Stresses and Stress Tensor

Forces and stresses

Two basic types of forces act on a body to produce stresses:
- Forces of the first type are called surface forces and act on the
surface of the body. Surface forces are generally exerted when one
body comes in contact with another.
- Forces of the second type are called body forces since they act on
each particle of the body. Body forces are commonly produced by
centrifugal, gravitational, or other force fields.
A solid body of arbitrary size, shape, and material acted upon by an
equilibrium system of surface and /or body forces will respond so as to
develop a system of internal forces also in equilibrium at any point
within the body. If the body were cut by an arbitrary imaginary plane,
these internal forces would in general be distributed continuously
over the cut surface and would vary across the surface in both direction
and intensity. Furthermore, the internal force distribution would also
be a function of the orientation of the plane chosen for investigation.
Stress is the term used to define the intensity and direction of the
internal forces acting at given point on a particular plane.
Stress has a magnitude and a sense, and is also associated with an
area (or plane)over which it acts. Such mathematical objects are known
as TENSORS and are of higher order than vectors. However, the
components of the stress on the same plane (area) are vectors. In
other words the Tensor is made of Vectors.
The intensity of force (vector) normal to the plane (section) is called
the normal stress .
The intensity of force acting parallel to the plane (section) is called
shear stress .

The meaning of stress tensor

Fz

Fzz

Fzy

Fx

Fzx

Fy

ij = lim

Akl 0

Fij
Akl

Fij
xk xl

Fn
normal force Fn
= lim
A 0 A
A 0 surface area A

= lim

shear force Ft
Ft
= lim
A 0 A
A 0 surface area A

= lim

Consider first a surface (plane) whose outer normal is the positive

direction of axis z.
A complete description of the magnitudes and directions of stresses on
all possible planes through a point constitute the stress state at a
point. As illustrated in the Figure below, it is possible to resolve force
F into two components: one Fn normal to the surface and the other
Ft tangential to the surface. The resultant force F associated with a
particular plane (surface) can be further resolved into three Cartesian
components along the x, y, z axes i.e., Fx, Fy, Fz. Subsequently,
the Cartesian stress components on this plane can be defined as:

Fz
A 0 A
F
zx = lim x
A 0 A
Fy
zy = lim
A 0 A

zz = lim

All the components are associated with the

plane having the outer normal parallel to the
z axis.

If the same procedure is followed using surfaces whose outer

normals are in the positive x and y directions, two more sets of
Cartesian components xx, xy, xz and yy, yx, yz respectively can
be obtained.

STRESSES

xx xy xz

ij = yx yy yz
zx zy zz
5

STRAINS

xx

ij = yx
zx

xy xz

yy yz
zy zz

Note !

ij =

ij
2

for i j

ij = ij for i = j
6

Strains in terms of stresses ( Hooke ' s law)

1
xx = xx ( yy + zz )
E
1
yy = yy ( zz + xx )
E
1
zz = zz ( xx + yy )
E
2 (1 + )
2 (1 + )
2 (1 + )
xy =
xy
yz =
yz
zx =
zx
E
E
E

Stresses in terms of strains ( Hooke ' s law)

E
(1 + ) xx + ( yy + zz )
xx =

(1 + )(1 2 )

yy =

E
(1 + ) yy + ( zz + xx )
(1 + )(1 2 )

zz =

E
(1 + ) zz + ( xx + yy )

(1 + )(1 2 )

xy =

E
xy
2 (1 + )

yz =

E
yz
2 (1 + )

zx =

E
zx
2 (1 + )

 Uni-axial stress state, 11=33=12=23=31=0 and 220

11 =

22
E

22 =

22
E

; 33 =

22

12 = 0;

23 = 0;

11 0
ij = 0 22
0
0

0 0
; = 0
22
ij

0 0
33
0
0

31 = 0;
0
0
0

Thin plate under uniaxial

tension or bending
22

 Plane stress state in principal axes, 33=12=23=31=0 and

110, 220

11 =

11 22
E

12 = 0;

22 =

22 11

23 = 0;

11
ij =
22
0
0

33 =

( 11 + 22 )
E

31 = 0;

11
; =
22
ij

0
33
0
0
0

0
0 ;
0

Plane stress state in principal axes, 33=12=23=31=0 and

110, 220
Thin rotating disk

22

11

 General plane strain state, 23=31=0, 33=0 and 110,

220, 330, 120

11 =

11 ( 22 + 33 )

12 = 0;
then 0 =

11 =

22 =

23 = 0;

33 ( 11 + 22 )

11 (1 2 ) 22 (1 + )

12 = 0;

22 ( 11 + 33 )

22 =

33 =

33 ( 11 + 22 )
E

31 = 0;

=0

33 = ( 11 + 22 )
22 (1 2 ) 11 (1 + )

23 = 0;

33 = 0
31 = 0;

or

11 0
ij = 0 22
0
0

0
11 0
0 ; ij = 0 22
0
0
0

11 0
ij = 0 22
0
0

11 0

0
0

0 ; ij = 0 22
0

0
0
0 ( 11 + 22 )

0
0
33

10

Strains in terms of stresses ( Hooke ' s law)

1
xx = xx ( yy + zz )
E
1
yy = yy ( zz + xx )
E
1
zz = zz ( xx + yy )
E
2 (1 + )
2 (1 + )
2 (1 + )
xy =
xy
yz =
yz
zx =
zx
E
E
E

Stresses in terms of strains ( Hooke ' s law)

E
(1 + ) xx + ( yy + zz )
xx =

(1 + )(1 2 )

yy =

E
(1 + ) yy + ( zz + xx )
(1 + )(1 2 )

zz =

E
(1 + ) zz + ( xx + yy )

(1 + )(1 2 )

xy =

E
xy
2 (1 + )

yz =

E
yz
2 (1 + )

zx =

E
zx
2 (1 + )

11

Transformation of the stress tensor

y
yy

xx

xy

The stress components xx, yy, and xy can be calculated on planes x

and y, i.e. in x-y co-ordinates.
However we need to know stress components xx, yy, and xy on
planes x and y being at angle with respect to the original system of
co-ordinates x and y.

yy,

xy,

xx,

The stress components xx, yy, and xy can be calculated on planes x

and y, i.e. in x-y co-ordinates.
It is possible to determine stress components xx, yy, and xy by
transformation of the original stress components xx, yy, and xy.

12

Transformation of the stress tensor the mathematics

yy

yy,

xx

xy

xy,

xx,

,
xx

,
yy
=
,
xy

xx + yy
2
xx + yy

xx yy
2

xx yy
2
xx yy
2

cos 2 + xy sin 2
cos 2 xy sin 2

sin 2 + xy cos 2

13

The Mohr circle

B(yy, yx)

B(yy, yx)

yy

A(xx, xy)

xx

yy,
x

xy

xy,
A(xx, xy)

xx
yy

xx,

B(yy, yx)
A(xx, xy)

yx

0
R

yx

xy

2
xy

B(yy, yx)
yy

A(xx, xy)

(xx+ yy)/2

xx

14

The Mohr circle - interpretation

xx
yy

B(yy, yx)
A(xx, xy)

yx

yx

xy

xy

B(yy, yx)
yy

A(xx, xy)

(xx+ yy)/2

xx
Position of the Mohr circle center:
O [ (xx+ yy)/2, 0]
Radius of the Mohr circle:
2

xx yy
R=
+ xy
2

( )

15

The Mohr circle - interpretation

xx
yy

B(yy, yx)
A(xx, xy)

yx

yx

xy

xy

B(yy, yx)
yy

A(xx, xy)

(xx+ yy)/2
xx

sin =
,
xx

,
yy
=

xy
( xx yy ) / 2

xx + yy
2
xx + yy
2

+ R cos(2 )
R cos(2 )

,
xy
= R sin(2 )

16

The Mohr circle Principal stresses

xx
yy

B(yy, yx)
A(xx, xy)

yx

0
2

yx

xy

1
xy

B(yy, yx)
yy

A(xx, xy)

(xx+ yy)/2
xx

1 =
1 =

xx + yy
2

xx + yy

sin =

+R=

R=

xy
( xx yy ) / 2

xx + yy
2

xx + yy
2

xx yy
+
+ xy
2

( )

xx yy

+ xy
2

( )

; angle of principal axes

17

Measurement of basic mechanical properties of

engineering materials
Smooth laboratory specimens used for the
determination of the

22

22

2
1
1

11 = 33 = 22

22

33

6-8 mm

22

11

ij = 0 22 0

ij = 0

22

33

0
0

0
0

Stress and strain state in specimens used for the determination of material properties

18

uts

Engineering stress

ys

Engineering strain

Typical engineering stress-strain behavior to fracture

point F. The ultimate tensile strength uts is indicated
at point M. The inserts show the geometry of the
deformed specimen at various points along the
curve.

19

Typical stress-strain behavior of engineering materials

f
uts
ys

Ductile material

f
ys
0.2

Brittle material
20

Macroscopic behavior of engineering material under uni-axial

tension
u

Stress,

Elastic
brittle
material

Stress,

Stress,

High strength
steel

Mild steel

f
Strain,

Strain,

Strain,

MODELS

Ideal elastic
material

= E for < Y
Ideal elasticplastic material

n'
= + '
E K
Strain hardening
material

Strain,

Strain,

Y
Stress,

Stress,

= E

Stress,

Stress,

Strain,

Specimen
= 0 for < Y
Ideal rigidplastic material

Strain,

A
F

F
A

21

MONOTONIC STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOUR

Basic Definitions. A monotonic tension test of a smooth specimen

is usually used to determine the engineering stress-strain behaviour
of a material where

S = engineering stress =

P
Ao

e = engineering strain =

l lo l
=
lo
lo

where:
P = applied load
Lo = original length
do = original diameter
Ao = original area
l = instantaneous length
d = instantaneous diameter
A = instantaneous area
Due to changes in cross-sectional area during deformation the true
stress in tension is larger than the engineering stress,

= true stress =

P
A

True or natural strain, based on an instantaneous gage length l, is

defined as
l

l
dl
= true strain = = ln
l
lo
l0

22

F - applied load; l0 - original length

d0 - original diameter; A0 - original area

l - instantaneous length
d - instantaneous diameter

A0

A0 - instantaneous area
d
d0

l0

S = engineering stress =

F
A0

e = engineering strain =

l l0 l
=
l0
l0

= true stress =

F
A
l

l
dl
= ln
l0
l

= true strain =
l0

= S (1 + e ) and = ln (1 + e )

23

.
True stress and strain can be related to engineering stress and
strain.

= ln(1 + e)
= S (1 + e)
The equation above is only valid up to necking. At necking the
strain is no longer uniform throughout the gage length.
The total true strain in a tension test can be separated into elastic
and plastic components:
Linear elastic strain: that portion of the strain, which is recovered
upon unloading, e.
Plastic strain (nonlinear): that portion which cannot be recovered on
unloading, p.
Stated in equation form,

= e + p
For most metals a log-log plot of true stress versus true plastic
strain is modelled as a straight line. Consequently, this curve can
be expressed using a power function.

p =
K

1/ n

where: K is the strength coefficient and n is the strain hardening

exponent.

24

At fracture two important quantities can be defined. These are true

fracture strength and true fracture ductility. True fracture strength,
f, is the true stress at final fracture.

f =

Pf
Af

where: Af is the area at fracture and Pf is the load at fracture.

True fracture ductility, f, is the true strain at final fracture. This
value can be defined in terms of the initial cross-sectional area and
the area at fracture.

f = ln

RA =

Ao
1
= ln
1 RA
Af

Ao Af
= reduction
Ao

in area

The strength coefficient, K, can be defined in terms of the true

stress at fracture, f, and the true strain at fracture, f.
K=

f
nf

We can also define plastic strain in terms of these quantities.

1/ n

p = f
f

The total strain can be expressed as:

= e + p

25

Static Strength Theories

The material properties such as the yield limit, Sys (ys), and the
ultimate strength, Sut (ut), are obtained in simple uni-axial tensile tests.
However the analyst or designing engineer must asses the critical
loading conditions for machine and structural components which are
most often subjected to multiaxial stress states. Therefore a theory is
needed (or failure criterion) allowing to translate the mutiaxial stress
state into an equivalent uniaxial stresses state making possible the use
of uniaxial material properties.
Maximum Normal Stress Theory
Failure is predicted to occur in the multiaxial stress state of stress
when the maximum principal normal stress becomes equal to or
exceeds the maximum normal stress at the time of failure in a simple
uni-axial stress test using a specimen of the same material, i.e.,
failure is predicted by the maximum normal stress theory to occur if:

1 f t ; 2 f t ;

3 f t ;

or

1 f c ; 2 f c ;

3 f c ;

Where: f-t is the uni-axial tensile strength of the material

f-c is the uni-axial compressive strength of the material

The maximum normal stress theory provides good results for brittle
materials.
26

Graphical representation of the maximum normal stress failure criterion

General bi-axial plane stress state, 33=12=31=0 and 110, 220, 230
reduces two two non-zero principal stresses: 10, 20 and 3=0

2
f-t

f-c

f-t

f-c
principal stresses:

1 =
2 =

11 + 22
2

11 + 22
2

11 22

+ ( 12 )

2
22
11
+

( 12 )
2

3 = 0
27

Maximum Shearing Stress Theory (Tresca)

Failure is predicted to occur in the multiaxial stress state of stress
when the maximum shearing stress becomes equal to or exceeds the
maximum shearing stress magnitude at the time of failure in a simple
uni-axial stress test using a specimen of the same material, i.e.,
failure is predicted by the maximum normal stress theory to occur if:

1 f ; 2 f ;

3 f ;

Where: f - is the shear strength of the material obtained in uni-axial

tension test.

f =

ys
2

The maximum normal stress theory provides good results for ductile
materials.
The Tresca theory in principal stresses:
General bi-axial plane stress state, 33=12=31=0 and 110, 220, 230
reduces two two non-zero principal stresses: 10, 20 and 3=0

1 f ;
2 f ;
3 f ;

1 2
2
2 0

ys
2

ys

2
2
0 1 ys
;

2
2

; 1 2 ys

2 ys
1 ys

28

Graphical representation of the Maximum Shearing Stress Theory

(Tresca)

1 = 0
2 = ys

1 = ys
2 = ys

1 = - ys/2
2 = ys/2
safe
region

1 =- ys
2 = 0

1
1 = ys
2 = 0

1 = ys/2
2 = - ys/2
1 = - ys
2 = - ys

1 = 0
2 = - ys

29

Distortion Energy Theory (Huber-von Mises-Hencky)

Failure is predicted to occur in the multiaxial stress state of stress
when the distortion energy per unit volume becomes equal to or
exceeds the distortion energy per unit volume at the time of failure in a
simple uni-axial stress test using a specimen of the same material, i.e.,
failure is predicted by the Distortion Energy theory to occur if:

eq ys
Where: - for general 3-D stress state:

eq =

1
2

( 11 22 ) + ( 22 33 ) + ( 33 11 )
2

2
2
2
+ 6 ( 12 ) + ( 31 ) + ( 23 )

- for 3-D stress state in principal stresses:

eq =

1
2

( 1 2 ) + ( 2 3 ) + ( 3 1 )
2

2
2
2
( 1 ) + ( 2 ) + ( 3 ) 1 2 2 3 3 1

- for general plane stress state:

eq =
=

1
2

( 11 22 )

( 11 )

2
2
2
2
2
+ ( 22 0 ) + ( 0 11 ) + 6 ( 12 ) + ( 0 ) + ( 0 ) +

11 22 + ( 22 ) + 3 ( 12 )
2

- for plane stress state in principal stresses:

eq =
=

1
2

( 1 2 )

( 1 )

+ ( 2 0 ) + ( 0 1 )
2

+ ( 2 ) 1 2
2

30

- for plane strain state in principal stresses:

eq =

( 1 )

+ ( 2 ) + ( 3 ) 1 2 2 3 3 1

( 1 )

+ ( 2 ) + ( 1 + 2 ) 2 1 2 2 ( 1 + 2 ) 1 ( 1 + 2 )

2
2
= ( 1 ) + ( 2 ) (1 + 2 ) 1 2 (1 + 2 2 2 )

Graphical representation of the Maximum Distortion Energy Theory

(H-M-H)

1 = 0
2 = ys

1 = ys
2 = ys

1 = - ys/3
2 = ys/3
safe
region

1 =- ys
2 = 0

1
1 = ys
2 = 0

1 = ys/3
2 = - ys/3
1 = - ys
2 = - ys

1 = 0
2 = - ys
31

Comparison of the Tresca and H-M-H failure criterion of for plane stress
states

1 = 0
2 = ys

1 = ys
2 = ys

1 = - ys/3
2 = ys/3
1 = - ys/2
2 = ys/2
1 =- ys
2 = 0

safe
region

1
1 = ys
2 = 0

1 = ys/3
2 = - ys/3
1 = - ys
2 = - ys

1 = 0
2 = - ys

1 = ys/2
2 = - ys/2

32

Example:
A thick-wall cylindrical pressure vessel made of carbon steel plate
(ASME SA-285M, Grade C, ut = 65 ksi, ys = 30 ksi) is pressurized
internally. Find the maximum internal pressure, pi, at the initiation of
plastic yielding in the cylinders wall. The internal and external diameter
is 8 in and 12 in respectively. Use the Tresca and H-M-H theory.
Assume open ended cylinder with:
a) unrestrained ends,
b) with restrained ends

Di = 2a = 8 in.
Do = 2b =12 in.

a
b

22 =

11= -p

a) Internally pressurized thick wall cylinder with unrestrained ends,

33

Radial and hoop stresses in an open ended internally pressurized

thick wall cylinder (with un-restrained ends)

p a2
rr = 2 2
b a

b2
p a2
1 r 2 ; = b 2 a 2

b2
1 + r 2

zz = 0
Maximum stresses at the inner surface of the cylinder:

rr ( at r = a )

p a2
= 2
b a2

b2
1 r 2 = p;

( at r = a )

p a2
= 2
b a2

b2
1 + r 2 =

zz ( at r = a ) = 0

b2 + a 2
p 2
2
b a

then

1 = ( at r = a )

b2 + a 2
= p 2
=
2
b a

62 + 42
= 2.6 p
p 2
2
6 4

2 = 0
3 = rr ( at r = a ) = p
Plastic yielding will commence according to the Tresca criterion
when:

1 3 = ys 2.6 p ( p ) = 30 ksi 3.6 p = 30 ksi

p = 8.777ksi p = 8777

lb
in.2

34

Plastic yielding will commence according to the H-M-H criterion

when:

eq ys
eq =
=

2
2
2
( 1 ) + ( 2 ) + ( 3 ) 1 2 2 3 3 1

( p ) + ( 2.6 p ) + ( 0 ) ( p )( 2.6 p ) 0 0 = 3.218 p

2

eq = ys
3.218 p = 30 ksi
p = 9.322 ksi p = 9322

lb
in 2

35

b) Internally pressurized thick wall cylinder with restrained ends,

Thick cylinder under internal

pressure and torsion with fixed
ends (no axial expansion)

22 =

11= -p

33

Radial and hoop and axial stresses in an open ended internally

pressurized thick wall cylinder with restrained ends

rr

p a2
= 2
b a2

b2
p a2
1 2 ; = 2
b a2
r

b2
1 + 2 ;
r

zz = ( rr + ) ; because zz = 0
36

Maximum stresses at the inner surface of the cylinder:

rr ( at r = a )

p a2
= 2
b a2

b2
1 2 = p
r

b2
b2 + a 2
( at r = a )
1 + 2 = p 2
2
r
b
a

2a 2
then
zz ( at r = a ) = ( rr + ) = p 2
2
b a
p a2
= 2
b a2

1 = ( at r = a )
2 = zz ( at r = a )
3 = rr ( at r = a )

b2 + a 2
62 + 42
= p 2
= p 2
= 2.6 p
2
2
b a
6 4
2a 2
2 42
= 0.48 p
= p 2
= 0.3 p 2
2
2
b a
6 4
= p

Plastic yielding will commence according to the Tresca criterion when:

1 3 = ys 2.6 p ( p ) = 30 ksi 3.6 p = 30 ksi

p = 8.777 ksi p = 8777

lb
in.2
37

Plastic yielding will commence according to the H-M-H criterion

when:

eq ys
eq =

( 1 )

( p ) + ( 2.6 p ) + ( 0.48 p )
( p )( 2.6 p ) ( 2.6 p )( 0.48 p ) ( 0.48 p )( p )
2

+ ( 2 ) + ( 3 ) 1 2 2 3 3 1
2

= 3.134 p

eq = ys
3.134 p = 30 ksi
p = 9.572 ksi p = 9572

lb
in 2

38

The effect of the mutiaxiality of the stress state on the

tendency to plastic yielding

The change of the maximum stress necessary for plastic deformation

of a ductile material under various stress states: a) uni-axial tension,
b) tension with transverse compression, c) bi-axial tension, and d)
hydrostatic compression (after N. Dowling)
39