does not leave space
for freedom to choose any occupation and hence curtailment of human development results.
[5]

Occupational immobility is a serious concern while talking about caste and

occupation because each individual caste carries specific occupational identity. It refers to the
continuous discrimination based on occupation and the notion of pollution attached to it. The
benefits and rights are associated with the differential ranking and hierarchical nature of caste
system. The uniqueness of caste system also manifests a differential social order in the
society; the higher the rankings, the higher the social benefits, and vice-versa. The most
striking feature of caste system is that it provides for a regulatory mechanism to enforce the
social and economic organization through the instruments of social ostracism or prohibition
and reinforces it further with the justification and support from the philosophical elements in
the Hindu religion. [6]

In its simplest understanding, social exclusion is lack of access to resources and

consequent inability to utilize them. It is further accentuated by denial of opportunities which
enhance access to resources and their utilization. It can, therefore be experienced by anyone
who is in a position which is vulnerable to such impeding conditions. Thus, besides caste and
race, religion, age, gender, social position and occupational hierarchy-are all potentially
volatile to social exclusion. Stratification of human populations occurs at various levels and
in many forms. It has a reflection of power dynamics which exist between people and also
between population groups. This drives some caste and religious groups to be more
advantaged as against others. The young and the elderly population are likely to be less
equipped as compared to the adults in the sphere of work. The elders may be the dominating
persons within the household; making the young and the adults vulnerable. Similarly, the
gender roles are likely to put women at certain disadvantages vis--vis men. Superimposing
this with lack of access to education and employment; other incomes; land ownership and
political participation- all are drivers to accentuate social exclusion. Thus, people who are
socially excluded are vulnerable. Social exclusion can happen to anyone. Specially as society
moves towards newer technological and economic progress, it elevates and improves the
opportunities for some people and leaves others behind. Individuals who belong to
underprivileged groups or minority social groups are at higher risk of facing social exclusion.
The pervasiveness of caste, ethnic and religion based social exclusion in India has left
specific sections of Indian population suffering from chronic poverty, illiteracy, ill-health,
and higher mortality rates. The impoverished conditions of the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled
Tribes and Muslims who together constitute more than one-third of Indias population, they
are the most deprived social groups.
In India, social exclusion has been predominantly used in understanding
caste/religion/ethnic based discrimination. On the basis of these determinants dalits,
Adivasis and minority communities particularly the Muslims are the social excluded groups.
They experience the agony of social exclusion very deeply in social, economic and political
spheres. There are various forms of social exclusion experienced by the Dalits in different
spheres. Historically, the Dalits were deprived of education; right to possess assets; and the
right to possess weapons to protect themselves. [7]
There are instance where Dalits are not permitted to draw water from common wells
and hand pumps; separate utensils are used to serve them in tea and food stalls, they are not
allowed entry into the temples and Dalit children are made to sit at the back of the classroom.
The situation is even worse in rural areas where the majority of the population and Dalits
reside. The constitution of India grants Dalits certain privileges that include reservations in
education, government jobs, and government bodies; and protection against caste based
discrimination. However, the upper caste people have been demanding the withdrawal of

these Acts by rendering the argument of meritocracy and on the ground of the misuse of these
Acts against the upper caste people. Despite these provisions and assumed misuses, Dalits
are subjected to atrocities and social exclusion by the dominant castes in order to maintain
their caste superiority and display the power dynamics. Rise in the incidence of violence
against the Dalits is also attributed to the increasing level of awareness and assertion among
them. [8]
Social exclusion is the term used to describe what happens when people or areas are
excluded from essential services or every day aspects of life that most of us take for granted.
Socially excluded people or places can become trapped in a cycle of related problems such as
unemployment, poor skills, low incomes, poverty, poor housing, high crime, bad health and
family breakdown. The deprivation of Dalits is closely linked with the processes of caste
based exclusion and discrimination. Social exclusion is the denial of equal opportunities
imposed by certain groups of society upon others which leads to inability of an individual to
participate in the basic political, economic and social functioning of society. [9]
Caste based exclusion is witnessed and described as living mode of exclusion. In
other words, exclusion entails taking part in social, economic and political life of a
community. Therefore, the Dalits (untouchables) located at the bottom of the caste hierarchy
have much less economic and social rights than the castes at the top of the order.
Therefore, social exclusion is related to lack of access to services and goods offered
by societies. Social and religious groups appear to accentuate social exclusion by denying
certain opportunities pertaining to social and religious practices and access to services and
resources. Caste base exclusion percolates through various opportunities for enhancing access
to resources- education, health care and work. Thus social exclusion can be understood
through three basic tenets of complete and partial exclusion; and unfavorable inclusion.
In case of complete exclusion or complete denial of services and access to resources;
people are completely excluded from availing some services and accessing resources for
whatever reasons. Although, the state entails to provide services to all without any
discrimination, yet many are left without any access to and utilization of resources. There are
services, opportunities and information to which access is denied completely to certain
groups of people. Many a times some people have access to some services and not to other.
This is partial denial of services and access to resources. People are discriminated by the
services providers and co-users at the place of services delivery in terms of priority and
proximity. This is partial denial of services and access to resources.
Muslims who came from Central or Western Asia centuries ago have embrace India
as their land. No Muslim in India is likely to have any knowledge of their foreign origin and
ancestry. Interestingly, those who came from outside centuries ago were much smaller in

number compared to an overwhelming majority who converted from Indian stock. The
Christians too are not of foreign origin. Others, the Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs are all Indian
origin.
In spite of this, social exclusion has been important for all minorities but much more
so for Christians and Muslims. Their exclusion from social, cultural, economic and political
processes poses various problems. In the recent times, Muslims have faced social exclusion
based on the prejudices derived out of the terror acts done by some who claimed to profess
this religion. Media has highlighted reports how terror is being cultivated by some of these
groups.
The very concept of social exclusion is not static; in fact, it is a process or the
processes of marginalization and discrimination in the everyday lives and interaction. It
excludes certain communities and groups from interaction and access to social resources
through social arrangements, normative value systems and customs. The exclusion based on
Caste is one example and Patriarchy is another, which is Systemic or constitutive exclusion.
Having social, cultural, political and economic ramifications, it is also complex and multidimensional concept. [10]
These dimensions are interwoven and it revolves around the societal interventions and
institutions that exclude, discriminate, isolate and deprive some groups on the basis of group
identities like caste and ethnicity. Discrimination and exclusion marginalizes certain groups
from full participation in the social, economic, political and cultural life of the country. [11]
Amartya Sen described the two situations as unfavourable exclusion and
unfavourable inclusion.[12] The unfavourable inclusion with unequal treatment may carry
the same adverse effects as unfavourable exclusion. The concept of social exclusion
essentially refers to the processes through which groups are wholly or partially excluded from
full participation in the society in which they live.[13]
In the era of globalization and tremendous socio-political changes and in India where
various communities are getting new opportunities for their socio-economic development
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Muslims have been left out of this development.
Since independence, the socio-economic status of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and
Muslims have been witnessing negative growth. Gradual deterioration in the social,
educational and economic status of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Muslims has
been well explained and documented in various studies and researches. In spite of the various
constitutional provisions which call for equality and enjoyment of equal rights, the Scheduled
Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Muslims

faces discrimination and difficulties, especially

where the dual question of citizenship and identity is concerned. The reasons attributed to this
can be many, including poverty and high rates of illiteracy. There are many schemes of the
central as well as of the various state governments, for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes

and Muslims, but ensuring government entitlements to the marginalized is a big challenge.
The Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Muslims have community at large does not
have an easy access to these. [14]
Pattern of exclusion:
(i) Identity-related issues: The fact that the so-called appeasement of Scheduled Castes,
Scheduled Tribes and Muslims for crating vote bank for the political leaders have not
resulted in any benefits for them. Identity markers (particularly dress pattern of Muslims and
physical appearances of STs) often lead to

discrimination by people and institutions.

Discrimination too is pervasive in employment, housing as well as schooling matters.

(ii) Equity-related issues: The perception of discrimination is widespread, leading to a sense
of alienation and thus appears as an important cause of inequity. Backwardness in education
is a key concern of the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Muslims. Limited access to
good quality schools is a major problem that affects female students more adversely.
Apart from education, employment is the other major concern. Low participation in
government jobs is partly seen as a result of discrimination. This, coupled with low
bargaining power of workers, results in low incomes. Non availability of credit curtails the
ability of the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Muslims to improve their economic
status. This discrimination in various economic areas coexists with low political participation
(iii) Exclusion from goods and services: The location of public goods, its accessibility and
ability to pay are a few factors leading to exclusion; it is much true in the context of
education. Poverty has been viewed as an important factor leading to exclusion in terms of
low consumption levels, education and health care.
(iv) Labour market exclusions issues: For most households, and especially for the poor,
labour earnings are the major source of income. Very true, it is, employment provides social
legitimacy as well as access to income. It is noted very clearly that the processes of social
exclusion come through the understanding of the mechanisms at play in the labour market.
(v) Exclusion from land: The exclusion from land is a critical issue which is widely
associated with poverty and insecurity. Land is not only a source of livelihood but also of
social integration in a broader sense.
(vi) Exclusion and macro-economic development: The central aspect of this analysis of
exclusion is the idea that it is embedded in the ways societies function. Thus, differences in
the development paths and in macro-economic and structural adjustment strategies imply
equally varied patterns of social exclusion. Similar aggregate economic development may
lead to quite different patterns of income inequality, quite different patterns of distribution of
the benefits of the growth. In this the institutional arrangements which mediate between
economic and social development are crucial. They may include or exclude, limit gains to a
few sectors or groups or spread advantage widely.

(vii) Educational Issues: Literacy rates among the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and
Muslims are not increasing fast enough to converge with literacy rates of other groups. In
fact, in recent years, the growth in literacy rates among SCs/STs has been higher than for
Muslims. The percentage of SC and ST children who never attended school is high; Dropout
rates are the highest among the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Muslims and this
seems to go up significantly after middle school. School enrolment rates are among the
lowest but interestingly have improved in recent years. This is consistent with the perception
that the community is increasingly looking at education as a means of improving socioeconomic status. Primary education and higher secondary attainment levels are also among
the lowest for the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Muslims. This contributes to large
deficits in higher education; graduate attainment rates (GARs) are also among the lowest and
not converging with the average. As with other areas of education, participation of the
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Muslims in technical and engineering education is
also among the lowest.
(viii) Employment issues: The conditions of work are more precarious for the Scheduled
Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Muslims workers than most other workers. Their earnings are
relatively low among regular workers. In other words, their participation in the informal
sector is much higher than most other Social Religious Communities, especially in own
account trade and manufacturing enterprises. A detailed analysis of employment in different
government departments also revealed that the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribesand
Muslims representation is very low and very often they are located in low-end jobs.
(ix) Access to infrastructure and other facilities:
Access to trained health persons and institutions for child birth is very poor for the
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Muslims. The Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes
and Muslims have very poor access to tap water and their households have the lowest access
to this facility. a larger proportion lives in cuchha houses and have no access to toilets.
Broadly, the availability of schools and other facilities is relatively less in small villages with
a high density of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Muslims population and the
availability of bus, road and medical facilities is relatively less in larger villages with high
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Muslims concentration.
(xi) Living standards and poverty: In general, the mean per capita consumption
expenditure is lower for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Muslims. The situation is
the same with respect to the intensity of poverty in urban areas; the mean expenditure of the
poor as the ratio of poverty line is the lowest for SCs/STs followed very closely by Muslims.
In rural areas, the intensity of poverty is somewhat lower for Muslims than for SCs/STs and
OBCs.

(xii) Internal differentiation: Internal differentiation in the community is a reality. Several

studies over the years have distinguished different sections sub-castes within the SCs and
STs. Even in the Muslim community there are ashraf, ajlaf, and arzal which divide
themselves.
People's Recommendations and way forward for Inclusion:
The study also provides a way forward to address the issues of Scheduled Castes,
Scheduled Tribes and Muslims and recommends the following areas of intervention to ensure
their citizenship rights are upheld:
General

Appropriate action must be taken by the central government against people,

institutions and political figures who practise or propagate discrimination or
intolerance on the basis of caste and religion. Furthermore, textbooks, films or writing
which portray cultural stereotypes of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribesand
Muslims should be withdrawn from school curricula.

State agencies should actively develop and implement policies geared towards
improving the socio-economic status of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribesand
Muslims generally to ensure their full participation in public life as Indian citizens.

Perspective building and sensitization of Government Administration.

The administration should be made accountable for proper implementation of

programmes intended for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Muslims as well as
ongoing national programmes.

Concerted effort at the level of administration is needed at all levels to combat

discrimination against Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Muslims and
structural exclusion.

Education

Given the poor educational and low socio-economic status of Scheduled Castes,
Scheduled Tribes and Muslims in general, the central and state governments should
ensure the implementation of primary and secondary education programmes for
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Muslims. A survey of availability of textbooks
in their mother tongue should be undertaken, after which printing and distribution of
textbooks should be taken up by state governments.

Information about the status of their child studying in government schools should be
made public.

Keeping vulnerability in mind, new ICDS centers and schools should be established near
the their localities and there should be special drive to admit girl child in the schools.

Health
Availability and accessibility of health services should be culture friendly so that their
health seeking behaviors can be changed.
In the coverage area, especially in rural areas new parameters should be set up for
establishment of new sub-centers/PHC/CHC, so that the poor and marginalized women can
avail health care facilities.
Livelihood
There is a need to link MNREGA with the traditional occupation of Scheduled Castes,
Scheduled Tribes and Muslims artisans.
Bank credit for economic development should be made available through a single window
so that the poor Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Muslims can easily access loan.
Entitlements
There is immense need of minority targeted schemes and advocacy both at government as
well non-government level.
There has been desperate need to raise awareness in the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes
and Muslim community on various Government schemes and programmes.
PDS and Basic Health Care Services should make available to them on a priority basis.
Conclusion:
In this age of globalization and liberalization where there is ample opportunities for
socio-economic change and development for many social groups but the Scheduled Castes,
Scheduled Tribes and Minorities particularly Muslims in India are in continuous struggle to
secure a livelihood in the face of adverse social, economic and political circumstances.
Poverty is never static, it is dynamic. People and communities move in and out of poverty
and the specific form that poverty takes changes over time. It is not a natural phenomenon.
The social inequality and discrimination against the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribesand
Muslims are creation of the society. It can be changed through collective efforts. Poverty is
thus a dynamic and relational condition that affects different people in different ways and at
different times. The poor are neither a homogeneous group nor passive victims, and poverty
is not a static condition that is described by material conditions alone. If the government can
ensure the promised entitlements to the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribesand minority
community, their status can be gradually improved and the process of mainstreaming them
would be expedited.

References:
1. OBrien, M and Sue Penna, (2007). Social Exclusion in Europe: Some Conceptual
Issues in International Journal of Social Welfare 2007:16. Pp.1-9.
2. 1995, cited in OBrien and Penna, 2007, p: 3
3. OBrien and Penna, 2007, op.cit.no.1, p:3)
4. Ibid.
5. K.M. Ziyauddin and Eswarappa Kasi, Dimensions of Social Exclusion: Ethnographic
Explorations, Cambridge Scholars Publishing 12 Back Chapman Street, Newcastle
upon Tyne, NE6 2XX, UK, 2009
6. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, writings and speeches, Vol. 6/7- 1985; 9-1987, 10-1989;
11-1990; 12-1992
7. Gail Omvedt, Dalit Vision, Orient Longman, New Delhi in 2006
8. K.M. Ziyauddin and Eswarappa Kasi, 2009.
9. Sukhdeo Thorat, Dalits in India: A Profile, SAGE Publications India Pvt, Limited,
2007.
10. K.M. Ziyauddin and Eswarappa Kasi, 2009
11. Caste and community based labour market discrimination: A Pilot study in Noida,
Working Paper Series 1, vol. 1, No. 01, PSDE, 2009. New Delhi: JNU.
12. Sen, Amartya, (2000), Social Exclusion: Concept, Application, and Scrutiny,
Working Paper, Social Development Paper No 1, June. Bangkok: Asian Development
Bank.
13. Thorat, 2007).
14. K.M. Ziyauddin and Eswarappa Kasi, 2009

* Lecturer
P.G. DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
Berhampur University, Berhampur 760 007 (ORISSA)
Email: drdbpsbu@gmail.com, dasarathi_bhuyan@gmail.com,
Cell: 09861366135, 9937452727